Agriculture -

Research, Education

and Ethics

M.S.PUNIA

M.S.PUNIA

AGRICULTURE - RESEARCH, EDUCATION AND ETHICS

M. S. Punia

Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,

CCS Haryana Agricultural University,

Hisar –125 004, India

2016

CONTENTS

Chapter

Topic Page

1.

History of Agriculture 1-5

2.

History of Agriculture in India 6-15

3.

National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) In India 16-28

4

Global Agricultural Research Systems 29-32

5.

Role of The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in Agriculture Development

33-39

6.

The green revolution and the evolution of agricultural education and research in India

40-46

7

Ethics and Standards in Agricultural Research 47-57

8

Computer Ethics for Agriculture Database and communication 58-61

9

Safety in Research Laboratory 62-65

10

Welfare of Animal and Alternative Use in Research and Education 66-72

Agriculture - Research, Education and Ethics

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History of Agriculture

First hominid life forms 4 million years ago. The world was formed about 4, 600 million years

ago. Eukaryotic life formed about 1,000 million years ago. It is supposed that man was evolved on earth

about 15 lakh years ago. This man was evolved from the monkey who started to move by standing erect

on his fact. Such man has been called Homo erectus or Java man. Later on Java man transformed into

Cro-Magnan; and Cro-Magnan into modern man. The modern man is zoologically known as Homo

sapiens ( Homo – continuous, sapiens – learning habit). In the beginning such man had been spending his

life wildly but during the period 8700-7700 BC, they started to pet sheep and goat although the first pet

animal was dog, which was used for hunting.

Before agriculture, people lived by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants. These

nomadic people moved from one place to another place as they depleted the resources of an area. In such

conditions of trial-and-error experimentation and manipulation of species, the scene was set for

domestication of plants and animals. In addition, these hunter-gatherer societies probably paved the way

for domestication by developing: social structure (promote cooperation); knowledge of cultivation

techniques; specialization on particular plant/animal foods. Mankind has been a farmer for 0.5% of

human history. When the herds were plentiful and the plants flourishing, life was good. But, when the

herds migrated elsewhere, people had to follow them and often discover a whole new set of plants to

supplement their diet. This "feast or famine" lifestyle had its definite drawbacks including starvation.

Eventually, people decided that life would be a lot easier if they always had the animals with them and if

edible plants or their produce were always available. Settling down seemed like a good idea.

The history of agriculture and civilization go hand in hand as the food production made it

possible for primitive man to settle down in selected areas leading to formation of society and initiation

of civilization. The development of civilization and agriculture had passed through several stages.

Archeologist initially classified the stages stone age, Bronze and Iron age. Subsequently the scholars split

up the stone age into Paleolithic period ( old stone age), Neolithic age ( New stone age) and Mesolithic

age ( Middle stone age). Each of three ages, saw distinct improvements. The man fashioned and

improved tools out of stones, bones woods etc to help them in day-to-day life. They started growing food

crops and domesticated animals like cow, sheep, goat, dog etc.

Paleolithic age ( old stone age): This period is characterized by the food gathers and hunters. The man

started making stone tools, choppers and crude choppers.

Mesolithic period : The transitional period between the end of the Paleolithic and beginning of the

Neolithic is called Mesolithic. It began about 100000 BC and ended with the rise of agriculture. This

period is characterized by tiny stone implements called microliths. People lived as food gatherers and

hunters. The domestication of the dog was the major achievements of the Mesolithic hunter.

Neolithic Agricultural Revolution ( 7500 BC – 6500 BC) : While people were hunting wild animals

and subsisting on leaves and fruits of the jungle trees in India, a remarkable development took place in

Wastern Asia viz., the discovery of Agriculture. The birthplace of the Neolithic agriculture revolution

was Western Asis ( Israal, Jordan, Irag etc.). It is in this region that wild ancestors of two major cereals,

wheat and barley and of domesticated animals like goat, sheep, pig

and cattle are found. The period from 7500 – 6500 BC was in real sense of discovery of agriculture.

Polished stone axe and sickle were used for the cultivation of crop like wheat, barley, rice, maize and

millets. Domesticated horse and ass were used as draught and transport animals The development of

agriculture and the practice of food grain in sizeable quantities led to the problem of storage. Pots were

required not only for storing of food grain but also for cooking. Weaving was another landmark made

possible due to abundant supplies of flax and wool. Thus, Neolithic revolution brought a major change in

the techniques of food production which gave man control over his environment and saved him from the

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pre carious existence of mere hunter and gather of wild berries and roots. For the first time, he lived in

settled villages and apart from security from hunger he had leisure time to think and contemplate.

Bronze age ( Chalcolithic culture 3000 – 1700 BC) : The term Chalcolithic is applied to communities

using stone implements along with copper and bronze ones. The Chalcolithic revolution began in

Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C. from this area it spread to Egypt, and Indus valley.

The significant features were :

1. Invention of plough

2. Agriculture shifted from hilly area to lower river valley

3. Flood water were stored for irrigation and canals were dug

4. Irrigated farming started in this period.

5. Sowing of seed by dibbling with a pointed stick

6. Salinity problem and water logging were noticed due to canal irrigation.

The man features of Neolithic culture in India

1. Neolithic culture denotes a stage in economic and technological

development in India

2. Use of polished stone axes for cleaning the bushes

3. Hand made pottery for storing food grains

4. Invented textile, weaving and basketry

5. Cultivation of rice, banana sequence and yams in eastern parts of India

6. Cultivation of millets and pulses in South India

7. Discovery of silk.

Iron age

In India it started from early 1000 BC. The iron age immediately succeeded. The pre historic age

in south India. The Aryans know the use of iron. We entered the iron age during vedic period. The iron

age has already commenced when the rigveda was composed. Men started using iron for making weapon

of implements. Iron implements have been found in Changelpure district. They have developed fairly

gord means of high culture and civilization in this age.

Early Farming: -1650

Around 12-10,000 years ago human being started farming. The roots of farming began in the

present day Turkey and the Middle East, called as Fertile Crescent around the Tigris and Euphrates

rivers. Cultivation involves the deliberate sowing or other management of plants, which do not

necessarily differ from wild populations. The beginning of farming is primarily associated with the

domestications of species; it involves genetic change of wild varieties through conscious or unconscious

human selection. Two of the earliest settlements are known as Catal Huyuk and Jericho. Catal Huyuk

had more than 1000 houses by 6000 B.C. It is at this place where people taking wild grasses and using

the seeds for food and planting for the next years food. These seeds are now known as cereals and make

up a large percentage of the worlds food supply. Jericho, like many early cities was located around a

consistent water source, a spring which produced over 1000 gallons every minute. Around two to three

thousand people lived there. Farming of wheat, barley, peas, and lentils supported these people.

Almost at the same time agriculture developed in India, China, and about 5,000 years later in

Andes and Mesoamerica. In Southwest Asia the crops (including animals) were wheat, barley, peas,

muskmelon, flax, sheep and goats. In China, they were rice, soybeans, hemp, silk, and chicken. In the

Andes and Mesoamerica they were corn, beans, potatoes, cotton, and turkeys. Note that in each case

these agricultural systems provided vegetables, meat, and materials to make clothing.

The use of crops and animals for food spread over thousands of years from the Near East, China,

and Mexico to nearby regions and around the world. These crops spared most rapidly to areas with

similar climates. They, therefore, tended to follow longitudinal lines east and west to areas with similar

climates, for example from the Near East to Africa or from southern Mexico to North America was slow

because the main routes were latitudinal, north and south, rather than east and west. Movement along

latitudinal lines would require that the crops had to become adapted to new climates.

The move from shifting agriculture to domesticated agriculture was preceded and made possible

by the millennia of accumulated experience of wild plants and animals, and trial- and-error

experimentation. The shift was gradual and slow. The techniques were old. Most agricultural societies

developed Slash and Burn technique, utilization of fallow lands etc. There were some early massive

engineering projects to dam water for later use, including the digging of canals to distribute water to

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normally dried fields. The first known examples of this process were built by farmers near Euphrates

valley. Finally there was almost complete reliance on agriculture as the major source of nutrition.

However, even today in some areas of the world, primitive methods are still the most effective.

Development of agriculture was followed by domestication of animals. This benefits in different

ways: transport, draft, food and wool, hides, dung etc. The consequences of the development of farming

are: Increased carrying capacity of the land; development of sedentary societies; changes in social

structure; craft specialization; civilization etc. When agriculture became established humans started to

live in larger groups. They stopped living as hunter-gathering groups and formed cities and states. The

largest of these appeared closet to sites where agriculture had developed much, for example in Egypt and

China, and the empires (Inca, Mayan, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Aztec) of South and Central America. Quite

obviously, more complex civilizations require more food. Thus there appears to have a direct relationship

between the development of agriculture and the appearance of more complex societies.

The Origins of Agriculture

Recent archaeological finds place the beginning of agriculture before 7000 B.C. and animal

domestication (mostly dogs used as hunting aids) thousands of years before that. There is some evidence

that the people of Shanidar, in Kurdistan, were domesticating sheep and planting wheat as long ago as

9800 B.C. Intensive food gathering, in which the local inhabitants of a region set up permanent

residences and made extensive use of already present plants, seems to have started in the Near East

around 9000 - 7000 B.C.

Barring the use of time machines, there is no way to know for sure how planting really got

started. But archaeologists have lots of theories. One theory suggests that some seeds were spilled in a

memorable manner during a migration. When the tribe next passed the same place, they might have

correlated the spill of seeds with the sudden abundance of the plant. They could then have realized that

they could store seeds and plant them, and be assured of having a food supply. later they began selecting

and planting the seeds from plants with the highest yield. In this way, plants were domesticated, changed

and controlled to benefit man rather than just exist in the wild. At about the same time as the agricultural

advances described above, people started to domesticate the wild ox and gather sheep into herds.

Remains of a hunting dog, dated back to 8500 B.C., have been found in North America.

Towns and Cities Develop From Farming

The abundance of the harvest from domesticated plants allowed major increases in population.

Having all of one's plants and animals in one place allowed the agriculturist to move from random caves

and makeshift huts into permanent or semi permanent villages with homes made from stones, wood, or

wattle. An early example is the Biblical city of Jericho. It started as such a village around 9000 B.C., and

has been a settlement of one sort or another ever since.

One of the earliest recorded towns is Catal Huyuk established on the Konya Plain in Turkey. It is a vast,

fertile expanse ideal for primitive agriculture. The earliest buildings date from 6500 B.C. and are similar

to those found in the oldest Jericho settlements. You entered the mud brick buildings from the top. Catal

Huyuk is notable for the number of shrines used for a variety of purposes, including burial and possible

propitiation of deities of the hunt and the harvest. This implies an early religious organization and a way

of life that left enough time for some members of the society to concentrate on religious duties. There

was also time for crafts. some of the earliest known pottery was found in Catal Huyuk. There is also

evidence of copper smithing and rope making, and some ovens were big enough to imply that some

residents were full time bakers.

By 5000 B.C., the Euphrates Valley was full of villages and townships. The townships provided

central services of storage, religious observance and administration that the villages could not handle.

These townships developed into the Sumerian civilization.

At about the same time, similar villages were beginning in the Nile Valley and the river valleys of china

and India.

Early Farming Techniques

The initial approach to farming was to remove some of the seeds from food plants before eating

them, then scatter the seeds back into the same area they came from.

Later, the planters realized that other (non -food) plants were competing with their plants for the field, so

they took to weeding the fields to make sure the only their plants were growing there. Everything else

was left to nature.

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Eventually it became obvious that this constant replanting resulted in stunted crops and low yields. The

first response was simply to find a new field. After all, the land was vast and people were few. After

awhile, though, the obvious fields were used up. Then potential farmers looked to the forests.

Slash and Burn

Most agricultural societies discovered the slash and burn technique. First, all the foliage in a

section of a forest was cut down, creating a field. The remains were left on the ground. Then the field was

set on fire, and the ash from the cut foliage enriched the soil. After many uses even this enriched soil

became barren, and farmers were forced to find new fields.

As the population of the world grew and more fields were slashed and burned, the walk to a newly

burned field became longer and longer and other cultures could claim these unattended fields. The tribe

would then have to move to new sections of forest. In some areas, such as Madagascar, slash and burn

agriculture is still practiced and the land is becoming less and less fertile.

Fallow Fields

A fallow field is one that is not planted for a period in hopes that it will regain its fertility. It is

believed that the practice of leaving fields fallow originated because some cultures were forced to return

to their old fields, and found that the infertile fields they left behind had become more productive.

This led to the establishment of a rotation system where each growing season certain fields would be left

alone or tilled but not planted, extending the useful production life of a set number of fields. sometimes

the fallow fields were used for pasturage for animals, which had the incidental benefit of fertilizing the

soil. It was later found that certain plants, thought useless except perhaps for animal fodder, were

beneficial to a field's productivity, and seeds for these plants were planted in fallow fields.

Irrigation

As populations grew and competed for the best growing lands some cultures were forced to try to

farm normally arid areas. Some of these cultures died trying; others discovered the principles of

irrigation. There were some early massive engineering projects to dam water for later use, including the

digging of canals to distribute water to normally dry fields. The first known examples of this irrigation

process were built by farmers who colonized the Euphrates River Valley around 4000 B.C.

In most cases, irrigation involves trapping and storing water that appears for a short period, such as the

spring flooding of the Euphrates and Nile, or the winter rainstorms of the American desert, so that it can

be used later in normally dry periods. In almost all cases, early irrigation made the desert flower for a

couple of centuries, then the water dried up in some climatic change or the fields grew barren because the

irrigation had washed away all the good soil and the culture died. Both the Pueblo dwellers of the

American desert and the inhabitants of Petra in the Middle East flourished and then died with their

irrigation systems. Other areas, such as the very fertile Nile Valley and the Tigris-Euphrates Fertile

Crescent, were big enough and had a sufficiently dependable source of water so that they remained

productive until the present day, though even these areas have undergone a decline in fertility and might

be barren if not for modern agricultural techniques.

Global Agricultural Evolution (1650-1850):

Farming changed very little from early times about 1700. In the 1700‘s an agricultural revolution

took place that led to a large increase in the production of crops. This increase of crops came about in a

large part by little more than the final destruction of medieval institutions and more general adoption of

techniques and crops that had been known for a long time. Included in some of these changes was also

the adoption of crops from the ―new world‖ such as corn and potatoes that produced a very large yield.

This phase was characterized by:

New rotations with leguminous and root crops; Scientific method employed in agricultural research; Use

of fossil fuels, increased yields and labor productivity;

Intervention of mechanized farm equipment; Beginning of food-processing industries; Transfer of crops

and livestock from lands of origin as part of the era of European exploration.

From Farming to Manufacturing (1850-1950): In the 1850‘s, the industrial revolution spilled over to the farm with new mechanized methods

that increased production rates. Early on, the large changes were in the use of new farm implements.

Most of these early implements were still powered by horse or oxen. The advent of steam power and later

gas powered engines brought a whole new dimension to the production of crops. These new implements

combined with crop rotation, manure and better soil preparation lead to a steady increase of crop yield in

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Europe. At the latter part of this period, more and more people from the rural areas migrated to the urban

areas to add fuel to the industrialization. Farmers were forced to abandon farming through progressive

impoverishment; they had to invest heavily in expensive new technologies and found themselves unable

to pay their debts to the banks because they prices what they produced were kept low to keep the

industrial wages low.

This was the time when family farm in western industrialized countries started declining and giant food

companies like Uni-Lever Nestle were established.

Modern Agricultural Evolution (1950 to present):

There were massive changes in world economy after the Second World War. The changes are:

interdependent expansion of capital and consumer goods industries, huge increase of technical and

consumer goods industries, rapid technical change and productivity growth, monopoly market structures,

the transformation of production and exchange, and mass consumption of standardized commodities.

Commodity relations penetrate all spheres of consumption as use values are commoditized and mass

produced, leading to the concomitant decline of domestic labor and non-capitalist goods and services.

The increasing commoditization of the domestic labor process associated with new food preparation

technologies and the diffusion of ‗white goods‘ has transformed women‘s working lives inside and

outside the home, freeing them to enter the labor market.

This also brought changes in the social relations as well as changes in the life styles and consumption

patterns. There was trade off between earning and giving time in the family, houses became full of home

appliances, food went into the fridges and a huge surge of fast food chains.

In the last 70 years since 1950, global agricultural production has increased by many fold,

whereas, the 1950 level production had been reached only after 10,000 years of agricultural

development. This recent acceleration of production is due to the use of mechanization, chemicals,

specialization, selection of high-yielding cereals, expansion of irrigated areas and arable lands, and the

development of specific farming system. Unfortunately, this positive trend seems to have reached a

steady state, and farmers cannot perpetually raise yields, particularly where natural capacity has already

been exceeded. The situation is worsened by widespread soil degradation, erosion, and shortage of new

arable land.

References:

Punia, M.S. (2006). International Agricultural Research - Initiatives and Ethics. CCS Haryana

Agricultural University, Hisar ( India)

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History of Agriculture in India

Agriculture has been a indispensable to the subsistence of the people of India in general

and farmers in particular. It has naturally remained the basis of Indian economy since time

immemorial and agriculture has played a dominant role in the country‘s economy from the very

beginning. About 65 % of the Indian population either directly or indirectly employed in

agriculture sector. The well being and progress of the nation is closely connected with

agriculture. Therefore, farming and agriculture profession deserve to be highly respected for the

prosperity of the nation.

Mohenjodaro to Harappa territory was the center of agricultural revolution in Indus

Velley. Archaeological excavations at Mohenjodaro ( meaning a mound of dead, in sind in

Pakistan) and at Harappa on the river Ravi in Punjab were the sites of ancient civilization, which

flourished more than five thousand years ago; reveals that the Indus Velley Civilization has

witnessed among others the use of plough and the wheeled cart in raising the production of the

wheat, barley, rice, maize, millets, cotton etc. Horticulture was concentrated around the urban

centers with a preponderance of people, not directly enganged in agriculture. They observed that

the people utilized the pots, utensils and ornaments. These cities were built along the river Indus

and hence this civilization is known as Indus valley civilization. It is also known as Harappan

culture and occupied the area stretching from Delhi to Gujarat. It was the Indus Valley

civilization that spread to Punjab, Haryana, Jammu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Rajasthan, Gujrat

and Madhya pradesh.

Harappans raised bread wheat, barley sesame, peas, melons, cotton, rapeseed and

mustard. Cattle, buffalo, goat, sheap, pig, camel, donkey, dog and cat have special mention in the

list of domesticated animals. The Harappans chalcolithic culture (2500-1500 B.C.) is rightly

called the age of irrigated farming. Harappans agriculture also spread to Andhra Pradesh,

Karnatka and adjoining areas. It is quite clear from the archaeological excavations that the

agriculture and animal husbandary went together. India was also regarded as the home of Mung

and Mash. In the Vedic and the post Vedic period, mash enriched the Indian diet, cookery and

religious ceremonies to great extent. It is thought that rice had originated and cultivated in India ,

Burma or Indo-China. India had 4000 varieties of rice. Eastern India is considered as a true home

of rice. The major achievements of the Neolithic revolution was the discovery of agriculture,

horticulture and animal husbandary.

About 1800-1600 B.C., Aryans migrated to India and overwhelmed to Harappans.

Horses were the main domesticated animals besides cattle. Agriculture was the very important

profession during Vedic age (1500-1000 B.C.). The word ― Veda ― is derived from ―Vid‖ which

means ―Knowledge‖ Veda is the only literary source from which we know about the Aryans in

India. Aryans were more prevalent during vedic time which extends from casten Affhanistan,

Kashmir, Pubjab and Parts of Sind and Rajasthan. The land of Aryans are called land of seven

rivers i.e., ( Satluj, beas, Ravi, Chennab, Jhelum, Indus and Saraswathi. The Rig-veda was the

oldest book of Aryans.

Use of iron implements, particularly iron plough became prevalent. Besides barley,

wheat bean sesame, millets and rice find frequent reference in Vedas written during this period.

Moreover, the Vedic literature indicates that the farmers during the Vedic period possessed a fair

knowledge of soil fertility, selection and treatment of seeds, sowing and harvesting seasons, crop

rotations and other cultural practices of crops, manuring for increasing crop productions etc.

Jaittiriva Samhita mentions that rice would be sown in summer and pulses (gram and lantil) in

winter on the same field. The vedic Aryans were primarly pastrol. When they settled in the

Punjab, they cut the jungles and built their villages. They grazed the animals in jungles and

cultivated barley nearest to houses to protect from wild animals. Vedic people realized the

importance of off-season ploughing and they started ploughing as and when the rain was

received. The first ploughing of the season was inaugurated amidst much ritual. The plough used

was large and heavy, but a yoke does not seem to have been used. Bullocks and ox were used for

ploughing. With regard to irrigation, channels were formed the rivers. Wells were in use for

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supply of drinking water and irrigation. There were kucha wells, which were just holes dug in the

ground. Even now such wells are in use in the rive rain areas of northern India. In early Vedic

period there is no mention of rice and cotton though there were cultivated in Harappa period. In

the later Vedic period ( 1000 – 600 BC) agricultural implements were improved. Iron

ploughshare was used also improved. The people possessed the knowledge of fertility of land,

selection of seed, seed treatment, harvesting manuring and rotation of crops. Barely sesame and

sugarcane were the main crops. Cucumber and bottle ground were also mentioned in Vedic

period, Aryans were accustomed to barley diet. Barley is good for men cattle and horses. Barley

is used in Hindu rituals even at present. For cloths, wool and cotton were used. The agriculture

implements mentioned in Vedic literature include the plough( langala - a lase pointed type

having smooth handle, Sira – a large and heavy plough). Sickle was used harvesting sieves were

used for cleaning.

In Vedic period the economy of people largely depended on agriculture with cattle

rearing as their main occupation. In all agriculture activities, women took active part as in

sowing, ploughing, weeding, reaping threshing etc. They also assisted their husband went to

fields and performed hard duties with them like harvesting crops with sickle, collecting bundles,

beating them out on the floor of the granary, separating the grains form the chaff by a sieve and

storing the grain safely. Besides these cloth making, stitching weaving spinning dyeing were

some of the subsidiary occupation for women especially in Vedic period. There was also mention

of the work like carpentry gold and black smithy and military training undertaken by women to

earn their livelihood. All the available evidences thus indicated that in vedic period, women

contributed a lot to build the economy not only of their own families but of the country too.

Buddhist period (600 B.C.) marks the importance of trees. It can be called as a period of

Arboriculture (forestry) and Horticulture. During this period, people retained their interest in

agriculture. The usefulness of cattle was fully realized by the people. During this period,

superintendents of agriculture used to look after the agricultural progress. Two annual harvests-

winter ( wheat and barley ) and summer (rice and millets)were common. Suitabilty of different

land to different crops was mentioned. Farming operations from ploughing to harvest of crops

were systematically followed. Safflower, linseed and mustard were also under cultivation besides

rice, wheat and millets. Irrigation from rivers, lakes amd reservoirs was practiced and water rate

was one fifth of the produce.

During the Buddhist period people retained their interest in agriculture. The usefulness of cattle

was also fully realized by the people. The evolution of gardening is intimately associated with

Buddhist temples and monasteries. The Mauryan period, a glorious period in the annals of India,

laid great stress on the promotion of agriculture, forest produce, pasture lands, cows, horses and

elephants. The animal husbandry made a tremendous progress and the veterinary service was

made available to the community. Magasthenes, the Greek ambassador at the court of

Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC-297 BC) records that ―Famine has never visited India and there

has never been a general scarcity in the supply of nourishing food‖.

The Arthashastra, the chief source of all sorts of knowledge of this period, mentions the

name of various crops like Sali (rice), varichi (rice), tila (sesamum), masha, masura, yoda

(barley), godhuma (wheat), atasi (linseed) and sarshapa (mustard). The mash pulse began to be

used as a horse food during the Mauryan and Kushan period.

Ashoka (273 BC – 237 BC) actively promoted horticulture and horticulture. ‗Sanchi‘

provides us with a glimpse of this culture. Veterinary hospitals were state institutions and were

functioning all over the empire during the Ashoka period. After the Mauryans (320-180 BC), the

Sungas (184 BC-72 BC) ruled India. In this period brick-wells and improved agricultural

implements of iron were found in abundance. Cultivation of rice and coconut palms was done

extensively.

The people of Deccan, the Satvahans (Andhras) cultivated cotton and Andhra was known

for its cotton cloth, because of extensive cultivation of cotton there. The art of transplanting rice

seedlings was widely practiced in the first two centuries in the deltas of Krishna and Godavari,

which became the rice bowl of south India‖. Iron technology made great progress in the age of

Satvahans (235 BC-25 AD) and Kushan (78 AD-200 AD). The south Indian culture, which

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broadly fall into two groups, viz, the Tamil group, comprising Pandyas (560-920), Cheras,

Cholas (850-1311), Hoysala (1022-1342), Kakatiyas (1100-1323) and Pallavas (550-912) and

Rashtrakutas (735-993) is endowed with a powerful originality. Though these states were

engaged in fighting among themselves and nibblings at each others territories, yet their

contribution to agriculture and to the culture of India as a whole is of tremendous importance.

Cultivable land in Tamil Nadu was abundant and the necessities of life plentiful. The fertility of

the lands watered by the Cauvery is a recurring theme of Tamil poets. The poets of the sangam

period counseled the kings as to how to store water, enrich the land and improve the conditions

of the people.The transplanting of paddy seedlings was the most important agricultural

operation.‖The Cholas, who unified the warring states of India improved their agriculture by

building up new types of irrigation systems. For irrigation, a great chain of tanks developed in

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Because of this, Telgana is called ―The Land of

Thousand tanks‖.

During the period of the Guptas (AD 300-550) the Hindu culture was at its peak.

Besides renaissance in art, literature and science, agriculture also flourished greatly. But the land

taxes were heavy. During the Gupta period, land taxes increased and trade and commerce

decreased. Probably, the king collected taxes varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the

produce. In addition to all this, whenever the royal army passed through the country-side, the

local people had to feed it. The peasants had to supply animals, food grains, furniture etc. for the

maintenance of royal officers on duty in the rural areas.

Information about the life of the people and their agriculture and horticulture in the

Gupta age are Vatsyayana‘s, Kamasutra, Varahamihira‘s Brhatsamhita and Amarsimha‘s

Amarakosa. Varahmihira was an astronomer, astrologer and encyclopaedist. He flourished in

the period AD 505-587. His Brhatsamhita provides information on agriculture, botany and

zoology, apart from astronomy, medicine, metallurgy and geography. It describes specific

characteristics of animals and the treatment of plant diseases. The Brhatsamhita and the Puranas

particularly the Agnipurana, incidentally deal with the selection of land, manuring, cultivation,

collection and the treatment of seeds, sowing, planting, reaping and grafting. The Brhatsamhita

mentions the names of some plants and the method of their propagation.

The Amarakosha of Amarsimha, a scholar in the court of Chandragupta II, contains

information on soil, irrigation and agricultural implements. The Amarkosha describes 12 types

of land in its chapter on Bhumivarga. In the Vaisavarga, different kinds of soils and their

suitability for the cultivation of specific crops are mentioned e.g. ksetram-rice and corn. Kalidasa

in his Raghuvamasa refers to paddy being grown in the fields of Bengal. The technique of

transplanting was known to the cultivators. Wheat was grown in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,

Bihar, Cenral India and Rajasthan as a winter crop.

During the reign of Harshavardana (AD 606-647) Si-yu-ki, the travelogue of Hiuen

Tsang (600-664), a Chinese scholar, who remained in India for fifteen years from 630 AD to 645

AD and Harsha-Charita, a biography of Harsha by his court poet Banabhatta are the main source

of information on agriculture. Hiuen Tsang mentions that the cereals like wheat, rice and millets

and fruits were extensively cultivated. He made very perceptive observations about the fertility

of the soil and abundance of cereals cultivated by the people in different states of south India.

Rajput kingdoms such as Gurjara (550-861), Pratihara (783-1077), Gahadwala (1085-

1193), Chauhans (950-1192), Parmer (949-1035) and Chandellas (930-1023) reigned in northern

India. The Palas (750-1194) and the Sens (1095-1234) dynasties ruled in Bengal. Agriculture

was the mains source of subsistence and revenue. Rice of eight varieties was found in Magadha

and Kalinga. Magadha is mentioned for its richness in rice.

Agriculture during Mugal Period:

During the reign of Mugals, the agriculture was considered to be an insignificant activity

and those who practiced it were regarded as persons of little consequence. Practically, Islam was

an urban religion and it laid emphasis on administration, trade, commerce and urban life. So the

Muhammadan elite emphasized these aspects of social life in India also (Malik, 2002).

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Marco Polo (1254-1324), a great Italian (Venetian) traveler, who visited India two times

in 1288 and 1293 wrote that India had the reputation of being one of the chief markets of Asia.

Ibn Battuta (1304-1358), a curious observer, a radiant of Tangier (S. Africa) who belonged to a

family that produced a number of judges (qazis) and ―The Traveler of Islam‖, visited Asia and

reached India on September 12, 1333 AD in the region of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351).

He gives a detailed accounts of cereals like Kudhru (a kind of millet), mash (Vigna radiata),

mung (V. mungo), rice, wheat, barley, chickpea, lentil, sugarcane and sesame etc. As per his

version rice was sown three times a year and it was one of the principal cereals in this country.

He also makes mention of the excellent quality of rice grown in Sirsa (Haryana) area, which was

sent to the capital, Delhi. Ibn Battuta also visited Malabar area in Kerala. He found

Kerala densely populated and intensively cultivated where pepper, ginger, sugarcane, coconut

and pulse were cultivated in abundance. Further he visited Bengal. He was impressed by the

prosperity of Bengal and cheapness of commodities there. He states, ―Bangala is a vast country,

abounding in rice, and nowhere in the world have I seen any land where prices are lower than

there. He remained in India from 1333 to 1342.

Ever since the medieval times we have faced quite a few knowing severe famines. There

was a severe famine in many parts of the country during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tuglaq.

That famine had almost destabilized the Tughlaq dynasty itself. Firoz Shah Tuhglaq (AD 1351-

1388) was a great builder of various palaces, canals and gardens. He got constructed West

Jamuna Canal in 1355 AD. With the result that agriculture was promoted and wheat, gram and

barley etc. were grown in abundance. Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545) also showed concern for the

welfare of peasantry and safety of their crops.

The Portuguese (AD 1550-1790) made use of the technique of grafting. They introduced

new crops and fruit plants and thus enriched the agriculture of India.

As mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari, wheat and sugarcane was grown in the provinces of

Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Qudh, Malwa and Ajmer. Barley was grown in almost

all parts of the country, but not in Bengal and Orissa. Chana was produced practically in all the

provinces. The millets, which include jawar, bajra, kodon, sawan, mandeva, and form the kharif

crops, were cultivated in Malwa, Gujarat, Ajmer, Khandesh, Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Allahabad,

Qudh and Multan. Pulses including gram, lentil (masur), pea mung, urd, moth, lubiya, kulthi and

arhar etc. and oil seeds including til, linseed, rape, toria, safflower etc. were grown. Other

popular crops were sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo, pepper and betel. The vegetables grown

were melons etc.

Jehangir (1605-1627), the naturalist, was one of the greatest growers of gardens in India.

Fruits and flowers were produced in abundance every year. Shahjahan (1628-1658), whose

primary interest was in architecture and buildings, built Shalimar Garden in Srinagar in 1634. He

also improved irrigation facilities in northern India by restoring the West Yumna Canal. He also

got constructed Hasli or Lahore Canal. During the reign of Shahjahan an appalling famine was

occurred. Deccan and Gujarat were hard hit. ―The inhabitants of these regions were reduced to

direst severity. Life was offered for a loaf, but none would buy, rank was to be sold for a cake,

but none cared for it.‖. It was this famine which went a long way in weakening the Mugal

empire. Thereafter, a cycle of these famines occured. The condition of the peasantry was very

horrible in spite of extremely fertile land and rice as a major food grain. Practically, the system

of Mughal government and Mughal society was predatory.

The increased land revenue of the Mughal government from Akbar to Aurangzeb

compiled by Lane-Poole, founder of the Department of History, University of Allahabad (1887)

in the following table depicts the distressed position of the peasants (Malik, 2002) .

Akbar - 1594 - £ 18,650,000

Shahjahan - 1655 - £ 30,000,000

Aurajgzeb - 1697 - £ 54,500,000

The alarming increase in revenue was necessitated by various factors. The Mughal

government had a heavy administration at the top i.e. the Emperor, his court comprising

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ministers, omrahs, mansabdars, etc. The offices of trust and dignity were held by foreigners-

Persians, Araba sand Turks. The mansabdars had to maintain a fixed quota of horses and camels

in addition to an army of wives and servants. Besides, they had to make costly presents to the

Emperor at certain annual festivals. The method of leasing land and tax-gathering was invariably

very tormenting. Even the omrahs also enjoy no security of property. Only the Emperor was the

sole heir of property of the dead officials. The peasants near Agra were treated ‗as Turks treat

Christians‘ taking from them all they could get by their labour. The peasants were under great

oppression, the condition of agriculture and peasantry of northern India was barren and bailing.

The wretched peasants had to flee to the territory of the rebel Rajas. As per J.B. Tavernier, the

peasants were reduced to great poverty. Irfan Habib, a reputed historian on Medieval India, also

avers that during the reign of Shahjahan, the peasantry was being robbed and plundered.

At the same time, the upper classes, the omrahs, mansabdars and jagirdars, spent their

incomes on objects of luxury and display. They did not invest money on improvement of land or

on welfare of the peasantry. As a result , the misery of the peasants deepened and their burden

became insufferable in the reign of Aurangzeb and his successors. In fact the Mughal state had

not made any systematic and long term planning to provide relief in the event of these horrible

famines.The bottled up discontent of the peasantry erupted in a series of revolts, first taking the

shape of a class-warfare and later with the ties of caste and religion they enlarged the scale of

these uprisings. When this process was supported by the zamindars‘ class of the same caste or

religion, who had their own motives in opposing the Mughal ruling class, a new situation of

disintegrating the empire took shape. The mighty Mughal empire crumbled into pieces i.e. into

native states, Nawab Sahis etc.

Agriculture during British Period

Indian agriculture, till 19th century, was of old traditional pattern. Rice, wheat, barley,

jawar and other commodities like pulses, oil seeds, cotton, jute, in dog and spices had been the

main crops grown in India almost since time immemorial. Land was cultivated wit the help of

the oxen and he-buffaloes, yoked to simple implements. Storing of agricultural commodities was

also defective. Surplus produce if any, was sold in the local or nearby markets. This type of

agricultural activity had been the mainstay of Indian village communities and the source of

government revenue. Industrial Revolution yielded enormous wealth and made England a

powerful nation having a well-equipped army. Their primary concern now, was to promote the

commerce of their country which profoundly affected agriculture in India.

Warren Hastings (1772-1785) an intense lover of horticulture was first appointed as

Governor of Calcutta in 1772. He was promoted as the first Governor-General of India in 1774,

under the Regulation Act of 1773. Memories of the disastrous famine of 1770 were still fresh in

the minds of the company‘s administration. So Hastings built a grain gola at Patna for storing

food grains to meet the requirement of food during the years of famine. The credit for producing

a hybrid grain which he called ‗barley wheat‘ goes to Hastings for the experiments conducted

during his period.

The climatic, political and economic conditions often pose hurdles in the development of

agriculture in a country. So the first objective of the British administration was that of restoring

law and order and the next was to organize the collection of land revenue. Charles Cornwallis

First Marquess (1738-1805), who was the second Governor-General from 1786 to 1793, accepted

the agrarian structure of Permanent Settlement of the eastern provinces of Bengal and Bihar as it

then existed. The system treated the absentee Zamindars as the real owners of vast estates

whereas the actual cultivators were ignored. The land ownership was given to small groups of

people to collect rent from individual farmers and pay to the Government, a system known as

Zamindari system. There was also Rytwari system in which the rulers used to collect rents

directly from farmers who been settled on the land. Farmers had no security of possession of land

and hence no interest in land development. Irrigation schemes were initiatedin major river deltas

for raising additional revenue.

As such, the problems of feeding and breeding cavalry horses were the concern of army

officers. So an army officer Lieutenant William Frazer (1793-1808) offered a plant for the

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improvement of horses in the valley of Ganges suggesting that the horses should be kept in a

stud. He had in mind also the breeding of cattle, using the Nagore bulls on the indigenous

females. Lieutenant Frazer surveyed the area and selected a site for the stud farm. In August,

1795 the Governor-General Sir John Shore (1793-1798) approved the purchase of land at the site

near Pusa as recommended by Frazer. Frazer was promoted to the rank of Captain in 1799 for

the success of the Zamindari of horse-breeding. In 1808 William Moorcraft (1767-1825), first

veterinary surgeon in India was appointed in place of Frazer, as incharge of Pusa Stud Farm.

Moorcraft was great explorer, ethnologist, ecologist, and a great veterinary surgeon (Randhawa,

1980, 1982, 1983 and 1986).

It was during Moorcraft‘s time that the Government Cattle Farm was established in 1809

at Hisar, Haryana, for camel-breeding, because these animals were used for transport work in the

army (Malik, 2002). The breeding of cattle and horses started in 1815 at this farm. It was one of

the largest state Farms in the world that was converted into a Cattle Farm in 1839. In 1853, it

was restricted to the breeding of bullocks for artillery. The farm was meant to breed siege-train

bullocks for the transport of heavy artillery and bulls for the district. Obviously the size of the

bull was the main consideration. The work was based on the local Haryana bred, but bulls of

many of the larger breeds, such as the Kankrej, Gir and Nellore, were introduced and the

resulting product, came to be called Hisar breed. Later on, the breeding of donkey stallions for

mule-breeding was started, as mules were required for ordinary purposes. The farm covered

44000 acres (17806.18 ha), which included 2500 acres (1011.71 ha) irrigated by the West

Jamuna Canal. The rest of the land, left for grazing, was covered by the grass Cenchrus ciliaris,

which is relished by cattle. The famous Haryana breed of cattle is maintained at this farm.

It is on record that during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, six famines occurred

which took a toll of 50,00,000 persons. In the last quarter of the same century there were almost

eighteen famines which took a toll of lives between 1,50,00,000 to 2,60,00,000. In addition to

these losses due to famines, the epidemics which followed in the wake of the famines also took

heavy toll of life. The severity of the sufferings of the people was nonetheless great.

The British rulers of India in the nineteenth century were very much interested in

agriculture. Marquis of Hastings (Second Earl of Moira) (1813-1823), the Governor-General,

under whose patronage the Royal Agri-Horticultural Society, Calcutta was founded in 1820. The

Society published a journal, entitled ―The Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of

India‖.

Lord William Bentinck (1774-1839), who was Governor-General in India from 1828 to

1835 was a passionate lover of social reforms. He shared Munro‘s admiration for bold, sturdy

and independent cultivators in preference to zamindars. The raiyat (peasant) is the main who

feels, as it were, married to his field. In 1830 Bentinck opened the Eastern Jamuna Canal. Two

military engineers, Major Proby T. Cautley constructed the Ganga Canal (1836-1854) and Sir

Arthur Colton conceived and executed the schemes of the Cavery, the Godavari and Krishna

deltas. Bentinck necessitated the passing of Regulation IV of 1833, the basis of Land

Settlements in northern India. In addition, he made English the medium of education and

administration and reformed judicial courts and abolished the practice of sati.

The Royal Agri-Horticultural Society, Calcutta had 460 members in 1839 out of whom

only 29 were Indian. By establishing similar other organizations in various parts of India and by

distributing better seeds, plants, implements and livestock and dissemination of useful

information through transactions, proceedings and information of Branch Societies, the Royal

Society greatly contributed to the state of improved agriculture. The Society formed eight

committees of experts i.e. (i) Cotton committee (ii) Flax and Hemp committee (iii) Sugarcane

committee (iv) Tobacco committee (v) Silk committee (vi) Wheat committee (vii) Livestock and

Implements committee (viii) Horticultural committee.

During the 19th century almost all the varieties of wheat in India were hard and hence

unsuitable for fine flour. So the Royal Society decided to import wheat seeds from Australia,

Europe and Egypt. In 1840 thirty two varieties of wheat were sent to the Society from Europe by

Dr. Royal. Besides, a serious attention was also paid to the improvement of agricultural

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implements. From 1846 to 1856, India was ruled by Lord Dalhousie (1812-1860) an innovative,

but ruthless person. He also constructed the Upper Bari Doab Canal to irrigate the waste lands

in Punjab which helped the settlement of the disbanded Sikh soldiers. The Railways gave a new

orientation to Indian agriculture. The export of cotton to England encouraged cotton cultivators.

All these changes which came about after 1850 heralded a new era in the agricultural sector in

India.

The period from 1860-70 was, indeed, a period of great agricultural prosperity for Indian

peasants. Driven by the exigencies of the American Civil War (1861-65), America stopped the

supply of cotton to the mills of Lancashire in England. To fill the gap, thus created, India began

to supply cotton to England. It created cotton boom in the country. With a view to encouraging

the cultivation of cotton, the Government of India appointed Cotton Commissioner for Bombay

and Central Provinces. The cultivators of Madras, Bombay and Central Pradesh took advantage

of this cotton boom. The prices of raw cotton increased five times within five years i.e. between

1859 to 1864. The export of cotton also increased three times and the area under cotton

cultivation increased rapidly. Such circumstances demanded the establishment of a department

of agriculture in the provinces. Lord Canning (1812-1862) who was Governor-General of India

from 1856 to 1862 also promoted the agricultural wealth of India.

The Earl of Mayo, who was the Governor General of India from 1869 to 1872,

encouraged the digging of canals (Ganga canal, Sarda canal, Western Jamuna canal and Lower

Jamuna canal). He also created a Department of Knowledge and Statistics, Animal Husbandry,

Fisheries and Forests in the Government of India. In 1871, the Imperial Department of

Agriculture was established, but it was abolished in 1878, because the provincial governments

did not heartily cooperate with the Department. The period (1870-80) was indeed, a period of

depression in agricultural sector. The reasons were not far to seek. America resumed the supply

of cotton. Consequently, the export of cotton from India was adversely affected. The prices of

cotton fell down causing thereby a slump in the market. Besides, enhanced revenue, money-

lenders loan, increasing burden of taxation of military and public works activities, world wide

depression, the famine of 1873-74, and the all India famine of 1876-78, heavy debts, transfer of

lands into the hands of non-cultivator and unfavourable law were some of the factors which

broke the backbone of the peasants.

Lord Ripon (1827-1909), the Viceroy of India from 1880 to 1884, instituted the Revenue

and Agricultural Department in the Government of India in 1881 and the Directors of Agriculture

were appointed in the provinces. In 1882, a veterinary college was established at Lahore.

During the period of Earl of Elgin II (1894-1899) the Bacteriological Laboratory at Muketshwar

in Kumaon was established in 1895 for the systematic investigations of the diseases of the

animals. The country witnessed disastrous famines in the years of 1877, 1878, 1889 1892,

1897-98 and 1900 which took a heavy toll of about fifteen million lives (Randhawa, 1980, 1982,

1983 and 1986). To meet the grim situation the Sirhind canal (1873-82) in Punjab, the Lower

Ganga and Betwa canal (1881-1893) in the North West Provinces and Mutha (1869-1879) and

the Nira canals (1877-1894) in the Bombay Presidency were constructed.

During the famine of 1876-78, about 60 million people were affected. The deaths that

exceeded 5,250,000 led to the establishing of the institution of the Famine Commission in 1880.

Dr. J.A. Voelcker, the head of the commission, started investigating the question of bringing

about practical improvements in Indian agriculture. He submitted his report in 1883. He revived

interest in improvement of agriculture to ensure security against disastrous failures in food

supply. He recommended the immediate establishment of Department of Agriculture at the

centre as well as in the provinces simultaneously. Initially, the main functions of the Department

of Agriculture were collection of agricultural statistics and organizing famine relief. Even the

Acts of 1883 and 1884 permitting grant of Takhavi loans could not activate the farmers to take

renewed interest in the improvement of agriculture. The agricultural research was still a far cry.

Immediately after the Famine commission 1898 had submitted its report of the famine of

1896-97, there came another famine in 1899-1900 during which the distress was extremely acute

and mortality among cattle was very high. To add to this misery of the people, these famines

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were followed by cholera and plague, both taking a heavy toll of human life. Thus the period

from 1896-1900 could be taken as one of the worst periods in the history of Indian agriculture.

Lord Curzon (1859-1925) who was the Viceroy of India from 1898 to 1905, had

to deal with the famine of 1899-1900, the most severe on record. . However, the famine forced

Lord Curzon to realize that the Government of India must pay urgent attention to agriculture.

Accordingly, his first step was to appoint in 1901, an Inspector General of Agriculture to control

and coordinate the working of all provincial departments of agriculture and direct the new policy.

Because of the severity of famine 1899-1900, Lord Curzon appointed an Indian

Irrigation Commission in 1901 to investigate the irrigation problems. The Commission gave its

report in 1903 after touring throughout the country. As a result of its recommendations a large

number of new works were undertaken.

In 1901, 56 acres (22.7 ha) of land at Lyallpur (now Faisalabad) were turned into a farm

and in 1902 three agriculturists trained at Kanpur started work here. In 1902 the Indian Civil

Veterinary Department was firmly established by the permanent transfer of seventeen officers

from the Army Veterinary Department to the Civil Department. Curzon gave relief to the

peasants in land revenue during the years of draught. Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1901 was

passed which relieved indebted farmers in Punjab

The Inspector-General, Civil Veterinary Department, took over the control of the Hisar

Cattle Farm from the military department in 1898, and in 1907 it was decided to reduce the

mixed stock on the farm and concentrate on the Haryana breed, but the Hisar type of animal

continued to be produced many years later. More attention was paid to the breeding of dual-

purpose (milk and draught) Haryana animal, and the Hisar has been removed from the list of

recognized breeds in India. In 1905 the breeding of zebra hybrids was being attempted at Hisar

and more important, a flock of country (Bikaner) ewes was being run with two Merino rams.

This was how the Hisar-dale sheep with a high quality fleece developed.

In 1904, Lord Curzon, with the financial assistance of Mr. Henry Phipps of Chicago,

established Central (Imperial) Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, with an Experimental

Farm, equipped with laboratories and a Cattle Farm. The establishment of this institute marked

the beginning of systematic agricultural research in India. An Agricultural College was also

attached to it in 1908 and it was upgraded as postgraduate college in 1923. Adequate staff of the

scientific experts was appointed including the Director of Agriculture, who was also to act as

Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India. An All India Board of Agriculture was also set

up in 1905 to coordinate the research and extension programmes. The Board ceased functioning

when agriculture became a state subject.

In the same year 1905, the Government of India decided to establish, with an annual

grant of Rs. 2 million, in each important province, an Agricultural College and research station

fully equipped with laboratories and class rooms, to which would be attached a farm of suitable

size. The superior staff proposed at each of these provincial institutions comprised an expert

agriculturist, an Economic Botanist, an Agricultural Chemist, an Entomologist and a mycologist.

One of the members of this staff discharged the duties of the Principal of the college. The staff

was to combine teaching with research so as to enable the experts to carry on research. It was

proposed that assistants and demonstrators were to be provided to the researchers. They would

also assist in the teaching, so that the time of the experts might not be wasted merely on

providing elementary instructions.

Full-time Directors of Agriculture were appointed in all the major provinces. The

provinces were divided into a suitable number of ―Circles‖ and each circle was to have an

experimental farm on the basis of regional differences of soil and climate under a Deputy

Director of Agriculture. An agricultural college was opened at Poona in 1908 and in subsequent

years agricultural colleges came to be opened at Kanpur, Nagpur, Lyallpur (1909), Coimbatore

and Mandalay (1924). Except Mandalay, all were affiliated to provincial universities.

In 1914, Sardar Jogindra Singh (1877-1946) made experiments on Tractor

cultivation in the United Provinces and in the Punjab, Sir Ganga Ram, a distinguished engineer

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and agriculturist, played remarkable role in irrigating the high lying lands in canal colonies of the

Punjab with lift-irrigation.

Under the Montague-Chelmsford Reform Act of 1919, agriculture became a state

subject. The provincial departments were put in charge of agricultural development of their

respective provinces. The Central Department of Agriculture after 1919 concerned itself with

only agricultural problems of all India nature. The Central Department of Agriculture

maintained the institutions: Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, which was transferred (in

1936) from Pusa to New Delhi (now known as I.A.R.I.), Central Institute of Veterinary Research

at Mukteshwar (started in 1893), Central Institute of Animal Husbandry and Dairying,

Bangalore, Central Cattle-breeding Farm at Karnal, Creamary at Anand, Central Care-breeding

Station at Coimbatore and Sugar Bureau at Kanpur.

In 1925, Lord Reading (1921-1925), the Viceroy woke to the need of giving a new

impulse to the development of agriculture in India. Impetus was also provided by the resolution

of the Working Committee of the Indian National Congress. Fazl-i-Husain, who had joined as

the Member in Charge of the Department of Education, Health and Lands, and had a passionate

desire for the welfare of the rural people, gave strong support to the Viceroy‘s proposal, and it

ultimately resulted in the setting up of the Royal Commission on Agriculture which was

appointed in 1926 under the chairmanship of Victor Alexander John Hope, 2nd

marquess of

Linlithgow (1887-1952), a Scotch landlord with deep interest in animal husbandry. Now Lord

Irwin (1926-1931) was the Viceroy of India. Lord Linlithgow remained chairman of Royal

Commission from 1926 to 1928.

The very purpose of the Commission was to study comprehensively various aspects of

Indian agricultural problem and make recommendations for agricultural improvements in

agriculture. This was a great event in the history of agriculture in India which had a far-reaching

impact on agricultural production in the country. The Royal Commission on Agriculture, 1928

emphasized that ―agricultural development is so vital for the prosperity of India that it is

inconvincible that the Government of India should divest themselves of all responsibility for it.‖

The Commission observed that the Central Government should continue encouraging research

and supply of information to the state Department of Agriculture. In the absence of coordination,

there would not only be duplication but also their efficiency would be seriously curbed. The

Commission submitted its report in 1928 and made several recommendations most of which were

accepted and given effect to.

Among other things the Commission recommended the establishment of an Imperial

Council of Agriculture Research to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research

including veterinary research in India and link it up with research in those fields in other parts of

the British empire and other foreign countries, so that research work in India might avoid

duplication and be more effective. It was established with an objective of improving agriculture

for ensuring security against disastrous failures in food supply at that time.

Thus as per recommendations of the Royal Commission, the Imperial Council of

Agricultural Research was established on July 16, 1929. The Council did not exercise any

administrative control over the Imperial or provincial research institutions. It was an advisory

body. But it played a very important role. It provided sound information about soil, crops and

animals on the basis of which solutions to the problems were found. The Government, however,

was more concerned for those items which were of great need for the Britons rather than the poor

of the country. The area under improved varieties for the crops which produced cotton, wheat,

jute, groundnut and sugarcane mainly for export increased than the area covered by rice, gram,

jowar and barley, the crops which were needed for the poor.

There was a great depression (1929-33) in agricultural sector throughout the world.

Agriculturists suffered severely because of a fall in agricultural prices. But when the popular

governments took office under the scheme of Provincial Autonomy in 1937, they passed a

number of measures to assist the farmers. Because of World War II, these reformative measured

could not be implemented in most of the provinces. But Punjab Agricultural Produce Market Act

1939, was indeed, very important. This Act supplied a long felt need in the province for

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obtaining a fairer-deal in the disposal of farmers produce. Various other Acts passed by the

Unionist Government of Punjab proved very beneficial to the farmers of the state.

During the World War II, the problems of food grains and their rising prices again came

to the fore. The Government had no well thought-out policy and machinery to implement the

policy. Naturally the famine of 1943 created a severe situation. The British policy had already

converted Indian economy into agricultural economy i.e. agriculture had become the base of all

economic activities. The crops falling under non-food group were given high priority from the

beginning of the twentieth century up to the dawn of independence of India. The increase in

area under food crops during the year 1940-41 had been due to the increased demand created by

the war. So, the government was forced to move towards the need for improving food crops.

The partition gave a big set back to the agriculture of divided India for some time.

Thirteen districts of the east Punjab and the states of Patiala, Nabha, Faridkot, Jind, Malerkotla

and Kapurthla remained a part of India. Sind, Baluchistan, the N.W. Frontier Province,

Bahawalpur state and 16 district of the west Punjab formed the western wing of the Pakistan.

The west Punjab included 55 per cent of the population, 62 per cent of the area and controlled 69

per cent of the income of the old province. On the other hand, the east Punjab obtained 45 per

cent of the population, 38 per cent of the area, and 31 per cent of the income of the original

province. Thus the west Punjab had bigger resources inland, water and income (Randhawa,

1980,1982, 1983 and 1986). So a vigorous developmental approach and policy of the Indian

government was needed to meet out the severe crisis of paucity of food.

The Imperial Council was renamed as Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 1947.

The decision to change the name was taken at a special meting of the Council held on

Wednesday morning (13.3.1947) under the Presidentship of Dr. Rajinder Prasad (1884-1963).

The resolution, moved from the Chair, was seconded by Sir Datar Singh Vice President of ICAR

and President of the Indian Central Jute Committee and was unanimously adopted. Thus the

Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was henceforth to be known as Indian Council of

Agricultural Research. It is an autonomous apex-body responsible for the organization and

management of research and education in all disciplines of agricultural sciences. It aims at

excellence in the agricultural field.

In 1958 under the University Grant Commission, the Institute (IARI) was given

the status of a deemed university. ―As an apex organization to conduct, coordinate and support

agricultural research of education, the ICAR today has emerged to be a vibrant organization

providing much needed national food security and overall agricultural development. It has under

its umbrella, 61 Central Research Institutes, 6 Bureau, 15 Project Directorates, 14 National

Research Centres and 80 all India Coordinated Research Projects, that conduct commodity and

system-based research in various agricultural and allied disciplines. Apart from these, there are

65 state agricultural universities (SAUs), 5 deemed universities and two central agricultural

university besides about 40 faculties of agriculture in traditional universities with enrolment

capacity of nearly 64,000 in agriculture and 15,000 in veterinary sciences, provide education at

graduate, master‘s and doctoral levels. These institutions include agriculture, veterinary science,

fisheries, forestry, agricultural engineering, home science, dairy technology, sericulture, food

technology, horticulture and agricultural marketing. The agricultural research system in India

includes some 27,000 scientists and more than 100000 supporting staff actively engaged in

agricultural research, which makes it probably the largest research system in the world. They are

distributed in the ICAR system, Agricultural Universities, General Universities and other

organizations. The deployment of scientific manpower in different organizations participating in

the nation‘s agricultural research efforts are indicated below:

Institution Number of scientists

i) ICAR system 6470

ii) Agricultural Universities 16000

iii) General universities 2000

and affiliated colleges

iv) Agro-based industries 1500

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v) Voluntary organizations 250

vi) Related Government 3500

Departments

References:

Malik, S.N. (2002). A History of Agriculture in India. In: Ram Dhan Singh : A pioneer

Agricultural Scientist. Shiva-Laxmi Vidya Dham, Hisar. Pp. 17-38.

Punia, M.S. (2006). International Agricultural Research - Initiatives and Ethics. CCS Haryana

Agricultural University, Hisar ( India)

Randhawa, M.S. (1980,1982,1983, 1986). A History of Agriculture in India. ICAR, New Delhi.,

Vol I to IV.

Voelker, J.A. (1893). Report on improvement of Indian Agriculture. Eyre and Spottiswoode,

London.

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M.S.Punia (2016)

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National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) In India

One of the essential components that ensures required capability to meet the needs of the

increasing population through increased production is an effective agricultural research system that is

sensitive to the needs of time. It should be strong for sustaining a dynamic development programme

and provide for change. The present agricultural research system in India has been developed over

years of experience and experimentation which has undergone some major changes in concept,

organization and activities. Since independence, it has made rapid strides, both in concept and

implementation, towards becoming an effective system. The present system is helping the nation of

optimize the inputs and exploit the genetic and other resource potential. In the present research

system, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) at the National level mainly aids,

promotes and coordinates research and education activities in the country. The research and

education responsibilities at the state level rest with the Agricultural Universities. In addition to these

two main streams of research, some general universities and other agencies like scientific

organizations related to agriculture, Government Departments, voluntary organizations, private

institutions etc. participate in the nation‘s research efforts.

The agricultural research system in India includes some 27,500 scientists and more than

100000 supporting staff actively engaged in agricultural research, which makes it probably the

largest research system in the world. They are distributed in the ICAR system, Agricultural

Universities, General Universities and other organizations.

The early development of agricultural research was associated with the recurrence of famines; a

cruel reminder of the low priority accorded to agricultural research and development during the British

period. The development of agricultural research gained some momentum after the first and the second

world wars. After India became independent, much emphasis was laid on agricultural research, which

has brought rich dividends in terms of increased agricultural production and near self-sufficiency of the

nation in agricultural commodities.

An Account of Agricultural Research In India

The main events in the history of agricultural research in India can be grouped into the following seven

categories (Singh, 2001): (1) establishment of agriculture departments and agriculture colleges, (2)

establishment of the imperial council of agricultural research, (3) initiation of commodity committees, (4)

project for intensification of regional research on cotton, oilseeds and millets, (5) initiation of all India

coordinated crop improvement projects, (6) reorganization of ICAR, and (7) the development of

agricultural universities. The details of these events are given below:

Establishment of Agriculture Departments and Agriculture Colleges

The beginning of primordial department of agriculture in India is as recent as April 27, 1871,

when a Department of Revenue, Agriculture and Commerce was established. The chief function of the

department remained revenue. There was no work on agricultural development, and the sole function of

the department in this area was the collection of statistics. But this did mark a beginning, and

recognition, howsoever insignificant, of the agriculture sector by the government. The credit for this

humble beginning goes to Lord Mayo, the fourth Viceroy of India, and to A.O. Hume, a civilian of the

Bengal Civil Service and one of the founders of the Indian National Congress. Ironically, the department

was established by the Her Majesty‘s Government with a view to supply cotton to the hungry textile

industries of Manchester, and not to feed the famine ravished India.

India faced a severe famine during 1877-78. Based on the report of the Famine Commission, the

government of India resolved to set up a central Department of Agriculture controlled by the Imperial

Secretariat. Simultaneously, agriculture departments were to be set up in the provinces to look after

agricultural enquiry, agricultural development and famine relief. These departments were set up in 1881,

and directors were subsequently appointed in most of the provinces. But the chief duty of the agriculture

departments in the centre as well as in the provinces remained famine relief.

In 1892, an Agricultural Chemist and an Assistant Chemist were appointed to look after research

and teaching. This marked the first scientific staff in the Department of Revenue and Agriculture, as the

3

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department was then known. In 1901, an Inspector General of Agriculture was appointed to advise the

Imperial and the Provincial Governments on agricultural matters. An Imperial Mycologist was appointed

in the same year, and an Entomologist was appointed in 1903. During the years 1899-1900, India faced

the most severe famine on record. Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, was convinced that the

Government of India must pay an urgent attention to agriculture. As a consequence, an Agricultural

Research Institute (now IARI, New Delhi) was established in 1905 in Pusa, Bihar (then in the Province

of Bengal). The agriculture departments in the provinces were expanded. The provinces were subdivided

into a suitable number of ‗circles‘ on the basis of regional differences in soil and climate. Each ‗circle‘

had a research farm, and was placed in charge of a Deputy Director of Agriculture. Between 1901 and

1905, Agricultural Colleges were established at Pune, Kanpur, Sabour, Nagpur, Lyallpur (now in

Pakistan) and Coimbatore. It was visualized that the staff at these colleges would combine teaching and

research to the best advantage. But due to the lack of scientific and technical manpower and finance, the

primary function of these colleges remained teaching and training.

Establishment of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (The present day ICAR)

As a result of a constitutional reform in 1919, agricultural development was made a state subject;

centre retained the central agencies and institutes of agricultural research and training. Thus there was no

agency to coordinate the activities of the central institutions and those of the departments of agriculture in

the provinces. This was emphasized by the Royal Commission on Agriculture appointed in 1926, and

headed by Lord Linlithgow. The commission proposed that an Imperial Council of Agricultural Research

should be set up to promote, guide and coordinate agricultural research throughout India. The council

was to act as a clearing house for research schemes and information, to provide research scholarships and

to guide the research activities of central and provincial departments of agriculture.

The proposal of the Royal commission on Agriculture was examined and the Government of

India, Department of Education, Health and Lands resolved on 16 th July, 1929 to set up Imperial

Council of Agricultural Research. The first president of ICAR was Khan Bahadur Sir Mohammed

Habibulla; Diwan Bahadur Sir Vijaya Raghavacharya was its first Vice-Present and Mr. S.A. Hydari was

the first Secretary. The governing body of the council had 16 members.

The name of the council was changed from Imperial Council of Agricultural Research to Indian

Council of Agricultural Research in March 1947. The decision to make this change was taken by the

Governing body of ICAR in a meting presided over by Sir Jogendra Singh.

The Commodity Committee

In addition to ICAR, there were several Central Commodity Committees that were concerned

with research and development activities related to specific crops. These committees were started by the

Ministry of Food and Agriculture and were semi-autonomous bodies. They were financed partly by the

government and partly by the taxes collected on the export of the concerned commodities. Some

commodity committees had their own research stations or institutes located in the main growing regions

of the crops concerned (Table 1), while some others financed research schemes conducted by the State

Departments of Agriculture, e.g., Spices and Cashewnut Committee. The Indian Central Cotton

Committee was the first, commodity committee established in 1921 on the recommendation of the Indian

Cotton Committee (1917-18). The functions of this Central Committee were cotton improvement,

development of improved methods of growing, manufacturing and marketing of cotton. The committee

financed schemes on cotton breeding, diseases, pests, physiology, agronomy, etc. The committee was

responsible for the development of 70 improved varieties of cotton, and the fiber quality of Indian cotton

was considerably improved. In view of the success achieved in research on cotton under the Indian

Central Cotton Committee, commodity committees were set up on other crops, viz., lac, jute, sugarcane,

tobacco, coconut, oilseeds, spices and cashewnut and arecanut (Table 1). As a result of this, the

functions of ICAR became limited to food crops, tuber crops, grasses and fodder crops, horticultural

crops, problems common to all the crops for which commodity committees were set up, e.g., diseases,

pests etc., dry farming and animal research.

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Table 1 : The Indian Central Commodity Committees

Name of the Indian Central

Commodity Committee Year of

establishment Research institute/station

Cotton Committee 1921 Technological Laboratory (now CTRL)

Lac Cess Committee 1931 Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum,

Ranchi (1936)

Jute Committee 1936 Jute Agricultural Research Institute,

Barrackpore

Jute Technological Research Laboratories,

Calcutta

Sugarcane Committee 1944 Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore

Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,

Lucknow

Coconut Committee 1945 Central Coconut Research Station,

Kanyagulam and Kasaragod

Tobacco Committee 1945 Central Tobacco Research Institute,

Rajahmundry (8 substations)

Oilseeds Committee 1947 Financed research schemes; headquarters at

Hyderabad

Arecanut Committee 1969 Arecanut Research Station, Vittai (Karnataka)

Spices and Cashewnut

Committee 1958 Finance research schemes

The Vice-President of ICAR was the President of all the commodity committees. Further, the

research stations for the various crops were located in the region where the crop was the most widely

grown. But the soil and climate vary to a great deal from one region of the country to another, and there

was a great necessity to conduct the researches on various crops within the different agroclimatic regions

of the country. These realizations led to the formulation of the Project for Intensification of Regional

Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRRCOM), which was the first step in the country towards

coordinated approach to agricultural research. The Central Commodity Committees were later

abolished (beginning in 1965) and the research institutes under their control were transferred to ICAR.

Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets (PIRRCOM)

A need was felt to coordinate the research on various crops, e.g., cotton, oilseeds and millets, and

also to conduct the research work in different agroclimatic regions of the country. The first coordinated

research work on regional basis was initiated in 1956 as a joint effort by ICAR and the Indian Central

Commodity Committees on Oilseeds and Cotton. Seventeen centers were established throughout the

country (Table 2) to conduct research on cotton, castor, groundnut, Brassica spp., til, toria, taramira,

jowar and bajra. These research stations, except the one at ICAR, were under the administrative control

of ICAR. The research programme for each region was prepared by a regional coordination committee

headed by the Agriculture Commissioner of India, and approved by the respective commodity

committees. A regional station consisted of full-fledged sections of plant breeding and genetics,

agronomy, agricultural chemistry and soil science, plant pathology and entomology.

Table 2: The centers for the Project for Intensification of Research on Cotton, Oilseeds and Millets

(PIRRCOM)

Location of centre Province Research work on

Coimbatore Tamil Nadu Cotton, jowar, groundnut

Bellary Setaria, rabi jowar

Dhadesagur Cotton, jowar

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Dharwar

Karnataka

Kharif jowar

Sulakere Ragi, groundnut

Rajendrasagar Andhra Pradesh Castor, groundnut

Amravati

Maharashtra

Cotton, jowar, groundnut

Mohol Rabi jowar

Junagarh

Gujarat

Jowar, groundnut

Surat Cotton, jowar

Gwalior Madhya Pradesh Kharif jowar

Hoshangabad Linseed

Ajmer Rajasthan Jowar, bajra

Kanpur Uttar Pradesh Indian mustard, bajra

Patiala Punjab Toria, taramira

Sirsa Haryana Cotton

IARI New Delhi Cotton, jowar, bajra, linseed (fundamental

research on physiology and cytogenetics; linseed

breeding)

Initiation of All India Coordinated Research Projects

The concept of coordinated projects first developed in relation to hybrid maize improvement.

ICAR was interested in utilizing heterosis for maize improvement as this approach was highly successful

in USA and several other countries. Rockefeller Foundation, then actively involved in crop improvement

programmes in Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, was invited to assist in the maize

improvement programme in India. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India, signed

an agreement with the Rockefeller Foundation in 1956. According to this agreement, Rockefeller

Foundation was to assist in the development of (1) the postgraduate school of Indian Agricultural

Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, and (2) research programmes on the improvement of some crops

(maize, jowar and bajra, initially). Two scientists from the Rockefeller Foundation maize programmes in

Mexico and Columbia came to India to study the position of maize crop and submitted their report. This

report was scrutinized by the Botany Committee of ICAR and then by the Advisory Board of the

Council, and provided the basis for the coordinated maize project.

In the coordinated maize improvement programme, the entire country was divided into major

agroclimatic zones without any regard to state boundaries. Each zone was to have several research

centers. Research centers present in a state would be under the administrative control of that state. ICAR

was to provide a Project Coordinator who would visit all the centers under the project to facilitate a

smooth running of the project. There would be annual workshops of the principal research workers to

review the progress during the year and to formulate the research work for the next year. The

Rockefeller Foundation agreed to provide the world collection of germplasms, and to provide another

Project Coordinator in the early stages of the programme; this coordinator was to work in close

cooperation with the Project Coordinator appointed by the Council. With this set up, the All India

Coordinated Maize Improvement Project was imitated in 1957. This was a landmark in the agricultural

research in India; a coordinated approach for the whole country was initiated in place of the fragmentary

and isolated research programmes in the past.

The coordinated maize project proved to be the turning point in research planning in agriculture.

By 1961, new high yielding maize hybrids became available as a result of the coordinated project.

Spurred by this success of the concept, ICAR decided in 1965 to initiate coordinated projects on other

crops as well as in other areas of research e.g., animal husbandry, soil sciences, etc. Within 3 years of

this decision, 70 coordinated projects on various subjects were launched. The coordinated projects

accounted for 40 per cent of the total outlay for agriculture in the Fourth Five Year Plan. The progress of

the coordinated projects was critically reviews in the Fifth Five Year Plan; some projects were

terminated, some were merged with other projects, some projects were elevated to the level of Project

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Directorates and some were changed to Coordinated Programmes. In the Fifth Five Year Plan, there

were 49 coordinated projects and some coordinated programmes.

Reorganization of ICAR

In 1963, the Agricultural Review Team was appointed by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture

to scrutinize the organization of agricultural research in India. The team was headed by Dr. Marion W.

parker of USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). The team submitted its report in March,

1964. Based on the recommendations of the team, ICAR was reorganized in 1966. ICAR was made a

fully autonomous organization. Various research organizations under the Department of Food and

Agriculture and under the Central Commodity Committees were brought under the control of ICAR. The

Governing Body of ICAR was reorganized to make it primarily a body of scientists and agriculturists.

IARI, National Dairy Research Institute and Indian Veterinary Institute were made National Institutes. A

provision was made for the recruitment of scientists through selection committees of ICAR. It was made

a policy that an agricultural scientist would be appointed as the chief executive of ICAR with the

designation of Director General. In May 1965, Dr. B.P. Pal was appointed as the first Director General

of ICAR; he was simultaneously Vice-President of the Council. Four posts of Deputy Director General

were created to assist the Director General.

In June, 1972, the Government of India appointed a committee to review the recruitment and the

personnel policies of ICAR and its institutes, and to suggest measures for their improvement. The

committee was headed by Mr. Gajendragadkar, retired Chief Justice of India, and submitted its report in

January, 1973. In view of the recommendations by this committee, a Department of Agricultural

Research and Education was created in the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in December, 1973. The

Director General, ICAR was made secretary to the new department. The Minister of Agriculture was

designated as the President of the council, while the Director General, ICAR, was made the Chairman of

the Governing Body of the council. The Advisory Board and the Standing Committee were abolished,

and the functions of the Standing Committee were assigned to Scientific Panels. The scientific panels for

different disciplines consider and evaluate the suitability for financial assistance of ad hoc research

schemes. An Agricultural Research Service (ARS) was initiated for the recruitment of scientific

personnel under the Agricultural Scientists‘ Recruitment Board (ASRB). A scheme for internal

assessment and promotion was initiated. The credit for these changes goes to Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the

then Director General of ICAR.

The entire country was divided into 8 agroecological zones. For each zone, regional committees

were set up; the Director General of ICAR was made ex-officio chairman of these committees. The

function of these regional committees is to review the status of agricultural research and education in the

concerned regions. The Governing Body of ICAR is assisted by a Norms and Accreditation Committee,

which looks after the development of Agricultural Universities and the grant of fellowships.

At present, the total number of institutes under the Council is 45, those related to crop production

and related subjects. In addition, there are 30 several National Research Centres (NRCs) many of which

are concerned with crop improvement.

List of ICAR Institutes, National Bureau, Project Diretorates and National Research

Centres

National Institutes and Deemed Universities 4

1. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi

2. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal

3. Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar

4. Central Institute on Fisheries Education,

Mumbai

Institutions 61

1. Central Island Agricultural Research Institute ,

Port Blair

2. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur

3. Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar

4. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,

Barrackpore

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5. Central Institute Brackishwater Aquaculture,

Chennai

6. Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes,

Hisar

7. Central Institute for Research on Goats,

Makhdoom

8. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering,

Bhopal

9. Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner

10. Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur

11. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology,

Cochin

12. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,

Bhubneshwar

13. Central Institute of Research on Cotton

Technology, Mumbai

14. Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture,

Lucknow

15. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture,

Srinagar

16. Central Institute on Post harvest Engineering

and Technology, Ludhiana

17. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute,

Kochi

18. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute,

Kasargod

19. Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla

20. Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied

Fibres, Barrackpore

21. Central Research Institute of Dryland

Agriculture, Hyderabad

22. National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack

23. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute,

Avikanagar, Rajasthan

24. Indian Institute of Soil and Water

Conservation, Dehradun

25. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal

26. Central Tobacco Research Institute,

Rajahmundry

27. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute,

Trivandrum

28. Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna

29. Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani

30. Central Coastal Agricultural Research Institute,

Ela, Old Goa, Goa

31. Indian Agricultural Statistics Research

Institute, New Delhi

32. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research

Institute, Jhansi

33. Indian Institute of Agricultural Biotechnology,

Ranchi

34. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,

Bengaluru

35. Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums,

Ranchi

36. Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur

37. Indian Institute of Soil Sciences, Bhopal

38. Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut

39. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research,

Lucknow

40. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research,

Varanasi

41. National Academy of Agricultural Research &

Management, Hyderabad

42. National Institute of Biotic Stresses

Management, Raipur

43. National Institue of Abiotic Stress

Management, Malegaon, Maharashtra

44. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and

Physiology, Bengaluru

45. National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied

Fibre Technology, Kolkata

46. National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology

and Disease Informatics, Hebbal, Bengaluru

47. Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore

48. Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan

Sansthan, Almora

49. Central Institute for Research on Cattle,

Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

50. National Institute of High Security Animal

Diseases, Bhopal

51. Indian Institute of Maize Research,New Delhi

52. Central Agroforestry Research Institute ,

Jhansi

53. National Institute of Agricultural Economics

and Policy Research, New Delhi

54. Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research,

Karnal

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55. Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research,

Modipuram

56. Indian Institute of Millets Research,

Hyderabad

57. Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research,

Hyderabad

58. Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research,

Pedavegi, West Godawari

59. Indian Institute of Water Management,

Bhubaneshwar

60. Central Institute for Women in Agriculture,

Bhubaneshwar

61. Central Citrus Research Institute, Nagpur

National Research Centres 14

1. National Research Centre for Banana, Trichi

2. National Research Centre for Grapes, Pune

3. National Research Centre for Litchi,

Muzaffarpur

4. National Research Centre for Pomegranate,

Solapur

5. National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner

6. National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar

7. National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

8.. National Research Centre on Mithun,

Medziphema, Nagaland

9. National Research Centre on Orchids,

Pakyong, Sikkim

10. National Research Centre on Pig, Guwahati

11. National Research Centre on Plant

Biotechnology, New Delhi

12. National Research Centre on Seed Spices,

Ajmer

13. National Research Centre on Yak, West

Kemang

14. National Centre for Integrated Pest

Management, New Delhi

National Bureaux 6

1. National Bureau of Plant Genetics Resources,

New Delhi

2. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important

Microorganisms, Mau, Uttar Pradesh

3. National Bureau of Agricultural Insect

Resources, Bengaluru

4. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use

Planning, Nagpur

5. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources,

Karnal

6. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,

Lucknow

Directorates/Project Directorates 15

1. Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad

2. Directorate of Seed Research, Mau

3. Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagarh

4. Directorate of Soybean Research, Indore

5. Directorate of Rapeseed & Mustard Research,

Bharatpur

6. Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan

7. Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research,

Pune

8. Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur

9. Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Research, Anand

10. Directorate of Floricultural Research, Pune,

Maharashtra

11. Directorate of Weed Research, Jabalpur

12. Project Directorate on Foot & Mouth Disease,

Mukteshwar

13. Directorate of Poultry Research, Hyderabad

14. Directorate of Knowledge Management in

Agriculture (DKMA), New Delhi

15. Directorate of Cold Water Fisheries Research,

Bhimtal, Nainital

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Development of Agricultural Universities

Before independence, higher education in agriculture was virtually neglected. In 1948, there

were 17 agricultural colleges in the country, which were under the control of Director, Department of

Agriculture of the respective states. Colleges for animal husbandry were separate from those for

agriculture, and were governed by the Director, Animal Husbandry of the concerned states. Research

and extension were the responsibility of the agriculture and the animal husbandry departments of the

states. The organization, staffing patterns, pay scales of teachers and financial support (which was

solely by the state through the respective departments) were not suitable for a first grade education

and training in agriculture.

The University Education Commission (1948-49) headed by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan,

recommended that rural universities should be established. In 1950, Major H.S. Singh and Mr.

A.N.Jha (Chief Secretary and Development Commissioner, U.P.) visited Land-Grant Universities of

United States. They advised the then Chief Minister of U.P., Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, to set up

such a university, and he accepted their advice. This event may be regarded as the one, which led to

the initiation of agricultural universities. In 1955, the first Joint Indo-American Team was set up,

which recommended the establishment of rural universities in each of the states. The team felt that

U.P. (Tarai), West Bengal (Haringhatta), Bihar (Patna), Orissa (Bhubaneshwar), Travancore-Cochin

and Bombay (Anand) states were suitable for starting such universities.

Dr. H.W. Hannah prepared a blue-print for agricultural universities in 1956; this provided the

basis for the proposal by Government of U.P. to the Central Government (in September, 1956) for

starting an agricultural university near Rudrapur in the tarai region of U.P. The Central Government

agreed to the proposal on an experimental basis. The second Joint Indo-American Team was set up in

1959, which submitted its report in 1960. The team recommended that the Agricultural Universities

should be autonomous; should consist of colleges of agriculture, veterinary, animal husbandry, home

science, technology and basic sciences; should have inter-disciplinary teaching programmes; and

should integrate teaching research extension. By 1961, there were demands from many states for

agricultural universities and the Government of India accepted the organization of a few more

agricultural universities during the Third Five Year Plan.

In 1960, the Government of India pointed a committee for providing a model for the

necessary legislation by the states for the establishment of agricultural universities. The committee

was headed by Dr. R.W. Cummings and submitted its report in 1962. On the basis of this report,

ICAR prepared the model act for the development of agricultural universities. During 1960-65, the

Fourth Five Year Plan, seven agricultural universities were established in U.P., Orissa, Rajasthan,

Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka. The United States Agency for International

Development (USAID) contributed significantly to the development of agricultural universities

through the Land-Grant Universities of U.S.A. This assistance was in the form of training of Indian

scientists in U.S.A., stationing of U.S. scientists for teaching and research in Indian agriculture

universities and a limited amount of equipments for teaching and research.

The Education Commission (1964-66), headed by Dr. D.S. Kothari, recommended that all

aspects of agricultural research should be the function of agricultural universities. Subsequently, the

responsibility for research was delegated from State Department of Agriculture to agricultural

universities, but this change was not uniformly implemented in every state. The Review Committee

on Agriculture Universities (1977-78), headed by Dr. M.S. Randhawa, made many useful

recommendations for the development of agricultural universities. It noted that the quality of

leadership and the financial support from the state were crucial factors in the development of

agricultural universities. The committee suggested, among other things, that the Director General,

ICAR, and Chairman, University Grants Commission, should be members of the selection committee

that appoints Vice-Chancellors for agricultural universities. The Model Act should be followed

faithfully, and states should accept the responsibility for developing the agriculture universities.

State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) are major partners in growth & development of Agricultural

Research and Education under National Agricultural Research System. The state agricultural

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universities are based on Land Grant pattern of USA ( In the year 1862, the Morril Act,1862

popularly known as the Land Grant Act was signed into a law by Abraham Lincoln, then President Of

America that introduced a radical idea to American education. The Act called for the federal

government to provide each state with a grant of land in aid to establish university/institution, hence

the name ―land granr‖. Iowa was the first state to accept the provisions of the Morril Act establishing

Iowa State University at Ames in 1862 as the first Land Grant University of USA. Today, there are

105 land grant colleges and universities including land grants in US territories such as Guam and the

Virgin Islands and 29 Native American land grant universities).

The list of the state agricultural universities of India is given below:

State Agricultural Universities/Central University 1. Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural Univ., Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030, A.P.

2. Agriculture University Jodhpur, Mandor, Jodhpur 342304 (Rajasthan)

3. Agriculture University Kota, Borkhera, Kota324001 (Rajasthan)

4. Anand Agricultural University, Anand-388110, Gujarat

5. Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013, Assam

6. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, P.O Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,

Nadia-741252, West Bengal

7. Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour,Bhagalpur 813210, Bihar

8. Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi- 834006, Jharkhand

9. Central Agricultural University, Imphal -795004, Manipur

10. Chandra Shekar Azad Univ. of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur- 208002, U.P

11. Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004,Haryana

12. Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidhalaya, Palampur,

Kangra- 176062, Himachal Pradesh

13. Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya , Anjora ,Durg, Chhattisgarh

14. Dr Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli, Ratnagiri-415712,

Maharashtra

15. Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Krishi Nagar, Akola-444104,

Maharashtra

16. Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar Univ. of Horticulture & Forestry, Solan,

Nauni – 173230, Himachal Pradesh

17. Dr YSR Horticultural University, Venkataramannagudem, PB No. 7, West Godavari Dist.,

Tadepalligudem534101, Andhra Pradesh

18. Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar,

Udhamsingh Nagar-263145, Uttarakhand

19. Guru Angad Dev University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Ludhiana-141004,

Punjab

20. Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Krishak Nagar, Raipur-492006,

Chhattisgarh

21. Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Krishi Nagar, Jabalpur- 482004, M.P.

23. Junagadh Agriculture University, Moti Baug, Agril. Campus, Junagadh-362001,

Gujarat

24. Kamdhenu University ,Karmayogi Bhavan, Block1, B1wing,4th Floor,Room No.414,

Sector10A, Gandhinagar 382010 (Gujrat)

25. Karnataka Veterinary Animal and Fisheries Science University, P.B. No. 6,

Nandinagar, Bidar-585401, Karnataka

26. Kerala Agricultural University, P.O Vellanikkara, Thrissur-680656, Kerala

27. Kerala University of Fisheries & Ocean Studies, Vellanikara, Trichur 680656, Kerala

28. Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Hisar 125 004, Haryana

29.. Maharana Pratap Univ. of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur-313001, Rajasthan

30. Maharashtra Animal Science & Fishery University, Nagpur, Maharashtra

31. Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413722, Maharashtra

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32 Manyavar Shri Kanshiram Ji University of Agriculture and Technology, Banda, 210001,

Uttar Pradesh

33. Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani -431402, Maharashtra

34. Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, South Civil Lines, Jabalpur482001,

Madhya Pradesh

35. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-

224229, Uttar Pradesh

36. Navsari Agricultural University, Vijalpore, Navsari-396450, Gujarat

37. Orissa Univ. of Agriculture & Technology, Siripur, Bhubaneswar-751003, Orissa

38. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141004, Punjab

39. Prof. Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500

030

40. Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bijey Bhavan Place Complex

(Pt Deen Dayal circle) Bikaner -334006, Rajasthan

41. Rajendra Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur-848125, Bihar

42. Rani Laxmi Bai Central Agricultural University , Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh

43. Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel Univ of Agriculture & Technology, Modipuram,

Meerut-250110, Uttar Pradesh

44. . Sardarkrushinagar-Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar,

Dantiwada, Banaskantha-385506, Gujarat

45. Sher-E-Kashmir Univ. of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Railway Road,

Jammu- 180012 (J&K)

46.. Sher-E-Kashmir Univ. of Agricultural Sciences & Technology, Shalimar, Srinagar-

191121, (J&K)

47. Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University , Jobner - 303329 (Rajasthan)

48.Sri Konda Laxman Telangana State Horticultural University ,

Rajendra Nagar Campus, Hyderabad

48. Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University, Tirupati, Chittoor- 517502, A.P.

49. Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan AgriculturalUniversity, Bikaner -334006, Rajasthan

50. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641003, Tamil Nadu

51 Tamil Nadu Fisheries University, Nagapattinam – 611 003, Tamil Nadu

52. Tamil Nadu Veterinary & Animal Sciences University, Madhavaram Milk Colony,

Chennai- 600051, Tamil Nadu

53. University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka

54. University of Agricultural Sciences, Banglore- 560065, Karnataka

55. University of Horticultural Sciences, Sector No 60 Navanagar Bagalkot 587102 Karnataka

56. University of Agricultural Sciences, Shimoga , Shimoga, Karnataka

57. University of Agricultural Sciences , Raichur – 584101 Karnataka

58. UP Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhaya Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwa Vidhyalaya Evam

Go Anusandhan Sansthan, Mathura- 281001, Uttar Pradesh

59. Uttarakhand University of Horticulture and Forestry, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand

60. Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwaviddyalaya, P.O. Pundibari, Distt. Cooch Behar-736165,

West Bengal

61. West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences, 68 KB Sarani, Kolkata-

700037, West Bengal

62. University of Horticultural Sciences, Venkataramnagudem, West Godavari, A.P.

63. Rajmata VRS Agricultural University, Gwalior-474002, Madhya Pradesh

64. University of Horticultural Sciences, Navanagar, Bagalkot-587101, Karnataka

65. University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur-584102, Karnataka

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Deemed-to-be Universities

1. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa-110012, New Delhi

2. Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly-243122, Uttar Pradesh

3. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001, Haryana

4. Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai-400061, Maharashtra

5. Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad

-211007, Uttar Pradesh

6. Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith University, Varanasi. Uttar Pradesh

Central Universities with Agriculture Faculty

1. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P.

2. Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P.

3. Vishwa Bharti, Shantiniketan, West Bengal

4. Nagaland University, Medizipherma, Nagaland

One of the original objectives of ICAR was to undertake, aid, promote and coordinate

agricultural education in the country. But this was not put into effective practice until the

reorganization of ICAR in 1966. A full-fledged Division of Agricultural Education was set up within

the ICAR to fulfill this objective. The ICAR has been crucial in the reorganization of agricultural

education in the country by providing the necessary guidance, financial aid (Rs. 41 crores during

1974-75 to 1978-79), and schemes for improving the quality of teaching and research, e.g., centers of

excellence, higher education in new areas, Professor of Eminence, faculty improvement, scholarships

and fellowships.

The total number of agricultural universities is now 38. The agricultural universities have

contributed to a great extent to agricultural education, research and development in the country.

Many improved varieties have been developed in the agriculture universities and they have made

numerous other contributions to some of which we shall return later.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is synonymous to agricultural research

and education in the country. The council is an autonomous society and has played a crucial role in

the development of agricultural research and education. The objectives of the council may be briefly

summarized as follows: 1) to promote, guide and coordinated agricultural and veterinary research and

education throughout India; (2) to train research workers by offering scholarships; (3) to serve as a

clearing house of information in regard to research and to advise on agricultural and veterinary

matters generally; and (4) to undertake the publication of scientific papers, monographs, etc.

The Minister and the State Minister of Agriculture and Irrigation are the President and the

Vice-President, respectively, of the council. The Director General is the Principal Executive of the

council; he is also Secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Agricultural Research

and Education. He functions as the principal advisor to the government in the matters related to

agricultural and veterinary research and education. The council functions through its following

bodies.

Governing Body

The Director General presides over the Governing Body, which is the chief executive and

decision making authority. It consists of agricultural scientists and persons with a knowledge of and

interest in agriculture. It makes decisions regarding policies, research projects and schemes, and

controls the budget.

Standing Finance Committee

Standing Finance Committee is a sub-committee of the Governing Body and is presided over

by the Director General. It examines budget proposals before they are put before the Governing

Body.

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Norms and Accreditation Committee

The committee consists of 5 Vice-Chancellors of agricultural universities nominated by the

President of the Council, and is headed by the Director General. It is responsible for the development

of agricultural universities, and maintenance of standards of education in agriculture and animal

sciences.

Regional Committees

The country is divided into 8 agroclimatic zones; each zone has a regional committee headed

by the Director General. These committees review the status of agricultural research and education in

the respective zones and make appropriate recommendations.

Scientific Panels

There are 18 scientific panels for individual disciplines, and 5 interdisciplinary panels. The

scientific panels scrutinize research schemes and projects of the disciplines concerned and advise the

Governing Body on the technical matters related to research and education.

The council has four Deputy Director Generals for (1) Crop Sciences; (2) Soils, Agronomy

and Agricultural Engineering, (3) Agricultural Education; and (4) Animal Sciences. The DDGs are

assisted by Assistant Director Generals and other Technical Officers. The DDG (Crop Sciences) is

responsible for all the projects related to crop improvement.

The council receives a lump sum grant from the Government of India, and the receipts of the

agricultural produce cess fund. The council has a separate service cadre, Agricultural Research

Service (ARS), for its scientists. The ARS cadre is designed to encourage research activities. Every 5

years, an assessment of the performance of each scientist is made and the scientists are granted either

promotion or increments for their achievements.

The crop improvement activities in the country are primarily confined to government and

semi-government institutions; there are also some private organizations engaged in crop improvement

activities. There are four main channels by which the council is involved in crop improvement

activities: (1) central institute on crops, (2) agricultural universities, (3) coordinated crop

improvement projects, and (4) ad hoc research schemes.

In addition, the council awards a number of prizes in the recognition of outstanding research

achievements. The council also provides financial assistance to registered societies in agriculture

and animal sciences for the publication of research journals, for conferences, seminars and symposia,

for summer institutes and short courses, traveling expenses for attending international conferences etc.

The All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects provide an efficient channel for

multilocation testing of newly evolved strains by the agriculture universities and the central institutes.

The coordinated projects are financed by ICAR on 100% basis, but in the case of agriculture

universities 25% of the expenditure is borne by the state. At present, the coordinated projects are

grouped into three categories: (1) project directorates, (2) coordinated projects and (3) coordinated

programmes. The nature of activities of all the three categories of projects are the same, only the

scope and the magnitude differs. A project directorate is headed by a full-time Project Director

who is assisted by a number of Associate Project Directors or Associate Project Coordinators and a

group of scientists. The project directorates perform the functions of coordinated projects. In

addition, they maintain germplasm, organize off-season nurseries, monitor pests and diseases and

make forecasts etc. A coordinated project is headed by a full-time Project Coordinator who is assisted

by several Zonal Coordinators and a Principal Investigator for each discipline. The functions of the

Project Coordinator are to plan, guide, supervise, coordinate and monitor the programmes of the

research work under the project.

Coordinated programmes are smaller than coordinated projects; they are headed by a

Principal Investigator (not a Project Coordinator), and do not have a coordinating unit. The

coordinating units of the projects are located in agriculture universities or in central crop institutes.

Functions of Coordinated Projects for Crop Improvement

The coordinated projects serve two basic functions:

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1. To evaluate the materials generated by central institutes and agriculture universities under a

wide range of agroclimatic conditions and under uniform management.

2. To make recommendations on the suitability of new strains for release as varieties. This is

done after a thorough testing for all the important characteristics of new strains, e.g., yielding

ability, disease resistance, quality etc.

In addition, the coordinated projects provide a forum for the scientists working on related

problems to exchange their view, a means of critical review and replanning the research programmes,

and an opportunity for the scientists under the project to initiate breeding programmes of their own. A

large number of high yielding, disease resistant varieties have been released through them. The

projects are now placing a greater emphasis on minor millets, pulses and oilseeds, and on the

improvement of protein content and quality. The factors responsible for the success of coordinated

projects are briefly summarized below:

1. The country was divided into eight zones on the basis of soil and climate without any reference

to political boundaries. This has been able to generate considerable enthusiasm among the

workers, thus eliminating isolation.

2. Appointment of full-time coordinators of high competence has been responsible for a uniform

experimentation of high order.

3. A world collection of germplasm was made available to the breeders at the beginning of the

projects. This provided the wide genetic base required for effective crop improvement

programmes.

4. The annual (in some cases half-yearly, e.g., rice, pulses) workshops provide an excellent forum

for discussion, critical review and reppatterning of programmes of the projects. This has

enabled the projects to remain flexible and to make necessary changes as needed.

5. A close interaction between scientists working in different disciplines is an integral part of the

coordinated projects. This has enabled the breeders to perform their tasks more easily, and the

evaluation of new genotypes is more speedy and accurate.

ICAR supports on 100 per cent basis ad hoc research projects on various aspects of

agricultural and animal sciences. These schemes are short-term projects, the period not exceeding 5

years in any case. The council provides full recurring expenditure, but not non-recurring expenditure,

except in a few exceptional cases. The council receives funds for ad hoc projects from the

agricultural produce cess fund (a certain percentage) and from various international agencies, e.g.,

UNLP, IDRC, SIDA, DANIDA, etc.

Components of National Agricultural Research system (NARS):

The components of the agricultural research system in India can be broadly grouped into the

following categories.

a) The ICAR system

b) The Agricultural University System.

c) General Universities having either Faculties/Colleges or strong Departments in various

disciplines of agriculture and allied fields.

d) Scientific organizations working in areas related to agriculture.

e) Government Departments in the Centre.

f) Various Ministries in the Centre.

g) Several voluntary organizations/ private institutions participating in agricultural research

activities.

References:

Randhawa, M.S. (1980,1982,1983, 1986). A History of Agriculture in India. ICAR, New

Delhi.,Vol I to IV.

Punia, M.S. (2006). International Agricultural Research - Initiatives and Ethics. CCS

Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar ( India)

Singh, B.D. (2001). Organisation for Crop Improvement in India. In:Plant Breeding :

Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana. Pp 801-830.

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Global Agricultural Research Systems

In addition to the national crop improvement programmes, there are sixteen international

institutes concerned with improving the agricultural production. Ten of these institutes are directly or

indirectly involved in crop improvement work; these institutes supplement the national crop

improvement efforts. The international institutes are scattered around the world and are situated in

tropical countries. The tropical countries constitute the developing countries or the ‗third world‘.

The agriculture in these countries is not well developed and crop improvement work is generally not

highly advanced. The main objective of these institutes is to increase agricultural production of

tropical countries through applied research coupled with extension and educational activities. The

functioning of these institutes is supported and supervised by the Consultative Group for International

Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

The CGIAR was established in 1971 by the joint efforts of Food and Agriculture

Organization (FAO), the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The

CGIAR is financially supported by sponsors, governments, development banks, foundations and some

other sources. At present it financially supports and supervises all the 16 institues. Periodically,

CGIAR assesses the progress and the programmes of these institutes with the help of internationally

recognized experts in the field of agriculture.

Research Centers Under the control and co-ordination of CGIAR:

CIAT - Centro Internacional de Agrictiltura Tropical, Palmira (Colombia) –1967.

CIFOR -Center for International Forestry Research

CIMMYT - Centro Internacional de Meioramiento de Maiz y Trigo, Mexico -1966

CIP - Centro Internacional de la Papa, Lima (Peru)-1971

CGPRT – Course Grain Pulse Root Tuber Centre, Bogar (Indonesia)

ICARDA - International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry

Areas, Alleppo (Syria) –1976.

ICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid

Tropics, Hyderabad (India) –1972.

IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute, USA.

IITA - International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan (Nigeria) - 1968

ICGEB – International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste (Italy) and

New Delhi (India)

ILRI - International Livestock Research Institute, Addis Ababa (Euthopia) –1974.

IPGRI - International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome (Italy) –1974.

IRRI - International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Manila (Phillipines) –1960.

ILRAD – International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases, Nairobi (Kenya) – 1973

ISNAR – International Service for National Agriculture Research, Hage (Netherlands)

WARDA – West African Rice Development Association, Monrovia - 1971

IWMI - International Water Management Institute

World Agro-forestry Centre

World Fish Center

Functions of the International Institutes

The main responsibility of the international institutes is to increase the agricultural production

in the tropics. To achieve this, they engage in applied agricultural research and extension activities.

These activities of the institutes may be summarized as under:

1. Genetic improvement of the crops concerned to develop high yielding and disease resistant

lines better suited to the various environments.

2. Collection and conservation of germplasm of the concerned crops and their relatives.

3. To conduct research on farming systems for an efficient use of the available resources.

4

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4. To determine the appropriate technology suitable for the needs and the resources of the region.

The emphasis is to develop improved practices from the existing ones so that the local farmers

are able to adopt the new improved technology with as little difficulty and expenditure as

possible.

5. Extension activities to popularize the new technology so that the cultivator is able to adopt

them.

Of these activities, the genetic improvement of crops and the germplasm conservation are of

our immediate interest. Other activities, though important, are beyond the scope of this book. Many

of these institutes, e.g., IRRI, ICRISAT, CIMMYT etc., have the responsibility for breeding crop

varieties for several tropical countries. The soil, climate, agricultural practices, prevalent diseases

and consumer preferences would vary to a great deal from one country to another, and often within a

single country. The development of varieties suited to such varied conditions poses a problem, which

the breeders had never faced before. The breeders have attempted to solve this problem in the

following manner.

1. The first step consists of the identification of possible environments for which the varieties

have to be developed. In each environment, a location is selected for the evaluation of breeding

materials and varieties.

2. The second step involves making of a large number of crosses between parents with very wide

genetic base. This is done at a very large scale. It is hoped that segregating materials from

promising crosses would perform well in one or the other environment.

3. Finally, the segregating materials from the promising crosses are tested in the various

environments at different locations. A number of lines suited to those particular conditions are

identified and selected.

Emphasis is placed on testing the breeding material under poor and good management

conditions so that genotypes suitable for these conditions are identified. The promising lines are

freely available to all the countries for direct release as varieties or for use in the local programmes on

crop improvement. The international institutes no more evolve varieties and promote them. Most of

this is in response to the criticisms leveled against them in connection with the promotion of

semidwarf wheat and rice varieties by IRRI and CIMMYT.

The role of international institutes in genetic conservation cannot be overemphasized. Genetic

conservation has been the responsibility of local organizations. Due to a lack of coordination, there

has been an inevitable duplication of efforts resulting in a wastage of time, energy and funds. This

has also limited the extent to which the variability in various crop species could be collected and

conserved. In addition, there were bound to be restrictions on germplasm exchange due to political

and other reasons. The international institutes coordinate their germplasm collection activities with

various similar national organizations. This permits a greater efficiency in generic conservation

efforts. IRRI has established a computerized germplasm bank for rice which makes it much easier to

locate and obtain the desired lines from the bank. Free exchange of genetic materials ensures their

maximum utilization in crop improvement projects.

Some contributions of the International Institutes

The international institutes have contributed to a great extent in the agricultural development

of the third world countries. The increased agricultural production in India is largely due to the

development of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties. These varieties originated at CIMMYT and IRRI

from where they were introduced in India. Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64 wheats were direct

introductions from CIMMYT. Kalyan Sona and Sonalika were selected from the segregating

materials introduced from the same institute. Similarly, IR 8, IR 24, IR 28 and IR 36 varieties of rice

were introduced from IRRI, Philippines. Many of semidwarf rice varieties developed in this country

have IR 8 as one of their parents. Although the contributions of the international institutes are more

known in the cases of rice and wheat improvement, their contributions in the improvement of other

crops are also considerable.

It may be relevant to briefly examine the validity of the so called green revolution associated

with the development of semidwarf wheat and rice varieties. These semidwarf varieties rapidly

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occupied very large areas (approximately 10 million hectares in each case) in the tropical countries,

particularly in India, Pakistan and Philippines. There was a considerable increase in the introduction

of these crops in the countries concerned. This increase raised false hopes of increase in prosperity

and continuous rise in agricultural production. Introduction of these varieties led to a number of

socio-economic problems in these countries, which are summarized below:

1. The quality of these varieties was not liked by people. For example, the red colour of Mexican

wheats and the cooking quality of IR 8 rice were not liked by the people in India. But these

defects have since been acceptably removed by breeding work within this country and a

number of semidwarf varieties are now very popular with the cultivators.

2. These variegates were susceptible to certain diseases, which often caused considerable loss to

the cultivators. Susceptibility of IR 8 to bacterial leaf blight is a case in point. The poor

farmers were often the greatest sufferers because they could not afford timely plant protection

measures. The rich framers, on the other hand, generally did not suffer to that extent because

they could adopt costly plant protection measures to protect their crop against diseases and

pests.

3. Single pure line varieties came to occupy large areas, which increased the chances of epidemic

development. Luckily, there has been no serious epidemic so far, although local losses did

occur due to diseases. But this situation was very risky and has now been corrected to some

extent.

4. The most serious effect of the green revolution was the increase in the gap between the rich and

the poor farmers. Increase in income led to more mechanization and an increase in

unemployment. The rich farmers became richer and bought the land from poor farmers. This

caused a considerable increase in the number of landless labourers.

Thus the green revolution appears to have failed in the sense that it could not fulfill the rosy

promises that it once held out. But it has succeeded to the extent that it increased the agricultural

production in several countries making them almost self-sufficient in food grain production. In

addition, it has brought into sharp focus the inadequacies of a hasty ―green revolution‖ in the third

world. This has emphasized a more cautious and well planned programme for agricultural

development that would create the minimum of socio-economic problems.

The Consultative Group on International Agricultural research (CGIAR) grew out of the

initial international response to widespread concern in the 1950s, 60s, and early years of the ‗70s that

many developing countries would succumb to famine. A pessimistic forecast of the time predicted

vast famines between 1970 and 1985, with ―hundreds of millions‖ starving to death. Such grim

predictions were proved wrong by a combination of connected trends: reorientation of domestic

policies in developing countries that were considered particularly vulnerable, sharply focused research

by developing country scientists, a great effort by developing country farmers, and the impact of

international agricultural research on tropical agriculture.

Unprecedented harvests were recorded in parts of Asia and Latin America, from new varieties

of rice, wheat, and maize based on international research. In India, for instance, the impact of these

developments bordered on the spectacular. The average yield increase for cereals between 1961 and

2000 was 146 percent. Between 1973 and1974, the average real income of small farmers in southern

India rose by 90 percent. During the same period, the income of landless laborers rose by 125 percent.

Similar results were experienced in other countries, and predictions of ―gloom and doom‖ began to

recede. They were replaced by hope and optimism that the scope of agricultural transformation could

be extended worldwide. In an effort to make this happen, a series of high-level consultations were

held in Bellagio, Italy and elsewhere. Wherever they were held, they were all known generically as

Bellagio Conferences. The purpose of these meetings was to explore how best the international

community could:

Consolidate and spread the benefits of agricultural research and agricultural transformation

globally;

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Respond to the urging of the ―Pearson Commission on International Development‖ for an

"intensive international effort" to support "research specializing in food supplies and tropical

agriculture;"

Protect and strengthen the four international agricultural research centers established with the

support of the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations and their partners -- CIAT (headquartered in

Colombia, for tropical agriculture), CIMMYT (Mexico, maize and wheat), IITA (Nigeria,

tropical agriculture), and IRRI (the Philippines, rice).

Participants in these meetings invited the World Bank, which had already created

"consultative groups" to coordinate and support development in individual countries, to set up a

consultative group for international agricultural research. The World Bank accepted the challenge,

and led the effort to create the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

FAO and UNDP worked with the World Bank as cosponsors. IFAD has since joined the group of

cosponsors. (UNEP joined the group of cosponsors in 1995 but subsequently withdrew. It remains a

member of the CGIAR.)

The scientist work not only increase incomes for small farmers, it also enabled the

preservation of million of hectares of forest and grassland and finally help to maintain biodiversity.

Today's approach recognizes that biodiversity and environment research are also key components in

the drive to enhance sustainable agricultural productivity. Agricultural growth and increased farm

productivity in developing countries creates wealth, reduces poverty and hunger and protects the

environment. The science that made possible the green revolution of 1960-70 was largely the work of

CGIAR centers and their National agricultural research partners.

The CGIAR generates global public goods that are available to all. Today more than

8,500 CGIAR scientists and staff are working in over 100 countries, addressing every critical

component of the agricultural sector including - agroforestry, biodiversity, food, forage and tree crops,

pro-environment farming techniques, fisheries, forestry, livestock, food policies and agricultural

research services. Thirteen of the Centers are headquartered in developing countries. CGIAR‘s

research agenda is

- Dynamic

- Flexible and

- Responsive to emerging development challenges.

Recent outstanding achievements of global agricultural research system are:

Quality Protein Maize (QPM) varieties have been released in 25 countries, and are grown on

more than 600,000 hectares

New Rices for Africa (NERICAs) are transforming agriculture in the West Africa region. In

2003 it is estimated that NERICAs were planted on 23,000 hectares, and their use is spreading

across Africa. In particular, 6,000 hectares were planted in Uganda. In Guinea alone,

NERICAs have saved an estimated $13 million in rice import bills

A GIFT strain of tilapia has been selectively bred which shows an approximate 70% gain in

growth rate

Training over 75,000 developing country scientists and researchers

Reducing pesticide use in developing countries by promoting integrated pest management and

biological control methods

Adoption of low-till farming practices in Asia on 1.2 million hectares across the Indo-

Gangetic plains, boosting farm incomes and productivity

Enabling African producers to access international pigeonpea markets

Over 45 bean varieties derived from CGIAR germplasm have been released across Latin

America

Improved forages, developed by CGIAR researchers and partners, are grown on over 100

million hectares in Latin America

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Role of The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in

agriculture development

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger.

Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet

as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy. FAO is also a source of knowledge and

information. FAO helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve

agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices and ensure good nutrition for all. Since FAO was founded

in 1945, it focused special attention on developing rural areas, home to 70 percent of the world's poor

and hungry people. FAO's activities comprise four main areas:

MANDATE

Achieving food security for all is at the heart of FAO's efforts - to make sure people have regular

access to enough high-quality food to lead active, healthy lives.

FAO's mandate is to raise levels of nutrition, improve agricultural productivity, better the

lives of rural populations and contribute to the growth of the world economy.FAO provides the kind

of behind-the-scenes assistance that helps people and nations help themselves. If a community wants

to increase crop yields but lacks the technical skills, it introduces simple, sustainable tools and

techniques. When a country shifts from state to private land ownership, FAO provides the legal advice

to smooth the way. When a drought pushes already vulnerable groups to the point of famine, it

mobilizes action. And in a complex world of competing needs, FAO provides a neutral meeting place

and the background knowledge needed to reach consensus.

FAO ACTIVITIES

FAO activities comprise four main areas:

Putting information within reach: FAO serves as a knowledge network through its staff -

agronomists, foresters, fisheries and livestock specialists, nutritionists, social scientists, economists,

statisticians and other professionals - to collect, analyse and disseminate data that aids in

development. FAO publish hundreds of newsletters, reports and books, distribute several magazines,

create numerous CD-ROMS and host dozens of electronic fora.

Sharing policy expertise: FAO lends its years of experience to member countries in devising

agricultural policy, supporting planning, drafting effective legislation and creating national strategies

to achieve rural development and hunger alleviation goals.

Providing a meeting place for nations: Agreements on major food and agriculture issues are being

made through out the year at FAO headquarter or at its field offices by the policy-makers and experts

from around the globe. As a neutral forum, FAO provides the setting where rich and poor nations can

come together to build common understanding.

Bringing knowledge to the field: FAO mobilizes and manages millions of dollars provided by

industrialized countries, development banks and other sources to make sure the projects achieve their

goals. FAO provides the technical know-how and in a few cases is a limited source of funds. In crisis

situations, FAO works side-by-side with the World Food Programme and other humanitarian agencies

to protect rural livelihoods and help people rebuild their lives.

STRUCTURE AND FINANCE

5

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FAO is governed by the Conference of Member Nations, which meets every two years to review the

work carried out by the Organization and approve a Programme of Work and Budget for the next

biennium. The Conference elects a Council of 49 Member Nations to act as an interim governing

body. Members serve three-year, rotating terms. The Conference also elects the Director-General to

head the agency. FAO is composed of eight departments: Administration and Finance, Agriculture,

Economic and Social, Fisheries, Forestry, General Affairs and Information, Sustainable

Development and Technical Cooperation.

FAO employs more than 3 450 staff members - 1 450 professional and 2 000 general service staff -

and maintains five regional offices, five sub-regional offices, five liaison offices and over 78 country

offices, in addition to its headquarters in Rome.

FAO REFORMED FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Since 1994, FAO has undergone the most significant restructuring since its founding to decentralize

operations, streamline procedures and reduce costs. Savings of $50 million a year have been realized.

Highlights of the reforms include:

increased emphasis on food security

the transfer of staff from headquarters to the field

increased use of experts from developing countries and countries in transition

broadened links with the private sector and non-governmental organizations

greater electronic access to FAO statistical databases and documents

The report - "Reforming FAO: into the new millennium" - outlines steps taken by FAO to

decentralize the Organization and focus its activities on key priorities.

In 1999, the Conference approved a Strategic Framework to guide FAO's work until the year 2015.

It was developed through extensive consultations with member nations and other FAO stakeholders

and provides the authoritative framework for the Organization's future programmes.

FAO HISTORY

2002 : World Food Summit attended by delegations from 179 countries plus the European

Commission, reaffirms the international community's commitment to reduce hunger by half by 2015.

2001: FAO Conference adopts the legally binding International Treaty on Plant Genetic

Resources for Food and Agriculture, which supports the work of breeders and farmers everywhere.

2000: FAO is granted the first-ever UN patent on a process allowing manufacturers to bottle

coconut water without losing its flavour and nutritional characteristics, a potential boon for

developing countries. FAO develops a strategy for concerted government and UN agency action

to combat chronic hunger in the Horn of Africa, at the request of the United Nations Secretary-

General.

1999: FAO's Committee on Fisheries adopts plans of action on fishing capacity, sharks and

seabirds.

1998: An FAO-brokered legally binding convention to control trade in pesticides and other

hazardous trade in chemicals is adopted in Rotterdam.

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1997 : FAO launches campaign against hunger initiative TeleFood. TeleFood '97 reaches a

global audience of 500 million.

1996 : FAO hosts 186 Heads of State or Government and other high officials at World Food

Summit in November to discuss and combat world hunger.

1995 : FAO celebrates its 50th birthday.

1994 : FAO launches the Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS), targeting low-income

food-deficit countries (LIFDCs).

The Emergency Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases

(EMPRES), strengthening the Organization's existing contribution to prevention, control and,

when possible, eradication of diseases and pests, is established.

FAO begins the most significant restructuring since its founding to decentralize operations,

streamline procedures and reduce costs.

1991 : International Plant Protection Convention is ratified with 92 signatories.

1986 : AGROSTAT (now FAOSTAT), the world's most comprehensive source of agricultural

information and statistics, becomes operational.

1981 : The first World Food Day observed on 16 October by more than 150 countries.

1980 : FAO concludes 56 agreements for the appointment of FAO Representatives in developing

member countries.

1978 : The Eighth World Forestry Congress, held in Jakarta, Indonesia, with the theme

"Forests for people", has a profound impact on attitudes towards forestry development and

FAO's work in this sector.

1976 : FAO's Technical Cooperation Programme established to afford greater flexibility in

responding to urgent situations.

1974 : UN World Food Conference in Rome recommends the adoption of an International

Undertaking on World Food Security.

1962 ; The FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission established to set international food

standards becomes operational.

1960 : Freedom from Hunger campaign launched to mobilize non-governmental support.

1951 : FAO headquarters moved to Rome, Italy, from Washington, DC, the United States.

1945 : First session of FAO Conference, Quebec City, Canada, establishes FAO as a specialized

United Nations agency.

1943 : Forty-four governments, meeting in Hot Springs, Virginia, the United States, commit

themselves to founding a permanent organization for food and agriculture

FAO BUDGET

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The smooth functioning of an organization representing 187 member countries plus the European

Union is a complex process. Every two years, representatives from all members meet at the FAO

Conference to review work carried out and to approve a new budget. The Conference elects a smaller

group of 49 member countries, known as the Council, to serve three-year rotating terms to govern the

Organization's activities. The Conference also elects a Director-General. FAO employs more than 1

450 professional and 2 000 general service staff. A little over half of them work at headquarters in

Rome, while the others carry out FAO activities worldwide, from offices based in more than 100

countries. FAO's Regular Programme budget is funded by its members, through contributions set at

the FAO Conference. The budget for 2004-2005 is US$ 749.1 million, and covers core technical

work, cooperation and partnerships including the Technical Cooperation Programme, information and

general policy, direction and administration. Preliminary information for 2003 indicates that US$ 386

million paid for 1 800 field programme projects, of which 400 were emergency operations amounting

to US$ 183 million across all funding sources and accounting for 47 percent of total delivery. The

technical cooperation field programme amounted to US$ 203 million, of which FAO contributed 25

percent with the remainder coming from outside sources: Trust Funds - 70 percent, and the United

Nations Development Programme - 5

FOOD SECURITY PROGRAMMES

The Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) is FAO's flagship initiative for reaching the goal

of halving the number of hungry in the world by 2015. Currently there are 852 million food insecure

people in the world. Through projects in over one hundred countries worldwide the SPFS promotes

effective, tangible solutions to the elimination of hunger, undernourishment and poverty. To

maximize the impact of its work, the SPFS strongly promotes national ownership and local

empowerment in the countries in which it operates.

Since 1995, US$770 million from donors and national governments have been invested in FAO-

designed food security programmes. The SPFS initiative helps to achieve food security in two ways:

through assisting national governments to run focused, well-planned National Food Security

Programmes and through working closely with regional economic organizations to develop Regional

Programmes for Food Security which optimize regional conditions for attaining food security in areas

like trade policy.

NATIONAL PROGRAMMES FOR FOOD SECURITY

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A National Programme for Food Security (NPFS) is a country-driven solution to eradicating

hunger within the local population. FAO supports national governments in identifying ways to

remove barriers to food access and mobilizes donor resources for project funding. FAO also assists

with the kick-off and implementation phases. Currently 105 countries take part in the SPFS and of

these approximately 30 are implementing or preparing to implement country-wide National

Programmes for Food Security. These programmes have a number of common elements:

strong and visionary leadership which makes the elimination of hunger a truly national

goal, in which all citizens feel that they can play a part;

the full engagement not only of governments but also of civil society institutions within

alliances of which the members combine forces to work jointly on an interdisciplinary basis

to undertake very practical actions towards eradicating hunger;

a supportive policy and legal environment which addresses such issues as subsidies, tariffs,

exchange rate, decentralization and access to land and water resources, as well as the right to

food;

a monitoring and evaluation system, able to generate reliable information on programme

impact and costs as well as to minimize risks of corrupt administration;

projects integrated with global poverty reduction initiatives specifically Poverty Reduction

Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs);

projects may include the 'twin-track approach' to food security which guarantees both food

production and access to food.

The Special Programme for Food Security (SPFS) is being implemented in ten counties of China.

Fifty farmer households were selected from one village in each project county to participate in the

Farming System Diversification Component in 1999. Project activities include raising small livestock,

fattening pigs, and rice and vegetable integrated development. Through diversification activities,

demonstration households, who have taken initiatives in project activities, have greatly increased their

income and improved their living standards.

PROGRAMME CONTENT

Components of National Food Security Programmes vary from country to country but all are based on

the FAO Twin-track approach. Projects may include combinations of both tracks one and two:

Track one: Improving livelihoods of the poor, especially small-scale farmers

Track two: Improving access to food for vulnerable people

BEST PRACTICES

The Special Programme for Food Security focuses its activities in several key areas: water control,

crop intensification, diversification into short cycle animals and constraints analysis. In the past ten

years, it has succeeded in identifying a number of best practices that have been developed by FAO

and its partners to improve the impact of projects that focus on these areas.

FARMER FIELD SCHOOLS

The need to promote agricultural development has led many countries to experiment with alternative

ways of empowering rural people, especially small-scale farmers, to improve their production

systems, food security and livelihoods. Amongst the most promising approaches are Farmers' Field

Schools (FFS) which were originally developed in Indonesia in the late 1980s for engaging rice

farmers in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Variants of FFS are now being promoted by many

governments and NGOs in rural areas of developing countries throughout Asia, Africa and Latin

America, as vehicles through which small groups of farmers come together voluntarily to jointly

identify the constraints and opportunities facing them and test and apply solutions.Instead of

conveying "messages" to farmers, FFS apply experiential learning (or "learning by doing") methods to

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stimulate people's interest in ways of improving their livelihoods. Typically 20 to 30 neighbouring

farmers gather for group study in one of their members' farms once a week. Classes usually start with

careful observations on the trials which members have set up to test different ways of growing crops

or looking after farm animals. From these observations, they arrive at collective decisions on how to

make further improvements. The classroom is the farmers' field, the term usually lasts for a full crop

cycle and the curriculum responds to farmers' main interests.

Many field schools start with a broad curriculum and, in subsequent terms, focus on more

specialized subjects e.g. improved dairy production and marketing, fruit production and

transformation, farm business management, enterprise development and marketing. "Graduated" FFS

groups often continue working together, marketing their produce in groups. Due to the intense group

spirit, subjects of FFS often go beyond agriculture to include literacy, health - including HIV/AIDS - and nutrition education to become Farmers' Life Schools.

SCHOOL GARDENS

In many SPFS projects around the world, school gardens are being

used as a way to teach children about food and nutrition-related

issues. While experience suggests that it is unrealistic to expect a

school garden to meet all the food needs of a school feeding

programme, it can be an excellent additional source of foods rich in

proteins, vitamins and minerals, adding variety and nutritional

quality to school meals.

Beyond this direct benefit to pupils' nutrition, even greater impact on

food security can be achieved if methods taught in the school

gardens are replicated at home. Therefore, parent's involvement in

community gardens is crucial. School gardens can serve as a

"laboratory" for teaching not just agriculture but also improving children's understanding of the

environment, nutrition, ecology, biology and even mathematics, accounting, arts, poetry, etc. Beyond these subjects, joint working in the garden helps children develop important life skills.

At the country level, close cooperation is initiated between the World Food Programme (WFP) school

feeding programme (Food for Education, FFE) and FAO school garden initiatives. Further to this and

in close cooperation with WFP and the MDG-Centre, FAO through the SPFS supports the NEPAD CAADP Home-grown School Feeding initiative.

URBAN AND PERI-URBAN AGRICULTURE (UPA)

Due to high rates of rural-urban migration in developing countries,

more than half the world's population will live in cities by 2005.The

challenge of feeding billions of city dwellers will fall mainly on

those who have stayed in the countryside, continuing to farm. There

are, however, many underused opportunities for producing part of

urban food needs in or close to the cities, ensuring product freshness and cutting transport costs.

Through the SPFS and TeleFood, FAO is promoting urban and peri-

urban agriculture to improve the livelihoods and nutrition of poor

families. These systems make good use of abundant labour, locally

available waste and low-cost materials such as used plastic

containers, pallets and boxes. The SPFS is showing how, even with

one or two square metres of closed-cycle hydroponic cultivation, a city family can meet many of its

needs for high-value nutritious vegetables. Waste land, such as roadsides and sites reserved for future

construction, can be used to grow vegetables, fruits and flowers for income generation. Some cities

are encouraging people to keep small livestock that can convert kitchen waste into meat and eggs.

All projects use environmentally friendly techniques, minimizing the use of pesticides and

recycling water and manure. The jobless, especially women welcome the opportunity to convert

labour into useful products, to acquire new skills and to learn about nutrition. Urban agriculture is

generating much public interest in cities as diverse as Caracas and Dakar. Senegalese experts are

showing the people of Caracas how to build and maintain microgardens. Through South-South

Cooperation arrangements, Cubans are also working in Caracas, demonstrating urban farming

Children water plants in

Senegal

Urban farming project

in Caracas, Venezuela

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techniques, successfully developed when Cuba was cut off from the world market for farm inputs.

Many other cities - including Asunción, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Kigali and Kinshasa - are drawing on

these experiences to develop similar programmes. UPA within the SPFS framework is supported by various technical divisions and by the

References :

www.fao.org

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The green revolution and the evolution of agricultural

education and research in India

561 The British ruled India for more than 200 years, first in the name of the East India Company

and then in the name of the British Crown. In the early period, the East India Company‘s main interest

was to obtain necessary raw materials, such as cotton and jute, for manufacturing finished goods in

the United Kingdom, and other commodities, such as tobacco, sugar, indigo, and opium, for trade. In

the second half of the 18th century, the British East India Company introduced Gossypium hirsutum

to obtain fine-quality long-stapled cotton. Like most ex-colonies, India had only a limited research

infrastructure and capacity to handle research on food crops (Yudelman 1996). There was hardly any

emphasis on increased food production, although famine occurred frequently in one part of the

country or another. In Bengal, there were more than 100 000 deaths in the famine of 1869. This kind

of tragedy must have made the government think of doing something about the general development

of agriculture, on which the livelihood of more than 90% of the population depended. It was at the

beginning of 20th century education, and agriculture extension in the country, at both state and

national levels.

The pre-independence organizational structure of agriculture State level

In 1905, the Government of India decided to set apart, annually, a sum of 2 million rupees

(equivalent to $50 000 US), to assist the development of agricultural research, demonstration, and

education in the provinces. Full-time directors of agriculture were appointed in all the major

provinces, and were responsible for agriculture extension, education, and research in the state

(Randhawa, 1979). In extension work, they were assisted by regional deputy directors, district

agriculture officers (one at each district level), and some field staff. Demonstration and seed-

multiplication farms were established in different parts of a state; seed stores were also established, to

supply seed, improved implements, and other agriculture requirements. To provide a cadre of field

workers, schools that provided 2 years of training in agriculture for those that had been educated to

the middle-school level were established in some states. For manning posts of a higher level, seven

agriculture colleges for high school graduates were established in different states in the first decade of

the 20th century. These colleges, which were affiliated with General Universities of the state, offered

a 4-year course and awarded a Bachelor of Science in Agriculture degree. The seat of the agricultural

college was also the seat of agricultural research. Various research departments, namely Soil Science,

Entomology, Plant Pathology, and Crop Improvement and Management, were established. Crop

improvement work was located in other parts of a state also, where favorable cultivation conditions

existed.

National level

At first, the Imperial Research Institute was established in Pusa in the State of Bihar in 1905.

This institute also offered 2 years of training in the various disciplines of agriculture for agriculture

graduates. As a result of serious damage to the infrastructure of the institute from to a violent

earthquake in 1934, the institute was sifted to New Delhi in 1936. Central research stations under the

control of the Imperial Institute were established: for sugarcane, at Coimbatore in the then state of

Madras in 1906, and for potato, in the Simla Hills in 1935. These institutions have made significant

contributions. It was at the Coimbatore Sugarcane Research Station that made, as early as 1916, inter-

generic hybrids between Saccharum officinarum L. and Narenga porphyiocana. The first successful

commercial hybrid, Co. 205, between S. officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum was released in

1926. For some other crops, such as cotton, jute, oilseeds, and tobacco, the government created

autonomous bodies to coordinate and finance research in various states. The first autonomous body,

the Indian Central Cotton Committee, was created in 1921. A significant development was the

creation, pursuant to the recommendation of the Royal Commission on Agriculture, of the Imperial

Council of Agricultural Research in July, 1929, an apex central body, to promote and coordinate

agricultural research at state and national levels (Randhawa, 1989).

The post-independence era in agricultural development

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During the post independence era, agricultural education in the country has witnessed a sea

change, both in content and quality, in view of the changed agricultural scenario and challenges. The

process of transformation started with the recommendations of the Education Commission (1948),

which stressed the need for systematic agricultural education in the country. Subsequently,

recommendations of the successive joint Indo-American teams of 1955, 1959 and 1961 and of

Education Commission of 1964-66, laid the true foundation for all the posterior developments leading

to establishment of State Agricultural Universities (SAUs) in the country in an attempt to bring the

qualitative development in the field of agricultural sciences by integrating teaching, research and

extension education activities and evolving a functional relationship between them and the respective

state departments of agriculture. It was also envisaged that the state agricultural universities should:

Fulfill some real needs of the people which have not been met and cannot be met satisfactorily

by the existing institutions,

Assume a direct responsibility and responsiveness to the needs of the farming community, and

The territory served by the university should extend to the entire state.

At present there are 38 SAUs, 4 deemed universities and one central agricultural university

besides about 40 faculties of agriculture in traditional universities with enrolment capacity of nearly

64,000 in agriculture and 15,000 in veterinary sciences as of 1994-95, in graduate, master‘s and

doctoral courses inclusive of institutions other than those under the ICAR system. These institutions

include agriculture, veterinary science, fisheries, forestry, agricultural engineering, home science,

dairy technology, sericulture, food technology, horticulture and agricultural marketing.

The Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), as the apex agency for coordinating

research and education in the country, is responsible for the growth and development of agricultural

education and research in India. The main mandate of the ICAR is to plan, undertake, aid, promote

and coordinate education, research and its application in agriculture, agroforestry, animal husbandry,

fisheries, home science and allied fields. The ICAR strives to establish, strengthen and sustain an

institutional system of higher agricultural education in order to provide scientific and technical

manpower required for research, education, extension, developmental and other activities in

agricultural sector.

Independence resulted in the bifurcation of the country, and a major part of Punjab, the bread

basket of the country, became part of Pakistan. The specter of famine appeared in Bengal in 1942–

1943, when a large number of men, women, and children perished. In the late 1950s, India had to

import large quantities of food grains, mostly from the U.S.A. under the PL-480 Program, and was

faced with the serious problem of providing adequate food to the ever-increasing population of the

country. The manpower available for research and extension work in the states was very inadequate.

There was little coordination between the various agricultural disciplines. Although research and

education activities were located at the same place, and both were responsibilities of the director of

agriculture of the state, there was hardly any interaction between them. At the national level, in spite

of the coordinating responsibility of the Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), there was

not much interaction between the scientists of various disciplines among various states. In the field of

crop improvement, each breeder confined his activities primarily to the limited germplasm collected

within a state, and that also from a limited area. Continuous pure-line selection had exhausted the

possibility of any further improvement, and even hybridization did not lead to any significant

progress, owing to the very limited genetic diversity of the parents used in the crosses. A number of

varieties of rice, wheat, and other crops developed in each state had very limited acceptance. Any

increase in the yield potential of these improved varieties developed under the favorable conditions of

the experimental stations was lost when grown on a cultivator‘s fields. The tall nature of these

varieties and their susceptibility to lodging made them non-responsive to intensive crop management.

Any further breakthrough required the complete restructuring of the infrastructure, to bring close

coordination among the various disciplines of agriculture at all levels— state, national, and

international—for the free flow of ideas and material. It was against this backdrop that, immediately

after independence, the Government of India made food self-sufficiency its primary goal, and made

large investments in irrigation, fertilizer, and the development of research, education, and extension

services.

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Restructuring of agricultural education and research at the state level

To promote close coordination among agricultural education, research, and extension

education on the one hand, and to forge close links between these agencies and the state field

extension agency, as well as the farmers in the field, on the other, state agricultural universities

(SAUs) were set up based on the pattern of the land grant universities of the U.S.A. It was felt that a

close link between research and education would help to foster education based on the latest results of

research instead of on mere text-book teaching (Bush 1988). A teacher can teach only as long as he is

learning himself. Similarly, a close link between the research workers and the farmers would help the

former to have a first-hand understanding of farmers and problems in the field, enabling them to carry

out need-based research. A close link between the university, the state field extension agency, and the

farmers would also help to provide a quicker transfer of the available technology. The extension

education wing of these universities, through the continuous training programs of the field extension

staff, would be able to provide a more confident and technically better trained field staff to solve the

farmers‘ day-to-day problems. With these ends in view, the first agricultural university was set up at

Pantnagar, Uttar Pradesh, in 1960. Today, there are 33 agricultural universities. The number of

agricultural universities in a state varies, depending on the size of the state and its regional

requirements. The responsibility for agricultural research and education, which, until then, had

belonged to the state‘s department of agriculture, was transferred to these universities. However, the

degree to which research was transferred from the state to the universities depended on the degree of

commitment of a state to this concept. Some states still continue some research activities outside the

university. Further, some general universities and technological institutes with facilities in agriculture

and related sciences continue to undertake teaching and research work in agriculture. In addition, a

number of private agricultural colleges affiliated with the general universities also continue to impart

agricultural education. There is some duplication but, by and large, the objectives under which the

state agricultural universities were established have been realized, and proper coordination between

various institutions has been achieved through central coordinating agencies.

Restructuring of agricultural education and research at the national level

At the national level, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) (the Imperial

Council of pre-independence India) is the apex body responsible for aiding, promoting, and

coordinating agricultural research in the country (Gautam 1989). It also became directly involved in

undertaking research, both basic and applied, after the creation of the Department of Agricultural

Research and Education (DARE) in 1964 in the Ministry of Agriculture. It has now established a

network of about 45 central institutes, in the areas of crops, horticulture, soil, engineering, animal

sciences, and fisheries, and the National Academy of Agriculture Research Management. The Indian

Agriculture Research Institute in New Delhi and the Indian Veterinary Research Institute at Izatnagar

in Uttar Pradesh, National dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal (Haryana) and Central Marine and

Fishery Research Institute, Bombay offer postgraduate teaching programs and are deemed to be

universities. In its coordinating role, the ICAR has brought together all research activities carried out

all over the country (by the central institutes, the state agricultural universities, the general

universities, and the volunteer agencies) through the creation of All India Coordinated Projects. The

first ―coordinated‖ project was created for maize in 1957. Such projects now exist for all other major

crops, and for other fields of agriculture, as well. These projects played a key role in the rapid

generation of material and the identification of varieties suited to various conditions. The mechanism

of interdisciplinary- based multi-location testing generated the necessary information in a very short

period of time, and facilitated the simultaneous development of agro-ecology specific production

technology. This also helped to initiate the bringing together of all the researchers working on a

project from all over the country at workshops held annually to review results and exchange ideas and

material. A personal relationship among these research workers was built. It helped to develop very

healthy competition and to create great enthusiasm among the workers. Without these projects, the

rapid progress achieved in developing varieties of wheat and rice following the introduction of

dwarfing genes through the international institutes would, perhaps, not have been possible.

Development of technology

Agricultural technology is location-specific. It is not always possible to transfer a technology

from one region to another. First, an attempt was made to introduce maize hybrids developed in the

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U.S.A. Their high-yield potential of a 30–50% increase over the local varieties was very impressive,

but their dent-type grain and late maturity made them

quite unacceptable. In the earlier phase, the Rockefeller Foundation helped by providing field and

laboratory equipment, scientific personnel, and germplasm. An intensive

maize breeding program to develop indigenous hybrids was launched. The first double top-cross

hybrids with a 30–40% increase in yield over the local varieties were made available in the mid-

1960s. Now, three-way and single-cross hybrids have also been released for cultivation. In the case of

rice, the semidwarf early maturing and photo-insensitive variety Taichung Native 1 and the tropical

japonica varieties Tainan 3 and Taichung 65 from Taiwan were introduced (Paroda 1989). The sticky

grain quality and susceptibility to bacterial disease, in spite of their very high yield potential, soon led

to their non-acceptance. In the meantime, the variety IR8, developed at the International Rice

Research Institute (Philippines) using dwarfing genes and introduced into India in the mid-1960s,

became the forerunner of the rice revolution. Its non-lodging habit (an ideal plant type for utilizing

maximum solar energy), photo-insensitivity, and wide adaptability made it an ideal variety. The first

Indian variety, Jaya, with the yield potential of IR8 but maturing earlier, was released in 1968. IR8

and Jaya have played the most significant role in bringing about the rice revolution in India.

In the case of wheat, Dr. Borlaug‘s International Wheat Nursery material carrying semi-dwarf

Norin 10 genes was first planted at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in 1961–1962. This

exposed the Indian wheat breeder, for the first time, to a new plant type that could help in breaking the

yield barrier (Braun et al. 1995). At the request of the Indian government, the Rockefeller Foundation

helped by supplying seeds of dwarf wheats and arranging visits of Rockefeller Foundation scientists.

Dr. Borlaug spent 1 month in India in 1963. After visiting a number of wheat research stations and

having discussions with the wheat breeders in India, he provided 100 kg of seeds of 4 advanced lines,

along with 630 early generation lines. These advanced lines were tested in several locations in 1963–

1964. As a result, two semi-dwarf lines, Lerma Rojo and Sonora 64, carrying Norin 10 dwarfing

genes, were selected. These two lines were tested all over the country in 1964–1965 (Paroda 1989).

This exposed the farmers to the enormous yield potential of new varieties and made new genetic

sources available to the breeders. This, in turn, enabled them to develop high-yield varieties of

acceptable grain quality and adaptability. Later, two new varieties, Kalyansona and Sonalika, were

developed (Nagarajan 1998), which proved to be of wide adaptability and became the dominant

varieties for large wheat areas. The result was the revolution of wheat production in India

(Swaminathan 1978). The importance of these varieties lay not only in their high-yield potential, but

also in their photo-insensitivity and wide adaptability. The wheat varieties available in India earlier

had to be planted within a short period of time, that is, no later than mid-November. Any further delay

in planting resulted in such significant reductions in yield, that late planting of wheat was not

considered economical. In the rice-growing areas where the crop was harvested by the end of October

and planting could not begin until much later, fields remained fallow for the rest of the season. With

the cultivation of early dwarf varieties of rice, the paddy fields became available earlier to plant the

subsequent crop (Khush 1995) and, then, owing to their photo-insensitivity, dwarf varieties of wheat

could be planted late without significant reduction in yield. This brought large areas under wheat

cultivation without the replacing of any crops. The wide adaptability of these varieties also made it

possible to introduce wheat in nontraditional areas. This progress was, however, the result of the

multidisciplinary approach and close national and international coordination that resulted from the

new organizational structure.

Supply of inputs

The new high-yield varieties needed intensive management and could not be exploited to their

highest potential without an adequate supply of water, fertilizers, and high quality

seed (Kanwar 1997). Even before the high-quality varieties became available, the Indian Government

had embarked on a program of harnessing water resources and making

irrigation water available even to remote areas not previously irrigated. Large projects, such as the

construction of the Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab and the Arjunsagar

Dam in Andhra Pradesh, had been started. To generate more electric power, a nuclear plant was

established in Uttar Pradesh and hydro-electric dams were constructed. The

availability of electric power in the villages made it possible for farmers to tap groundwater by

sinking tube wells. The availability of high management responsive varieties increased the demand

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for fertilizer. This led to the setting up of a number of fertilizer factories, mostly in the private sector.

Along with these factories, many agro based industries arose, generating employment opportunities

for a large number of people.

Seed production

After a new variety is developed, the quantity of breeder seed available is very limited. The

shorter the time in which this seed can be multiplied and made available to the maximum number of

farmers in the largest possible quantity all over the country, the quicker the benefits of their use will

be felt. Further, the high percentage of purity of these varieties, particularly of hybrids, has to be

maintained to exploit their full yield potential. The small seed farms that had already been established

in each state were quite inadequate for such a large undertaking. In 1963, the Government of India

established the National Seeds Corporation (Seth and Misra ,1998). In 1966, the Indian parliament

passed a law requiring compulsory labelling and voluntary certification, to ensure that seeds of

notified varieties of a crop would conform to certain minimum standards and to a certain minimum

level of purity and germination (Central Seed Committee 1971). The act provided the basis for

establishing a central system for seed quality. State seeds corporations and seed certifying agencies

were established (National Seeds Corporation 1986). At present, a large number of private companies,

both national and international, are in operation. This has made it possible to make high quality seeds

available to the farmers.

Human resources

To man the large number of newly established agricultural universities, central institutes, and

the new research projects started at both national and state levels, a large cadre of

trained manpower was required. Fortunately, a large number of very well-developed general

universities, with scientists well-qualified in the basic sciences, already existed in the country (Lele

and Goldsmith 1989). Soon after World War II, in 1946, when the transfer of power to India was

being envisaged, the government had selected hundreds of bright young people from all over the

country to receive higher training in different branches of agriculture science and technology in the

U.K. and the U.S.A. This made a band of well-qualified and highly dedicated scientists available to

meet the new post-independence demands. The professional competence of agricultural scientists

continues to be updated through in-service training and placement in advanced laboratories under

bilateral agreement with foreign countries and international agricultural research centers (R.K. Singh

1998). The continuous multilateral cooperative programs involving the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Swedish Agency for Research

Cooperation (SAREC), and developing countries have helped in the exchange of information, experts,

and ideas, as well as provided laboratory equipment.

Transfer of technology

In spite of the availability of high-yield varieties and the necessary inputs, the so-called green

revolution would not have been possible without the willing and active cooperation

of millions of farmers, who were handicapped by their very small holdings, limited financial

resources, and a resistance (of many of them) to accepting anything new. Their subsistence farming

did not allow them to take any chances, as they had no buffering capacity against crop loss. Starvation

always stared them in the face. In the past, the transfer of some half-baked technology had hurt some

of the adventurous ones and had further alienated them. It was no easy task to build a bridge between

the extension worker and the farmer. The extension worker must be able to talk in a language that the

farmers will understand and be on the same wavelength. It is in this area that the state agricultural

universities played a key role, by forging a very harmonious relationship, first, between the university

and the state department of agriculture responsible for field extension work (Prasad 1989).

The majority of the scientists working in the universities were the sons and daughters of

farmers and knew how to communicate with them. The farmers were no longer in awe of the big

buildings of the universities or of the scientists working there. Holding annual farmers‘ fairs in the

universities brought hundreds of farmers into close contact with the university scientists and extension

workers. The farmers were treated with respect, and proper attention was given to their problems. The

scientists and extension workers worked shoulder to shoulder in the farmers‘ fields. The enthusiasm

of the field workers was contagious. Once a trust was built between the farmers and the scientists, the

acceptance of new technology was quick. It was, however, a two-way street. Not only did the farmers

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learn from the university, but the research workers also learned from the farmers and acquired a first-

hand knowledge of their problems. This helped in carrying out need-based research.

Inspiring leadership

The progress of any nation depends on its economic policy and the kind of leadership the

country has. The priority given to achieving self-sufficiency in food production, as shown by putting

all the elements for food production together in a very short period of time, produced phenomenal

success. This, however, would not have been possible without the honest and dedicated leadership

that India was fortunate to have after independence. Everyone was dedicated to the cause of uplifting

and modernizing India to bring it into the 20th century. The first prime minister of India, Pandit

Jawaharlal Nehru, was a man of great vision and compassion. It was he who asserted that ―everything

else could wait but not agriculture‖ (Randhawa 1989). The relationship between the father of the

nation, Mahatma Gandhi, and Pandit Nehru can be compared only with that of Swami Ram Krishna

Param Hansa and his disciple Swami Vivekananda. As Swami Vivekananda carried the message of

his mentor all over the world, Pandit Nehru put the dreams of his mentor into action by developing a

free egalitarian democratic society and alleviating poverty and modernizing India. By his very

presence, he electrified the masses and energized them into action and, in return, was himself

energized by this contact. India loved Nehru and he loved India. It was this atmosphere of dedication

to work that prevailed in India at this time that led to so much progress in such a short time.

The green revolution in India was not a coincidence, but was the result of proper public

policies, the creation of appropriate infrastructure, inspiring leadership, dedicated workers, and the

resilient spirit and hard-work of the Indian farmer. It was the bold decision taken by Sri.C.

Subramaniam, Minister of Agriculture in the Government of India in the late 1960s, regarding the

import and spread of the improved seeds, as well as the instituting of some other important measures,

that ushered in the green revolution. He was belatedly awarded India‘s highest honor, Bharat Ratna, in

1998 (D.P. Singh 1998). The scientific leadership provided by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan was equally

laudable. His contribution was well-recognized when he was awarded the prestigious world food

prize. The green revolution was also a shining example of success in international cooperation.

However, the spurt of growth achieved in the 1960s and 1970s has now plateaued, and no dramatic

breakthrough is in sight (Swaminathan 1989). The capacity of the leadership to inspire people is

waning and the enthusiasm and dedication of research and field workers appears to be sagging.

The fast rate of growth of the population is overtaking the slow rate of growth in agricultural

production. If this trend continues, India will not only soon be importing food grains, but the specter

of the famines of the pre-independence era may return. To avoid such a catastrophe, the nation, on the

50th anniversary of its independence, will have to rededicate itself to the arduous task ahead, by

revitalizing its manpower and leadership, making better use of its existing resources through

narrowing the gap between the potential and what is actually harvested, by making greater investment

in research to develop new technologies in soil and crop management, and by reducing fraud and the

waste of available resources.

References

Braun, H.J., Rajaram, S., and Ginkel, H.V. 1995. CIMMYT‘s approach to breeding for wide

adaptation. In Adaptation in plant breeding. Edited by B.M.A. Tigerstedt. Kluwer Academic

Publishers.

Bush, L. 1988. Universities for development: report of the joint Indo–U.S. impact evaluation of Indian

agricultural universities. United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Project

Impart Evaluation No. 88. U.S. Agency For National

Development, Washington, DC., U.S.A.

Central Seed Committee. 1971. Indian minimum seed certification standards. Central Seed

Committee, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, India.

Gautam, O.P. 1989. Forty years of ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) in service of

nation. In Forty years of agricultural research and education in India. ICAR, Krishi Anusandhan

Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 5–7.

Kanwar, J.S. 1997. A soil scientist reminisces: fifty years of soil science research to serve Indian

agriculture. Asian Agricultural History. Vol. 1. pp. 135–152.

Khush, G.S. 1995. Modern varieties—their real contribution to food supply and equity. Geojournal,

35: 275–284.

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Lele, U., and Goldsmith, A.A. 1989. The development of national agricultural research capacity:

India‘s experience with the Rockefeller Foundation and its significance for Africa. Econ. Dev. Cult.

Changes, 37: 305–343.

Paroda, R.S. 1989. Research advances in crop sciences. In Forty years of agricultural research and

education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan,

Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 35–80.

Prasad, C. 1989. Agricultural extension education. In Forty years of agricultural research and

education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan,

Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 234–282.

Randhawa, M.S. 1979. A history of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. ICAR (Indian

Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi.

Randhawa, N.S. 1989. Agricultural research and education for productive agriculture. In Forty years

of agricultural research and education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research),

Krishi Anusandha Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 8–34.

Seth, R., and Misra, L.P. 1998. Genesis of seed quality and quality control systems: an evolutionary

perspective. Asian Agricultural History, Vol. 2. pp. 213–226.

Singh, D.P. 1998. Etawah pilot project: past, present and future— reorientation, distortion and

dilution of commodity development. Asian Agricultual History, Vol. 2. pp. 227–304.

Singh, R.K. 1998. International linkages for technical capacity upgradation: current scenario and

future concerns. In Wheat-Research Needs Beyond 2000 AD: Proceedings of an International Group

Meeting held at Karnal, India, 12–14 August 1997. Edited by S. Nagarajan, G. Singh, and B.S. Tyagi.

pp. 381–392.

Swaminathan, M.S. 1978. Wheat revolution: the next phase. Indian Farming, 27: 7–17.

Swaminathan, M.S. 1989. Achievements in agricultural research and education. In Forty years of

agricultural research and education in India. ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research), Krishi

Anusandhan Bhawan, Pusa, New Delhi. pp. 1–4.

Yudelman, M. 1996. The place of agricultural research. In The globalization of agricultural sciences.

International Services for National Agricultural Research, The Hague. pp. 149 –154.

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Ethics and Standards in Agricultural Research

Research is "careful, patient, systematic, diligent inquiry or examination in some field of

knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles; laborious or continued search after truth"

Biology research is undertaken to discover the "laws of nature." Similarly, ethics is "the science of

moral values and duties; the study of ideal human character, actions, and ends" . Research ethics is

therefore approximately synonymous with both "values of science and scholarship" and "standards of

conduct and practice in science." Clearly, it is in accord with this definition when one exhibits honesty

and reliability, designs and performs experiments with skill and thoroughness, and is fair in dealing

with students, co-workers and competitors, and assumes responsibility to people and institutions.

Concerned about research ethics

It is fashionable these days to offer 10 reasons for almost any activity. We can certainly supply 10

reasons why you should think about research ethics. Here is our list:

1. You will do better science.

2. You may know what to do if an ethical problem arises.

3. Other scientists depend upon your trustworthiness.

4. Medical progress depends on it.

5. Scientific progress depends on it.

6. Public welfare depends on it.

7. Your reputation as a scientist depends on it.

8. Your career depends on it.

9. Science cannot "work" otherwise.

10. It is the right thing to do!

Let's elaborate on these points. A statement from Responsible Science summarizes this well,

"Scientists have relied on each other and the traditions of the community for centuries

to safeguard the integrity of the research process. This approach has been successful

largely because of the widespread acknowledgment that science cannot work

otherwise, and also because high standards and reputation are important to scientists.

Dishonest or untrustworthy individuals become known to their colleagues through

various mechanisms, including word of mouth and the inability of other scientists to

confirm the work in question. Such irreproducible work is recognized and discredited

through processes of peer review and evaluation that are critical to making

professional appointments, accepting work for publication, and awarding research

support." (National Academy of Sciences. Responsible Science: Ensuring the

Integrity of the Research Process, Volume I, page 18, Washington, D.C.: National

Academy Press, 1992)

A lot of people are depending on you as a scientist. Your students depend upon or will depend

upon you to give them the best training possible, including training in research planning, research

techniques, research practices and expected conduct. Your collaborators depend upon you to do

optimum science according to the accepted norms; they cannot be as expert as you in your specialty

areas. This is, of course, a two-way street. Other scientists depend upon you as well. In the absence of

contrary evidence, they must assume that you did what you said you did and saw what you said you

saw. The public also depends upon you. Unless you conduct your research according to the highest

standards, they may be subjected to treatments that might be harmful or less efficacious than some

alternative, or they may not elect a treatment that would be efficacious. It shouldn't be necessary to

point out that your family and friends depend upon you as well. All this trust can be a heavy cross to

bear!

7

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The consequences of ignoring ethical standards for research are myriad. You could lose your

reputation as a good scientist, and with the loss of reputation could go loss of research support and

loss of your academic position. When public confidence in the scientific community is undermined,

then public support, and with it grant support, is eroded. And, when lawmakers perceive this loss of

confidence, the usual consequence is increased Federal and other outside regulation. That is why we

have an IRB and an IACUC! How can you know if you are doing the right thing? How can you know

if someone else is? What should you do if you think someone else is not acting in accordance with

good ethical standards? It is hoped that this course will provide you with answers to these questions

or, at least, a method of reasoning through an answer.

So, the "bottom line" is this: You'll do better science, your career will be enhanced, scientific

progress will be improved and public welfare will be served if you understand and use the accepted

ethical standards of science. That is what this course is all about.

Objectives

To serve the subject's rights, and to provide reassurance to the public that this is being done. In

promoting these objectives Ethics Committees should remember that research benefits society and

that they should take care not to hinder it without good cause. Ethics Committees also protect

research workers from unjustified criticism. The proposed international guidelines on biomedical

research of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Council for International

Organisations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) advise that a Research Ethics Committee should

consider the following points:

1. The objectives of research are directed to a justifiable advancement in

biomedical knowledge that is consonant with prevailing community interests

and priorities. The interventions are justifiable in terms of these objectives,

and the study has been designed with a view to obtaining this information

from as few subjects as possible who will be exposed to a minimum of risk

and inconvenience.

2. The responsible investigator is appropriately qualified and experienced and

commands facilities to ensure that all aspects of the work will be undertaken

with due discretion and precaution to protect the safety of the subjects.

3. Adequate preliminary literature and experimental studies should have been

undertaken to define, as far as practicable, the risks inherent in participation,

and the investigators should be fully conversant with these.

4. Every reasonable effort will be made to inform prospective subjects of the

objectives and consequences of their involvement, and particularly of

identifiable risks and inconvenience. Informed consent should be obtained, as

outlined in Chapter 8.

5. Any arrangement to delegate consent should have adequate justification, and

appropriate safeguards should be instituted to ensure that the rights of the

subjects will not be abused.

6. Appropriate measures should be adopted to ensure the confidentiality of data

generated in the course of research.

7. Every effort should be made to ensure that subjects have an opportunity to

comment on and, if they wish, to withdraw from a research project easily and

without penalty.

8. It is important to be continuously aware of the need to avoid impeding good

medical research. Indeed, the Ethics Committee should seek to facilitate good

research.

Principles of research ethics

1.Respect for human dignity.

2.Involves protecting interest of persons including bodily. Psychological

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& cultural integrity.

3.Respect for vulnerable persons, those with diminished capacity,childerns institutional persons.

4.Respect for justice.

5.Minimising harms.

6.Maximising benefits.

7.Balancing harms and benefits.

Problems and standerds in research ethics

Problems 1. In agricultural research

2. In biotechnology research

2. In medical research

3. In engineering research

4. In academic research

Examples;

Human cloning

BT cotton controversy

STANDARDS OF RESEARCH ETHICS

Educational researchers come from many disciplines embrace several competing theoretical

frameworks, and use a variety of research methodologies. Education, by its very nature, s aimed at the

improvement of individual lives and societies. Research in education is often directed at children and

other vulnerable populations. The standards that are involved not only in research but also in

education. It is essential that continually reflect on research to be sure that it is not only sound

scientifically but also it makes a positive contribution to the educational enterprise.

I. Guiding standards: Responsibilities to the field

A. Preamble: To maintain the integrity of research and methodological perspectives which are

relevant to their research.

B. Standards:

1 Educational researchers should conduct their professional lives in such a way that they do

not jeopardize future research.

2 Educational researchers must not fabricate, falsify or misrepresent authorship, evidence,

data, findings or conclusions.

3 Educational researchers must not knowingly or negligently use their professional roles for

fraudulent purposes.

4 Educational researchers should honestly and fully disclose their qualification and

limitations when providing opinions to the public.

5 Educational researchers should report research conceptions, procedures, results and

analyses accurately and sufficiently.

i. Educational researchers reports to the public should be written straight

forwardly.

ii. Educational researchers have a responsibility to make candid, forthright

personnel recommendations.

Guiding Standards: Research populations, Educational institutions and the Public.

Preamble: Educational researchers conduct research within a broad array of settings and institutions,

including schools, colleges, universities and hospitals. It is importance that educational researchers

respect the rights, privacy, dignity and sensitivities of their research populations and also the integrity

of the institutions within which the research occurs.

Standards

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1. Educational researchers should communicate the aims of the investigation as well as possible

to inform about any significant changes in the research programme.

2. Researchers are responsible for taking appropriate cautions to protect the confidentiality of

both participants and data to the full extent provided by law.

3. Researchers should respect and maintain the confidentiality established by primary

researchers.

4. Honesty should characterize the relationship between researchers and participants and

appropriate institutional representatives.

5. Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Guiding Standards ; Intellectual Ownership

A. Preamble: Intellectual ownership is predominantly a function of creative contribution.

B. Standards

1. Authorship should be determined based on the following guidelines.

a. Regardless of status, who have made substantive creative contribution to the generation of an

intellectual product are entitled to be listed as authors of that product.

b. First authorship and order of authorship should be the consequence of relative creative

leadership and creative contribution.

c. Clerical or mechanical contributions to an intellectual product are not for ascribing

authorship.

d. The work of those who have contributed to the production of an intellectual product in ways

short of these requirements for authorship should be appropriately acknowledged within the

product.

e. Authorship in the publication of work arising from theses and dissertation is determined by

creative intellectual contributions.

2. Ideas and other intellectual products may be viewed as commodities, arrangement concerning

the production or distribution of ideas or other intellectual product must be consistent with

academic freedom and the appropriate availability of intellectual products to scholars,

students and the public.

3. Ownership of intellectual products should be based upon the following guidelines.

a. Individuals are entitled to profit from the sale or disposition of those intellectual products they

create.

b. Individuals or groups who fund or otherwise provide resources for the development of

intellectual products are entitled to assert claims to a fair share of the royalties or other profit

from the sale or disposition of those products.

c. Authors should not use positions of authorities over other individuals to compel them to

purchase an intellectual product from which the authors benefit.

IV Guiding Standards: Editing, Reviewing and Appraising Research

A. Preamble : Editors and reviewers have a responsibilities to recognize a wide varieties of

theoretical and methodological perspectives and at the same time, to ensure that manuscripts

meet the highest standards.

B. Standards: 1. Fairness requires a review process that evaluates submitted works solely on the basis of merit.

2. Merit shall be understood to include both the competence with which the argument is

conducted and the significance of the results achieved.

3. Each journal may concentrate on a particular field or type of research.

4. Blind review with multiple readers should be used for each submission except where

explicitly waived.

5. Editor should strive to select reviewers who are familiar with the research paradigm.

6. Journals should have written, published policies for referring articles.

7. Journals should have written, published policy stating when solicited and non referred

publications are permissible.

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V. Guiding Standards: Sponsors, Policymakers and other Users of Research.

A. Preamble: Researchers, research institutions and sponsors of research jointly share

responsibility ensure that this integrity is not violated.

B. Standards:

1. Educational researchers are free to interpret and publish their findings without

censorship.

2. Researchers conducting sponsored research retain the right to publish the findings under

their own names.

3. Educational researchers should not agree to conduct research that conflicts with academic

freedom.

4. Sponsors or funders have the right to have disclaimers included in research reports to

differentiate their sponsorship from the conclusion of the research.

5. Educational researchers should not accept funds from sponsoring agencies that request

multiple renderings of reports that would distort the results or mislead readers.

6. Educational researchers should fulfill their responsibilities to agencies funding

research which are entitled to an accounting of the use of their funds and to reports of

the procedures, findings and implications of the funded research.

VI Guiding Standards: Students and student Researchers.

A. Preamble: Educational researchers have a responsibility to ensure the competence of

those inducted into the field and to provide appropriate help and professional advice to

novice researchers.

B. Standards:

1. In relations with students and student researchers, educational researchers should be

candid, fair, non-exploitative and committed to their welfare and progress.

2. Students and student researchers should be selected based upon their competence and

potential contributions to the field.

3. Educational researchers should be fair in the evaluation of research performance and

should communicate that evaluation to the students and student researchers.

4. Educational researchers should realistically apprise students and student researchers with

regard to career opportunities.

5. Educational researchers should inform students and student researchers concerning the

ethical dimensions of research, encourage their practice of research consistent with

ethical standards.

Guidelines on Research Ethics

Standard 1: Safeguard the interests and rights of those involved or affected the by the research

Standard 2 : ensure legistive requirement on human right and data protection have been met.

Standard 3: Establish informed consent even where this is difficult

Guidelines (for Standards 1, 2 and 3)

Consider the physical, social and psychological well-being of those involved or affected by

the research.

Obtain consent in writing and signed (which is not in itself evidence of 'informed consent') to

the involvement in the research and for the use of data collected.

Obtain informed consent without coercion (i.e. participants should not feel they have no

choice or are pressured by disparities of power). The option should be provided to refuse to

participate, to participate without being recorded, or to withdraw at any time with no further

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consequences. This means transparency about the purpose and processes of the research, what

time commitment is expected of them, how it is funded, what influence it is expected to have

and how it will be disseminated; ere covert research is proposed, the case for doing so should

be brought to the attention of the research governance committee and where required,

approval sought from the relevant external professional ethics committee.

Verify data collected through interviews with respondents where appropriate and possible.

Feedback on findings should be offered;

Invite those who are to be involved in the research to participate as far as possible in the

design, data collection and reporting of the research. This should be seen as an opportunity to

develop a relationship based on active participation, open communication, partnership and

trust between researcher and researched;

Offer conditional anonymity and confidentiality and if preferred by participants and feasible,

guarantee and honour this. Disclosure which is justified (by danger to the participant or others

- see section below on involving vulnerable people in research) must be made to the

appropriate person. Depending on the scale and depth of the study, steps taken to anonymise

participants might need to extended, for example, in small scale in-depth case studies in

which one participant might be the only one with a particular combination of characteristics

and therefore easily identifiable. Similarly, managers may be easily identified as the only

individuals to which the description in a research report could apply.

Any possible exceptions to this agreement should be explained at the time it is made.

Standard 4: develop the highest possible standards of research practices including in research

design, data collection, storage, analysis, interpretation and reporting

Guidelines

Ensure existing relevant literature and ongoing research have been identified and built on;

Select research approaches, methods and procedures that are fit for purpose and not designed

to confirm the researcher's hypotheses or preconceptions or because more acceptable to a

research sponsor;

Collect only data that will be used to address the question since any data collection places a

potential burden on the respondent. The exception may be in approaches derived from

grounded theory in which the research questions emerge as the analysis develops or where

data are archived for future use to address research questions not yet identified;

Report research findings with integrity. Avoid the temptation to distort findings in order to

make them more positive and thereby, more publishable;

Report findings accurately, acknowledging that some research is open to a variety of

interpretations. Verify findings and interpretations through use of procedures such as audit

trails, triangulation and checking back with respondents where appropriate;

Establish ground rules on intellectual property rights and reporting restrictions with external

funders from the outset;

Donate data to the appropriate data archive and provide sufficient contextual information to

ensure that it can be understood, reanalysed and interpreted by others.

Standard 5: Consider the consequences of your work or its misuse for those you study and other

interested parties

Guidelines

Consider the short and long term consequences of any research from the outset. The benefits

of research which assists a funder in policy decisions or developing a service in the short

term, may not be immediately apparent to individual respondents;

Recognise and compensate (not necessarily financially) where possible, the costs of research

to the participants minimising the coercive nature of this;

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Predict what support might be needed following the research. Questions raised in the research

may have an unsettling effect on the individual, relationship or organisation;

Take some responsibility for changing the dynamics in the situation (e.g. classroom, home,

institution or service) through intensive case studies or participant observation. Be willing to

spend time discussing issues that might arise, have information about relevant support

services and document the effects of your presence.

Standard 6: Ensure appropriate external professional ethical committee approval is granted

where relevant

Guidelines

Use the checklist in the Annex to scrutinize your research plans;

Invite comments from colleagues on your research plans and in particular, on any potential

consequences for those who you are involving in your research;

Seek comments from the School Committee where there are any sensitive or potentially

ethically challenging issues;

Seek approval from the appropriate external professional ethical committee where appropriate (e.g.

research involving health social care issues), to ensure requirements have been met .

STANDARDS FOR THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RESEARCH

Ethics: It is the study of science of morals, principles of behavior.

Standards: it means something that function as a model of excellence for other similar things to be

comparable to.

The purpose of the ethical standards embodied in this policy is to promote and facilitate the conduct

of all research in ways that respect the dignity and preserve the well-being of human research

subjects, the researcher and the institution without limiting acceptable research activities.

GUIDING ETHICAL PRINCIPLES

Researchers contribute to human welfare by acquiring knowledge and applying it to human problems.

They simultaneously consider two types of obligations in the design and conduct of research. One of

these obligations is to conduct research as capably as their knowledge permits, and another is to

protect the dignity and preserve the well being of human research participants.

1 Respect for Human Dignity

2Respect for Free and Informed Consent

3Respect for Vulnerable Persons

4 Respects for Privacy and Confidentiality

5 Respects for Justice and Inclusiveness

6 Balancing Harms and Benefits

7 Minimizing Harm

8 Maximizing Benefit

9 Methodologies

10 Minimal risks

Risk and harm are to be determined by considering:

• magnitude of harm probability of harm

The subject-centred perspective must be adopted when considering these elements.

Harm may be:

• physical

• psychological

• social

• legal

• economic

• affronts to dignity

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RESEARCH REQUIRING ETHICS REVIEW

1. Research involves a systematic investigation to establish facts, principles or generalizable

knowledge.

2.Research that must receive ethics review

3. Student Honours Projects in order to be eligible for graduation, students who are doing research as

part of their honours projects must submit evidence that their project has been approved by the

appropriate authority.

REVIEW OF OFF-CAMPUS RESEARCH

FREE AND INFORMED CONSENT

1 Normal Requirement Research, may begin only if prospective participants, or authorized third parties, have been provided

the opportunity to give free and informed consent about participation, and their free and informed

consent has been given and maintained throughout their participation in the research.

2. Procedures for Obtaining Informed Consent

3. Participation in Research by Per sons Who Are Not Legally Competent

4. Consent Requirements for Persons Who Are Not Legally Competent

For research involving incompetent individuals, as a minimum, the following conditions are

met. The researcher shall show how the free and informed consent shall be sought from the authorised

third party, and how the participant‘s best interests shall be protected.

b. The authorised third party shall not be the researcher or any other member of the research team.

c. Regardless of third party consent, all attempts should be made at informing the legally incompetent

individual as to the nature of the project.

5. Consent for Videotape and Audio Recordings

Privacy and confidentiality

Researchers shall comply with all applicable privacy legislation of the jurisdiction in which

information collection takes place.

Conflict of interest

Researchers hold trust relationships with research participants, research sponsors, institutions,

professional bodies, and society. These trust relationships can be put at risk by conflicts of interest

that may compromise independence, objectivity, or ethical duties.

Inclusion in research

An important aspect of the principle of justice is the fair distribution of benefits and burdens.

Members of society should neither bear an unfair share of the direct burdens of participating in

research, nor should they be unfairly excluded from potential benefits of research participation.

HUMAN GENETIC RESEARCH

The potential ability to identify all human genes and their mutations has profound social implications.

Misunderstanding or misuse of the results of genetic testing has the potential to interfere with an

individual‘s self-identity and sense of self-worth, and to stigmatize the entire group to which that

individual belongs.

Research with human gametes, embryos or foetuses

1 research involving human gametes

Researchers shall obtain free and informed consent from the individual whose gametes are to be used

in research.

It is not ethical to use in research ova or sperm that have been obtained through commercial

transactions, including exchange for service.

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2 Research Involving Human Embryos

It is not ethically acceptable to create human embryos specifically for research purposes

a. the ova and sperm from which they were formed are obtained in accordance

b. the research does not involve the genetic alteration of human gametes or embryos;

c. embryos exposed to manipulations not directed specifically to their ongoing normal development

shall not be transferred for continuing pregnancy; and

d. research involving human embryos takes place only during the first 14 days after their formation by

combination of the gametes.

Human tissue

Tissue1 Requirement for Ethics Review

Requirement for Informed Consent

Previously Collected

Education and dissemination

Tri-Council Policy Recommendations for Continuing Review of Research

1. formal review of the free and informed consent process,

2. establishment of a safety monitoring committee,

3. review of reports of adverse events,

4. review of patients‘ charts, and/or

5. a random audit of the free and informed consent process

It is important to ensure that such research is multidisciplinary and covers the social

and economic context and consequences of the introduction of such technologies as well as ways

to remedy unintended, negative social consequences. Information on the results of research in

the public and private sectors should be disseminated and enter into the public domain as soon

as possible.

Consideration must be given to the potential benefit for food and nutrition security, and there by for

human health, social justice and the environment, on the other hand.

BOITECHNOLOGY, INCLUDING GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS (GMOs)

RELATED ETHICS:

Many biotechnologies have been developed in most culture. An important subset of modern

biotechnology is genetic engineering, or the manipulation of an organism‘s genetic endowment by

introducing, rearranging or eliminating specific gene through modern molecular biology technique.a

genetic modified organism (GMO), otherwise referred to as a living modified organism (LMO) or

transgenic organism, is under stood to mean any living organism that possesses a novel combination

of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology. The science and technology

have provided great benefits in the past and are likely to do so in future, as long as they as they are

properly managed and applied. It is noted in this connection that international human rights stipulate

that every one has right to share in the benefits of scientific progress and its application (Universal

declaration of human rights, article 27). Consideration that classical plant and animal and fish

breeding and modern biotechnologies comprise sets of tools that depend on naturally occurring genes

as raw materials, the maintenance of biodiversity or genetic resources is a global concern of major

importance. To examine all issues involved in the field biotechnological research ethics we can

analyze the following three steps of main concern:

1. Indicating the risks, uncertainties and doubts involved.

2.Reflecting on the potential benefits that products of modern biotechnologies, including GMOs, may

yield in the future; and

3.Examining some of the conditions that would have to be fulfilled in order to ensure the benefits if

any, are obtained by the most needy, in particular the developing countries and, within them, the poor

farmers and other vulnerable groups.

Risk, uncertainties and doubts in the use of GMOs:

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1.With regard of the developing countries, there is also a danger arising from the fact that field testing

of GMOs is being under taken in countries that still have little or no policy on GMO releases. GMOs

need proper control and appropriate testing. They should not be released without risk analysis and the

assurance of subsequent monitoring and risk management, or without accountability for possible harm

arising from that.

2.The risk to human health includes the possible transfer of food allergenic compound to products that

didn‘t previously contain them, and uncertainties as to other consequences. Regarding environmental

issues, a fundamental concern is the protection of biodiversity. This is of general importance for

future ecosystem equilibrium and is essential for poor farmers and local communities to be able to

secure food and livelihoods for vulnerable groups.

3.Another risk is transfer of genes may escape into weed relatives and wild relatives of cultivated

plant, with potential negative effect on the fields and, especially, on the equilibrium of the local

ecosystem. Special attention should given to the use of a given genetically modified crop‘s wild

relatives are present.

4.Developing countries can face additional difficulties in assessing the risk of these technologies

because the technological knowledge related to them often forms part of the exclusive intellectual

property of corporation in developed countries.

5. The ethical aspects of the Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURT) or Terminator

Technology, which appear initially to have been designed to protect corporate property rights

physically (by making harvested infertile) where legal restriction preventing farmers from planting

harvested seeds may not work in practice. Hence farmer can‘t use again the harvested seed as it will

not germinate. While corporations are entitled to make profits farmers should not forced to become

dependent on the supplier for new seeds every planting seasons.

Potential benefits and problems

1.There is considerable potential for food security and for developing countries in the use of

appropriate biotechnologies, and that there is the room of optimism.

2.The crops will be more productive at a lower cost under marginal condition; there would also be

potential environmental benefits. Furthermore in specific local conditions, there might be less risk that

those associated with conventional intensification technology.

3.There is potential for maintaining, introducing and conserving crops and animal breeds from diverse

cultures that may otherwise diminishing.

4.With proper ethical commitments, corporation could help developing countries to use this

technology. Because there may be potential for companies as well as public research institution in

developing countries to harness technology through strategic alliances with corporation in developed

countries, while avoiding the exploitation of public research for the benefits of private corporation.

5.The genetic engineering changing fast and, with this rapid development, the technology is likely to

become less expensive.

6.IPR system: IPR system that restricts the use of naturally existing genetic material over a wide

spectrum, from genes to organisms and species, should not be allowed. Access by international and

national agricultural research institution to basic enabling technologies and processes that are

important for sustainable agriculture and food security should not restricted through the use of patent

system.

7.There should negotiation on multilateral system for access to , and the sharing of benefits derived

from utilization of farmer‘s right‘s as an incentive for the conservation and continuous development

of agro biodiversity.

Enabling conditions to realize the potential and avoid the risks of modern biotechnologies, including

GMOs:

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Science has benefited humanity in the past and continues to do so in the future, provided there

is real concern for equity. The results of scientific research must be shared fairly. The ethical

imperative to give priority attention to the impact and use of science for the poor, vulnerable,

including small-scale farmers in the developing countries. From the human rights prospective

whereby everyone is entitled to benefit from the achievements of science and technology. So there is

much room for research that can improve indigenous and other local crops and animals and thereby

enhance dietary diversity and food security.

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Computer Ethics for Agriculture Database and

Communication

Computers are special technology and they raise some special ethical issues. To characterize

computer ethics and to show why this emerging field is both intellectually interesting and

enormously important. Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer

technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such

technology. Computer technology broadly includes computers and associated technology. A typical

problem in computer ethics arises because there is a policy vacuum about how computer technology

should be used. Computers provide us with new capabilities and these in turn give us new choices

for action. Often, either no policies for conduct in these situations exist or existing policies seem

inadequate. A central task of computer ethics is to determine what we should do in such cases, i.e.,

to formulate policies to guide our actions. Of course, some ethical situations confront us as

individuals and some as a society. Computer ethics includes consideration of both personal and

social policies for the ethical use of computer technology.

Although a problem in computer ethics may seem clear initially, a little reflection reveals a

conceptual muddle. What is needed in such cases is an analysis, which provides a coherent

conceptual framework within which to formulate a policy for action. Indeed, much of the important

work in computer ethics is devoted to proposing conceptual frameworks for understanding ethical

problems involving computer technology. An example may help to clarify the kind of conceptual

work that is required. Let‘s suppose we are trying to formulate a policy for protecting computer

programs. Initially, the idea may seem clear enough. We are looking for a policy for protecting a

kind of intellectual property. But then a number of questions arise which do not have obvious

answers. What is a computer program? Is it really an intellectual property that can be owned or is it

more like an idea, an algorithm, which is not owned by any body? If a computer program is

intellectual property, is it an expression of an idea that is owned (traditionally protected by

copyright) or is it a process that is owned (traditionally protected by patent)? Is a machine-readable

program a copy of a human-readable program? Clearly, we need a conceptualization of the nature of

a computer program in order to answer these kinds of questions. Moreover, these questions must be

answered in order to formulate a useful policy for protecting computer programs.

The mark of a basic problem in computer ethics is one in which computer technology is

essentially involved and there is an uncertainty about what to do and even about how to understand

the situation. Hence, not all ethical situations involving computers are central to computer ethics. If

a burglar steals available office equipment including computers, then the burglar has done

something legally and ethically wrong. But this is really an issue for general law and ethics.

Computers are only accidentally involved in this situation, and there is no policy or conceptual

vacuum to fill. The situation and the applicable policy are clear.

Ethical theory provides categories and procedures for determining what is ethically relevant.

For example, what kinds of things are good? What are our basic rights? What is an impartial point of

view? These considerations are essential in comparing and justifying policies for ethical conduct.

Similarly, scientific information is crucial in ethical evaluations. It is amazing how many times

ethical disputes turn not on disagreements about values but on disagreements about facts.

Computer ethics is a dynamic and complex field of study, which considers the relationships

among facts, conceptualizations, policies and values with regard to constantly changing computer

technology. Computer ethics is not a fixed set of rules, which one shellacs and hangs on the wall.

Nor is computer ethics the rote application of ethical principles to a value-free technology.

Computer ethics requires us to think anew about the nature of computer technology and our values.

Although computer ethics is a field between science and ethics and depends on them, it is also a

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discipline in its own right that provides both conceptualizations for understanding and policies for

using computer technology

WHAT IS COMPUTER ETHICS?

Computer ethics is the analysis of the nature and the impact of computer technology and the

corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology.

Computer ethics is a dynamic and complex field of study, which considers the relationships among

facts, conceptualizations policies and values with regard to constantly changing computer

technology.

WHAT IS ETHICS?

The discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation. Or

The set of moral principles or values Or A theory of moral values Or The principles of

conduct governing an individual or group .

Code of Ethics for Agricultural Technologists

The agricultural industry demands integrity, competence and objectivity in the conduct of

agricultural technologists while fulfilling their responsibilities to the public, the employer, the

client and colleagues.

Ethical Responsibilities of Agricultural Technologists

1. Professional Obligations to the Public a) to work only in those areas where training, ability and experience make them qualified.

b) to express an opinion only when it is founded on adequate knowledge and experience, and

where the agricultural technologist has an understanding of the situation and context against

which this opinion is being offered.

c) to advocate good stewardship of agricultural resources based on sound scientific

principles.

d) to extend public knowledge of agriculture and to promote truthful and accurate statements

on sustainable agricultural systems and environmental matters.

e) to have proper regard for the safety of others in all work.

2. Responsibility to the Client or Employer

a) to act conscientiously and diligently in providing technical services.

b) except as required by law, to maintain the confidentiality of client and employer

information unless given the explicit consent of the client or employer.

c) to obtain a clear understanding of the clients or employers objectives.

d) to inform the client or employer of any action planned or undertaken by the client or

employer that may be detrimental to good stewardship or in breach of known laws or

regulations.

e) to refuse any assignment that creates a conflict of interest.

f) to not accept compensation from more than one employer or client for the same work,

without the consent of all.

3. Responsibility to the Institute

a) to inspire confidence by maintaining high standards in conduct and work.

b) to support activities for the advancement of the Institute.

c) where the agricultural technologists' believe another individual may be guilty of infamous

or unprofessional conduct, negligence or breach of The Agrologist Act, 1994 or Bylaws;

i) to raise the matter with that individual, and

ii) if not resolved, to inform the Registrar in writing

d) to state clearly on whose professional statements or opinions are made.

e) to sign and seal only those plans, reports and other documents for which technologists are

professionally responsible and which were prepared by them or under their direction.

4. Professional Responsibility to Other members of the Institute

a) to abstain from undignified or misleading public communication with or about others.

b) to give credit for professional work to whom credit is due.

c) to share knowledge and experience with others.

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Role of information technology (IT) in Agriculture:

Information technology refers to a broad term comprising of new communication and

computing technology. Computer hardware, software and Internet are key to these systems

that are designed developed and managed by IT professionals.

Information technology and its components Induction of IT as a strategic tool for agricultural development and welfare of rural India

requires necessary IT infrastructure in place. The rapid changes and down word trend in

prices in various components of IT makes it feasible to target large scale IT penetration in

rural India.

Components of Computer

1. Input devices: keyboard, mouse devices, scanners etc.

2. Output devices: printers and plotters

Objectives of information technology

1. To put information close to the manager, scientists, teachers, extension workers and

farmers.

2. To improve the capacity of researchers, teachers, and extension specialists to

organize, store, retrieve and information exchange.

3. To evolve mechanism of information sharing.

4. To strengthen national libraries and library‘s network through electronic access.

5. To develop database for easy access and data base decision-making.

The key players for utilization of IT in Agriculture: The farmer: Who is the actual person who can directly bring about an improvement in

efficiency and productivity in agriculture.

Various industries that provide inputs to agriculture : Various industries that deal with

agriculture output Institution / organization and NGOS working for the benefit of farmers

such as agriculture universities and research centers.

Central and state governments :

Awareness database: Facilliting farmers for proper understanding of the implication of the

WTO on Indian agriculture.

Decision Support System : Information that facilitates farmers to make proper SWOT

(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis to take appropriate

decision.

Information on new opportunities : Monitoring system for corrective measures How

actually IT helps in agricultural production : As a tool for direct contribution to

agricultural productivity. As an indirect tool for empowering farmers to take informed and

quality decisions, which will have positive impact on the way agriculture and allied activities

are conducted.

Information technology helps indirectly in the way of:

Precision agriculture

Remote sensing

Expert systems

e- agribusiness

IT centers for agricultural development

Agricultural technology information centers (ATICs) provides:

Diagnostic services for soil testing plant and livestock health

Supply to research products such as seeds, planting materials, livestock breeds,

poultry strains, fish seed, processed products etc. emerging from an institution for

testing and adoption by various clientele

Dissemination of information through literature, audio-visual aids and electronic

media

An opportunity to institutions for resource generation through sale of their

technologies

Support the district level ATMAs (Agricultural Technology Management Agencies)

in technology dissemination

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Indian society of agricultural information technology (INSIT) mandates:

To mobilize farmers, scientists, institutions and organizations

To encourage research and extension activities

To provide a forum for information exchange and dissemination

To organize training programme

Geographic information systems (GIS) A GIS consists of two major elements namely hardware and software.

The hardware component consists of:

Processing unit

Spatial data entry system

Plotter or printer

Software modules of GIS (Geographical Information System) classified into four

categories:

Data input and editing

Database management

Analysis/ transformation/ manipulation

GIS software are:

ARC/ INFO

CRIES-GIS

ERDAS

GRASS

GIMMS etc.

Thrust areas of GIS applications

The data is mainly used for the study of:

Engineering mapping

Automated photogrammetry

Highway mapping

Surface water mapping

Census and related statistical mapping

Land use planning and management

Environmental impact studies

With the remote sensing data for resource mapping:

Flood monitoring and management

Ground water hydrology

Snow melt runoff modeling

Wet land management

Forest management

Urban sprawl mapping and monitoring

Land degradation

Watershed management etc.

Remote sensing Remote sensing mens observing an object or phenomenon from a distance place.

Remote sensing used for mapping of naturel resources.

First earth resources technology satellite (ERTS), known as Landset-1 in 1972.

Remote sensing data is mostly used for the study of earth resources.

The data is useful-

To study the water resources, urban environment, soils, forestry, watershed conservation and

reservior sedimentation.

Stability of hill slope, water managesmentlike crop water requirements, soil salinity and

water logging flood management, river morphology, conjuctive use of surface and ground

water etc.

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Safety in Research Laboratory

Agricultural science is basically an applied science; so to conduct out research for

experimentation we need laboratories.

What is laboratory: It is a room or building used for scientific research, experiments or testing etc.

Features of a Good Laboratory

Suitable space for both bench work and offices

Ample utilities for most exacting work.

Storage space in which supplies, laboratory records and hazardous materials are secure.

Effective safety features to protect property.

Laboratory Design and Safety

Laboratory varies with its kind as it may be of Teaching or Research Laboratory, it may also

be Physics, Chemistry, Botany or Zoology or it may be any special purpose laboratory. Requirements

and designs of laboratory vary with the application for which the laboratory is to be utilized. Thus

before we go for the establishment of any laboratory we should go for certain planning in our mind.

Objectives for laboratory safety planning:

Developing Workable Safety Statement – It may be a few sentences or it may run to several

pages in length and expresses a deep commitment of the safety. Whatever the source, it should be

complete and clear. An example of a short statement is ―Safety requires focusing attention on the

immediate work environment and modifying behavior and facility to protect personnel and property.‖.

Defining the Technical Objective of the New Laboratory – Laboratory objective may be one of the

following:

General-purpose laboratories are those in which a variety of operations are carried out,

usually in conventional apparatus and glassware, employing a number of the usual small

laboratory instruments and using relatively small amounts of chemicals.

Special-purpose laboratories are those intended for continuing use in one operation or manner

involving definite or specific hazards, which require less stringent fire protection, electrical or

emergency features.

Special occupancy laboratories may involve high-level hazards such as high pressure

equipment, carcinogens or radioactive substances, flammable liquids or gases, high energy

materials or biological health hazards.

Identifying Techniques for Determining User Safety Needs – Engineering associations and similar

organizations have issued invaluable literature on laboratory safety concepts. Laboratory personnel

who have precious experience in a similar situation should be formed into a subcommittee to share

information with management.

Ranking Safety Requirements for Laboratory Facility – In the view of laboratory managers, the

heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HAVC) is the most important requirement for

laboratory safety.

At a minimum the ranked list of laboratory safety data should include the following:

Laboratory exhaust ventilation

Fire safety

Emergency response

Chemical handling

The manager can rank the above items by knowledge of user needs and his or her experience and

professional judgment.

Systematically Organizing a Safety Planning Programme: A laboratory expansion management

team usually have three or more members selected by the laboratory head. The members may be

engineers, architect, chief scientists, support managers or consultants. Planning and safety data

developed must be in coordination with the data from all the members of the team.

Exploration of Critical Safety Requirement: In evaluating safety requirements it is important to get

a second opinion from an experienced colleague. In technical matters we are specialists, and when we

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go outside of our field we seek expert guidance. The same attitude should apply to safety. Specialist

can help with alternatives, entirely new concept, cost comparison and so on.

Basic Causes of Accident in Laboratory During Work:

1. Improper design, construction or layout.

2. Protective devices not provided or proper equipments and tools are not provided.

3. Failure to use protective devices provided and proper equipments and tools not provided.

4. Lack of knowledge or improper mental attitude.

5. Laboratory outside the organization.

6. Use of devices with unknown defects.

7. Bad physical conditions or handicap.

8. Failure to follow instruction or rules.

9. Failure of person incharge to give adequate instructions or inspections.

10. Failure of person incharge to properly plan or conduct the activity.

Organization for Laboratory Safety:

In order to fruitful results there must be a national level organization which will coordinate

and guide the research activities in research laboratory.

The primary objective of such departments is to provide the guidance to the organizations and

institution and not acts as policing agent.

The member of the organization must be aware of technological advances so that they may

provide best possible advices and trainings.

Second major responsibility of such organization is to monitor the activities and management

research laboratories in different institutions.

The organization must be provided to with the enforcement authority to properly monitor

compliance/compulsory adoption of the rules formulated by organization.

Organization for safety in Laboratories:

Laboratory Hazards

If general consideration of lab safety is not followed, any of the following or more hazards

might be encountered in the laboratory.

1. Fire Hazards

2. Chemical and Toxicity Hazards

3. Radiation Hazards

4. Electrical Hazards

5. Biological Hazards

1. Fire Hazards:

During working periods lab research worker are liable to receive burns caused by burners that

are blown back, hot glass, non-luminous flames, ignition of inflammable solvents or clothing‘s

catching alight. Combustible materials are frequently used labs involving fire risks against which

worker must protect himself as well as lab. Unprotected chemicals may provide fuel to increase the

V.C/ President of University

Staff and university safety committee Cooperated or university safety department

Laboratory director, Dean

Local safety committee Safety engineer or coordinator

Supervisor or senior faculty

Employee, junior faculty members and student

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size and extent of the damage of a small fire. Research notes, theses material, unique chemicals,

financial and academic records and above all a precious life; are more difficult to reproduce than a

building and equipments.

Prevention:

An appropriate extinguishing system should be installed.

Accumulation of materials in lockers and corners, near machinery, steam pipes and

furnaces and stoves should be avoided.

Fire protected storage should be there for records chemicals etc.

Rubber gas connected tubes must be inspected regularly to minimize the chances of

slipping and splitting of a tube.

Regular inspection of all installations, apparatus and wiring is necessary to ensure that

they are safe and secure.

2. Chemical and Toxic Hazards:

Chemical are of immense requirement in laboratories. Certain acids like mineral acids,

sulfuric acids or nitric acids may prove dangerous. Splashes of these acids on the persons exposed

body part or clothes may produce some detrimental effects. Perchloric acid is perhaps the most

dangerous chemical. Certain chemicals are having a quite high inflammability in them. Certain

substances like arsenic and potassium cyanide. The insidious slow poisonous chemicals are most

hazardous. Eye irritation like swelling of eyelids, inflammation and conjunctiva caused by corrosive

substances like acids, alkalis, H2S, many salts, organic compounds, certain gaseous chemicals like

CO, amyl acetate, benzene, mercury and lead are quite dangerous if they are accidentally inhaled.

Substances which have no appreciable action on the sense or which do not allow body to offer

resistance by reflex action are very dangerous.

Prevention:

Evaluations of toxic material should be done.

Do not allow chemicals to react which might be dangerous for laboratory.

A shower bath should be taken immediately after work.

Using special goggles for chemical works may protect eyes injuries.

Neatness and cleanliness should be maintained.

To protect the skin special clothing such as impervious gloves sleeves and aprons masks and

goggles should be use.

3. Radiation Hazards:

Radioactivity is caused by the instability of certain atoms which radiates x-rays, α-rays, γ-

rays; all of which having ionizing properties, they penetrate substances to a different degree. Chronic

local exposure to the radioactive radiations irritates the skin and can produce ulcers and cancers.

Radioactive substances that have reached the interior of the body; damage the tissue, especially the

blood forming organs. The action of UV-rays is acute causing inflammation of conjunctiva in eyes.

Infrared may cause haziness of cornea and produce cataract of the lens.

Prevention:

Avoid secondary infection by not rubbing your eyes following exposure.

Shielding with the lead of necessary thickness, controlled equipments and adequate

ventilation can be useful against radioactive material.

Protective glasses against UV-light and infra red should be worn. Each one should have

separate goggles to avoid the infection.

In labs where radioactive substances are handled there should be trained health physicist in

the staff.

4. Electrical Hazards:

If electrical equipments are not handled carefully they can even prove to be fatal for a life. So

lack of or improper use of electrical grounding system not provided with double insulation system can

result in:

o Fire in electrical equipments and facilities.

o Fatal or non fatal electrical shocks, burns and secondary injuries to personnel; if long

continued currents in excess may provide collapse, unconsciousness and death.

o Disruption of operation.

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o Possible faulty operation of electrical equipments by generation of spurious signals.

Prevention:

It is necessary to work live on electrical equipments the person doing so should be of fully

knowledge and have a second person around who is trained in rescue, first-aid and

cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

Use conductors that are corrosion resistant and chemically compatible with the soil in which

they are buried.

Use equipments and tools with non-conducting handles when working on electrical device.

Protective lockout and tagging of equipments should be done.

Electrically connect and ground metallic non-current carrying parts enclosing electronic

equipments in the same area to prevent differences of potential and eliminate hazards.

5. Biological Hazards:

The importance of healthy animals for experimental research has been well recognized by

scientists. Since experimental animals must be free of disease. There are chances of transmission of a

disease from man to animals e.g. salmonellas, influenza, tuberculosis etc. man may also contract

disease from animals during research. In microbiological labs accidental infections resulting from

laboratory manipulations of pathogenic microbes may be there. Five most frequently recognized

laboratory infections are:

o Centrifugal accidents.

o Animals bites

o Sprays with syringe.

o Accidental inoculation with syringes and needles.

o Accidental oral aspirations of infectious material.

Prevention:

Develop the habit of keeping your hands away from your mouth, nose, eyes and face.

Wear only clean laboratory clothing‘s.

Never do direct mouth pipetting of of infectious or toxic fluids, use an appropriate pipette.

Laboratory personnel should be healthy enough; vaccination of laboratory personnel should

be done.

Before and after injection an animal, swab the site of injection with disinfectant.

General Precautions: There are certain precaution that we should keep in mind.

1. Don‘t follow the idea that ―this can happen to him but not me‖.

2. Ensure the first-aid facility in the lab.

3. One should not allow working alone in the lab.

4. Except in emergency don‘t run in the lab buildings as there could be collision with person

carrying apparatus.

5. It should be forbidden for anyone to work behind the locked room.

6. Orderliness and cleanliness should be always there in the lab.

7. Material should never be put in an unlabelled container.

8. The common practice of eating anything in the lab should be deprecated.

9. Laboratories in which mercury is being used should be well ventilated.

10. Turn off all gas, electricity and water etc. after finishing the work.

11. Goggles worn should be of specific design to prevent the effect of hazardous rays.

Conclusion

1. Layout of the laboratory should be architecturally will built.

2. There should be a national level organisation to co-ordinate, guide and inspect the activities of

laboratories of the country.

3. Laboratory safety should be considered as a separate suggest.

References

Steere, Norman V. ed (1982). CRC handbook of laboratory safety. 2nd

edition – Boca Raton: CRC

press.

Fure, A. Kieth (2000). CRC handbook of laboratory safety. 5th edition – London CRC Press.

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Welfare of Animal and Alternative Use in Research

and Education

The popular debate over animal use has been taken up by proponents holding a wide spectrum

of views, ranging from belief in abolition of animal use on moral and ethical grounds to belief in free

rein on the use of animals in research, testing, and education. An increasing number of groups are

taking a middle ground. In the mid-1980s, it is misleading and often impossible to characterize many

vocal groups either as simply ―pro-animal‖ or ―pro-research‖.

There are three kinds of animal use: research in the biomedical and behavioral sciences;

testing of products for toxicity; and education of students at all levels, including the advanced life

sciences, and medical and veterinary training. The use of animals in these three situations with regard

to research, testing, and education differs considerably, and each has different prospects for

development of alternatives. The assessment excludes examination of the use of animals in food and

fiber production; their use in obtaining organs, antibodies, and other biological products; and their use

for sport, entertainment, and companionship. Such purposes include numbers of animals generally

estimated to be many multiples greater than the numbers used for purposes described in this report.

Issues of animal care, such as feeding and maintenance, are also beyond the scope of this assessment.

In this chapter, animal is defined as any non-human member of the five classes of vertebrates:

mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Within this group, two kinds of animals can be

distinguished warm-blooded animals (mammals and birds) and cold-blooded animals (reptiles,

amphibians, and fish). Other creatures customarily included in the animal kingdom, such as

invertebrates (e. g., worms, insects, and crustaceans), are excluded for this work. The concept of

alternatives to animal use has come to mean more than merely a one-to-one substitution of non animal

methods for animal techniques. For alternatives, OTA has chosen a definition characterized by

the three Rs: replacement, reduction, and refinement.

Scientists may replace methods that use animals with those that do not. For example,

veterinary students may use a canine cardiopulmonary resuscitation simulator, resusci-Dog, instead of

living dogs. Cell cultures may replace mice and rats that are fed new products to discover substances

poisonous to humans. In addition, using the preceding definition of animal, an invertebrate (e.g., a

horseshoe crab) could replace a vertebrate (e.g., a rabbit) in a testing protocol.

Reduction refers to the use of fewer animals. For instance, changing practices allow

toxicologists to estimate the lethal dose of a chemical with as few as one-tenth the numbers of animals

used in traditional tests. In biomedical research, long-lived animals, such as primates, may be shared,

assuming sequential protocols are not deemed in humane or scientifically conflicting. Reduction can

also refer to the minimization of any unintentionally duplicative experiments, perhaps through

improvements in information resources.

Existing procedures may be refined so that animals are subjected to less pain and distress.

Refinements include administration of anesthetics to animals undergoing otherwise painful

procedures; administration of tranquilizers for distress; humane destruction prior to recovery from

surgical anesthesia; and careful scrutiny of behavioral indices of pain or distress, followed by

cessation of the procedure or the use of appropriate analgesics. Refinements also include the enhanced

use of noninvasive imaging technologies that allow earlier detection of tumors, organ deterioration, or

metabolic changes and the subsequent early euthanasia of test animals.

Pain is defined as discomfort resulting from injury or disease, while distress results from

pain, anxiety, or fear. Pain may also be psychosomatic, resulting from emotional distress. Pain is

relieved with analgesics or anesthetics; distress is eased with tranquilizers. Widely accepted ethical

10

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standards require that scientists subject animals to as little pain or distress as is necessary to

accomplish the objectives of procedures. Professional ethics require scientists to provide relief to

animals in pain or distress, unless administering relief would interfere with the objective of the

procedure (e.g., when the objective is a better understanding of the mechanisms of pain).

HOW MANY ANIMALS ARE USED?

Estimates of the animals used in the United States each year range from 10 million to upwards of 100

million. OTA scrutinized a variety of surveys, including those of the National Research Council‘s

Institute for Laboratory animal Resources and the animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

(APHIS) of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In addition, non-reporting institutions may

not be similar enough to reporting institutions to justify extrapolation. Thus every estimate of animal

use stands as a rough approximation. With this caveat in mind, the best data source available the

USDA/APHIS census suggests that at least 17 million to 22 million animals were used in research and

testing in the United States in 1983. The majority of animals used—between 12 million and 15

million—were rats and mice. Current data permit no statement about any trends in animal use through

recent years.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

At one end of a broad spectrum of ethical concerns about animal use is the belief that humans

may use animals in any way they wish, without regard for the animals suffering. At the other extreme

is the notion-epitomized by the slogan ―animals are people, too‖ that each animal has the right not to

be used for any purpose that does not benefit it. Each view is anchored in a school of philosophical

thought, and people considering this issue can choose from a variety of arguable positions. Prominent

within the Western philosophic and religious tradition is the view that humans have the right to use

animals for the benefit of human-kind. This view is predicated on the assumption that human beings

have special intrinsic value and thus may use natural animate and inanimate objects, including

animals, for purposes that will enhance the quality of human life. Yet this tradition suggests that

because animals are intelligent and sentient beings, they should be treated in a humane manner.

Current policies and trends within the scientific community have reinforced this conviction by

advocating that pain and suffering be minimized when animals are used in research, testing, or

education.

Advocates of what generally is called animal welfare frequently question the objectives of

animal use, as well as the means. They point out those animals can experience pain, distress, and

pleasure. Drawing on the utilitarian doctrine of providing the greatest good for the greatest number,

some animal welfare advocates weigh animal interests against human interests. In this view, it might

be permissible to use animals in research to find a cure for a fatal human disease, but it would be

unjust to subject animals to pain to develop a product with purely cosmetic value.

Some animal rights advocates carry this concern a step further and do not balance human and

animal rights. They generally invoke the principle of inalienable individual rights. They believe that

animal use is unjustified unless it has the potential to benefit the particular animal being used. Animal

rights advocates refer to the denial of animal rights as a form of ―speciesism‖ a moral breach

analogous to racism or sexism. Animals, by this reasoning, have a right not to be exploited by people.

People throughout the spectrum find common ground in the principle of humane treatment,

but they fail to agree on how this principle should be applied. Society does not apply the principle of

humane treatment equally to all animals. A cat may evoke more sympathy than a frog, for example,

because the cat is a companion species and possesses apparently greater neurological sophistication

than a frog, endowing it with both favored status and a familiarity that suggests to humans that they

can interpret its behavior. Even within a species, all individuals are not treated consistently. Pet

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rabbits in the home and pest rabbits in the garden, like human friends and strangers, are treated

differently.

ALTERNATIVES IN RESEARCH

In research, scientists often explore uncharted territory in search of unpredictable events, a

process that inherently involves uncertainty, missteps, and serendipity. Some biological research

requires and in the future will continue to require the use of live animals if the study of the complex

interactions of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up an organism is to continue. Knowledge thus

gained is applied to improving the health and well-being of humans and of animals themselves, and it

may lead to the development of methods that would obviate the use of some animals.

Some non animal methods are becoming available in biomedical and behavioral research. As

more develop, animal use in research will likely become less common. It is important to note,

however, that even if animals cannot be replaced in certain experiments, researchers can attempt to

reduce the number used and also to minimize pain and distress. Most alternatives to current animal

use in re-search fall into one of four categories:

Continued, but modified, use of animals: This includes alleviation of pain and distress,

substitution of cold-blooded for warm-blooded vertebrates, coordination among investigators,

and use of experimental designs that provide reliable information with fewer animals than

were used previously.

Living Systems: These include microorganisms, invertebrates, and the in vitro culture of

organs, tissues, and cells.

Nonliving Systems: These include epidemiologic databases and chemical and physical

systems that mimic biological functions.

Computer Programs: These simulate biological functions and interactions.

The many fields of research ranging from anatomy to zoology use animals differently and each

thus have different prospects for developing and implementing alternatives. Research disciplines were

distinguished by their characteristic patterns of animal use, as measured by the percentages of

published reports showing animal use, no animal use, and use of humans. Animal methods

predominated in most of the journals surveyed, including the three behavioral research journals. The

exceptions in the overall survey were cell biology, which used primarily non animal methods, and

cardiology, which used primarily human subjects. Using alternative methods in biomedical research

holds several advantages from scientific, economic, and humane perspectives, including:

Reduction in the number of animals used;

Reduction in animal pain, distress, and experimental insult;

Reduction in investigator-induced, artifactual physiological phenomena; savings in

time, with the benefit of obtaining results more quickly;

The ability to perform replicative protocols on a routine basis;

Reduction in the cost of research; greater flexibility to alter conditions and variables of

the experimental protocol;

Reduction of error stemming from inter individual variability; and

The intrinsic potential of in vitro techniques to study cellular and molecular

mechanisms.

Many of these alternative methods are accompanied by inherent disadvantages, including:

Reduced ability to study organism growth processes;

Reduced ability to study cells, tissues, and organ systems acting in concert;

Reduced ability to study integrated biochemical and metabolic pathways;

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Reduced ability to study behavior; reduced ability to study the recovery of damaged

tissue;

Reduced ability to study interaction between the organism and its environment;

Reduced ability to study idiosyncratic or species-specific responses;

Reduced ability to distinguish between male-and female-specific phenomena; and

A handicap to probing the unknown and phenomena not yet identified.

Behavior encompasses all the movements and sensations by which living things interact with

both the living and nonliving components of their environment. Since one of the chief goals of

behavioral research is an understanding of human behavior, there are obvious advantages to the use of

human research subjects. There are also advantages to use animals, including the following:

Laboratory research on animals offers a greater opportunity to control variables such as

genetic background, prior experience, and environmental conditions, all of which

affect behavior and can obscure the influence of the factor under study.

The short life spans of certain animals allow scientists to study behavior as it develops

with age and across generations.

Some animal behavior is less complex than human behavior, facilitating an

understanding of basic elements and principles of behavior.

The behavior of certain animals holds particular interest for humans. These animals

include companion species, farm animals, and agricultural pests.

It is the continued, but modified, use of animals that holds the most promise as an alternative

in the field of behavioral research.

ALTERNATIVES IN TESTING

Several million animals are used each year in testing substances for toxicity and establishing

conditions for safe use. The resulting data together with information about use and exposure, human

epidemiologic data, and other information are used in assessing and managing health risks. As a

reduction in the number of animals is a principal alternative, proper statistical design and analysis in

testing protocols play an important role. The total number of animals needed for statistically

significant conclusions depends on the incidence of toxic effects without administration of the test

substance, the degree of variation from animal to animal for the biological effect that is of interest,

and the need to determine a quantitative relationship between the size of the dose and the magnitude

of the response. Statistical analysis plays a similarly important role in research.

One of the oldest and, perhaps for that reason, least sophisticated tests is the LD50 (―lethal

dose‖ for ―50‖ percent of the test animals). In this short-term, or acute, test, a group of animals,

usually rats or mice are exposed to a single substance, and the measured end point is death (although

other observations may be made). The LD50 is the dose at which half the test animals can be expected

to die. A range of doses is administered to some 30 to 100 animals and the LD50 is calculated from

the results. Tests providing the same information have recently been developed using as few as 10

animals, i.e., a 3 to 10 fold reduction. The LD50 is used to screen substances for their relative toxicity

and mode of toxic action. Scientists and animal welfare advocates have criticized it in recent years, in

part because it cannot be extrapolated reliably to humans, and in part because the imposition of a

highly toxic or lethal dose seems particularly inhumane.

Another often-criticized acute toxicity assay is the Draize eye irritancy test. This involves

placing a test substance into one eye of four to six rabbits and evaluating its irritating effects. Results

are used to develop precautionary information for situations in which exposure of the human eye to

the substance is possible. Substances with certain properties e.g., a caustic pH-could be assumed to be

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eye irritants and not tested. Draize procedures may also be modified to reduce pain and in vitro

methods to test for irritancy are underdevelopment.

Other common tests include those for long-term chronic effects, carcinogenicity, reproductive

and developmental toxicity, skin irritancy, and neuron toxicity. In addition to such descriptive

toxicology (i.e., tests that focus on the response of the organism as a whole), testing may also be done

to determine the mechanisms by which a substance is metabolized or excreted, and the chemical re-

actions by which toxic effects are produced. Such studies of mechanistic toxicology aid in the

selection and design of descriptive tests.

Reductions in the number of animals used can be brought about by using no more animals

than necessary to accomplish the purpose of the test, by combining tests in such a way that fewer

animals are needed, and by retrieving information that allows any unintentional duplication of earlier

work to be avoided. Refinements include increased use of anesthetics and analgesics to ameliorate

pain and tranquilizers to relieve distress. Replacements may involve human cell cultures obtained

from cadavers or in surgery, animal cell cultures, invertebrates, or micro-organisms. For example, the

use of an invertebrate in place of a vertebrate, as in the case of substituting horseshoe crabs for rabbits

in testing drugs for their production of fever as a side effect, is increasingly accepted as a replacement.

The most promising in vitro methods are based on an understanding of whole-organ or

organism responses that can be related to events at the cellular or sub-cellular level. Cells manifest a

variety of reactions to toxins, including death, changes in permeability or metabolic activity, and

damage to genetic material.

ALTERNATIVES IN EDUCATION

Although far fewer animals are used in education than in either research or testing, animal use

in the classroom plays an important role in shaping societal attitudes toward this subject. As

educational goals vary from level to level, so does the use of animals and there fore the potential for

alternatives. In elementary schools, live animals are generally present solely for observation and to

acquaint students with the care and handling of different species. Although the guidelines set by many

school boards and science teachers‘ associations limit the use of living vertebrates to procedures that

neither cause pain or distress nor interfere with the animals‘ health, these guidelines are not observed

in all secondary schools. Science fairs are an additional avenue for students to pursue original

research. The Westinghouse Science Fair prohibits the invasive use of live vertebrates, whereas the

International Science and Engineering Fair have no such prohibition.

In the college classroom and teaching laboratory, alternatives are being developed and

implemented because they sometimes offer learning advantages, are cheaper than animal methods,

and satisfy animal welfare concerns. In disciplines such as surgical training in the health professions,

some measure of animal use can be helpful but is not universally viewed as essential. Many

alternative methods in education are already accepted practice. Replacements include computer

simulations of physiological phenomena and pharmacologic reactions, cell culture studies, human and

animal cadavers, and audiovisual materials. Refinements include the use of analgesics, euthanasia

prior to recovery from surgery, observation of intact animals in the classroom or in their natural

habitats, and the substitution of cold-blooded for warm-blooded vertebrates in laboratory exercises.

COMPUTER SIMULATION AND INFORMATION RESOURCES

Recent advances in computer technology hold some potential for replacing and reducing the

use of animals in research, testing, and education. In most cases, however, research with animals will

still be needed to provide basic data for writing computer software, as well as to prove the validity and

reliability of computer alternatives.In research, scientists are developing computer simulations of

cells, tissues, fluids, organs, and organ systems; Use of such methods enables less use of some

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animals. Limitations on the utility of computer simulations are due to a lack of knowledge of all the

parameters involved in the feedback mechanisms that constitute a living system, which means the

information on which the computer must depend is incomplete. In testing, computers allow

toxicologists to develop mathematical models and algorithms that can predict the biological effects of

new substances based on their chemical structure. If a new chemical has a structure similar to a

known poison in certain key aspects, the n the new substance also may be a poison. Such screening

can thus preempt some animal use.

In education, computer programs simulate class room experiments traditionally performed

with animals. The most advanced systems are video-disks that combine visual, auditory, and

interactive properties, much as a real classroom experiment would. Aside from their direct use in

research, testing and education, computers also could reduce animal use by facilitating the flow of

information about the results of research and testing. Research and testing results are published in

journals, summarized by abstracting services, discussed at conferences, and obtained through

computer databases.

One way any existing unintentional duplication might be ended, and thus animal use reduced,

is to establish or refine existing computer-based registries of research or testing data. As alternative

methods are developed and implemented, a computerized registry of information about these novel

techniques might serve to speed their adoption. In 1985, the NLM incorporated ―animal testing

alternatives‖ as a subject heading in its catalogs and databases, which help users throughout the world,

find biomedical books, articles, and audiovisual materials. In amending the animal Welfare Act in

1985, Congress directed the National Agricultural Library to establish a service providing information

on improved methods of animal experimentation, including methods that could reduce or replace

animal use and minimize pain and distress to animals.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The total cost of the acquisition and maintenance of laboratory animals is directly related to

the length of time animals stay in the laboratory. With no accurate source of data on various species‘

length of stay, it is impossible to calculate the actual total dollar cost of animal use. Reducing the

number of animals used can lower acquisition and maintenance costs. Animal use carries with it both

great expense and major economic and health benefits. None the less, it is difficult to express many of

the costs and benefits monetarily. What price does society put on the pain and distress of an animal

used in research, for example, or on the life of a person saved by a new medical treatment that was

made possible by the use of animals?

In research, there is no way of knowing when a particular result would have been obtained if

an experiment had not been done. Thus, it is impossible to predict many of the costs related to the use

of alternatives in research. Attempts to do so are likely to result in economic predictions with little

basis in fact. Rapid, inexpensive toxicity tests could yield major benefits to public health. There are

more than 50,000 chemicals on the market and 500 to 1,000 new ones are added each year. Not all

must be tested, but toxicologists must expand their knowledge of toxic properties of commercial

chemicals if human health is to be protected to the extent the public desires. Rapid and economical

testing would facilitate the expansion of that knowledge.

Government regulatory practices can be read as promoting animal testing although the laws

and practices appear flexible enough to accept alternatives when such tests become scientifically

acceptable. To date, regulatory practices have not, in fact, provided a basis for companies to expect

that acceptance of alternative methods will be an expedient process. In addition to responding to

regulatory requirements, companies conduct animal tests to protect themselves from product liability

suits. Here, the necessary tests can exceed government requirements.

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Because of the great expense and long time required for animal research and testing, priority

in research results has considerable value to investigators and testing results bear considerable

proprietary value for industry. Some data are made public by statute, and various arrangements can be

made for sharing testing costs. Yet many data are held in confidence, for example, by the company

that generated them.

FUNDING FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES

In biomedical and behavioral research, it is not clear whether targeted funding efforts would

pro-duce alternatives faster than they are already being devised. The research areas most likely to

result in useful alternatives include computer simulation of living systems; cell, tissue, and organ

culture technology; animal care and health; and mechanisms of pain and pain perception. Funding to

improve animal facilities can result in healthier, less stressed animals and can free research from

confounding variables bred by a less well defined or inferior environment.

Alternatives to animal use in education generally build on techniques developed in research

and funded by research monies. The Government Departments related to health and human services

should make grants to medical and veterinary colleges for the development of curriculum for training

in the care of animals used in research, the treatment of animals while being used in research, and the

development of alternatives to the use of animals in research. Colleges and universities may offer

courses related to humane principles or principles of experimentation. In addition, animal welfare

groups are active sponsors in the areas of humane education and attitudes about animals. A number of

humane societies and animal welfare groups fund research on alternatives in research, testing, or

education.

Reference:

1. E. Margaret and Cooper, An Introduction to Animal Law (1987) Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,

Publishers.

2. D.E. Blackman, P.N. Humphreys and P. Todd, Animal welfare and law. (Editor) Cambridge

University Press.

3. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/byteserv.prl/~ota/disk2/1986/8601/860103.PDF

4. http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/index.html

5. http://www.abcinformation.org/