/A Summary of/Current Program and

Preliminary; Report of Progres s

GRAI NAND FORAGE RESEARCH

f the

United State s Department of Agr icultureand c ooperative agenc ies i -L- Q A

Section A

This progre s s report of and cooperative research is pri

marily a tool f or use of sc ientists and administrators in programcoordination ,

development and evaluation; and f or use of advis orycommittees in program review and development of recommendationsf or future research programs .

The summarie s of progre ss on and cooperative research in

clude some tentative re sults that have not been te sted sufficientlyto justify general release . Such findings , when adequately confirmed will be released promptly through e stablished channels .

Because of t his , the report is not intended f or publication and

should not be referred to in lite rature citations/f Copies are

distributed only to members of Department staff , advis ory committeemembe rs and others having a spe c ial intere st in the developmentof public agricultural re search programs .

This report als o includes a list of publications reporting re sultsof and c oope rative re search issued during the lastyear . Current agricultural re search findings are also publishedin the monthly U . S . D LA . publications , Agricultural Research ,

Wash ington/ D . C .

De cember

ADVISORY COMMITTEES

The res earch program of the Department of Agriculture is reviewed annuallyby the following advisory c ommittee s

Farm Re source s Re searchUtilization Research and DevelopmentHuman Nutrition and Consumer Use ResearchMarketing Research and ServiceAgricultural Ec onomic s Re searchForestry Re searchAnimal and Anmmal Products ResearchCotton and Tobac co ResearchGrain and Forage Crops ResearchHorticultural Crops ResearchOilseed, Peanut and Sugar Crops Research

ORGANIZATIONAL UNIT PROGRESS REPORTS

The source materials used by the advisory committees are of two type s . Firstthere are Organizational unit Reports that cover the work of the Divisionsor Services listed below . The number prefixe s refer to advis ory com

mittees listed above that review all of the work of the respe ctive Divisionsor Services .

Agricultural Research Service (ARS ) Economic Research Service (ERS )

l Soil and water Conservation2 Utilization Eastern2 Utilization Northern2 Utilizatio Southern2 Utilization western3 Human Nutrition3 Clothing and Hous ing3 Consumer and Food Economic s7 Animal Husbandry Other Services7 Animal Disease and Paras ite

1 Soil Conservation Service (508 )h, 5 Farmer Cooperative Service (FCS )h, 5 Statistical Reporting Service

A Market Quality ( SRS )h Transportation and Facilities 6 Forest Service (FS )

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, 5 Ma rketing EconomicsFarm Production EconomicsRe source De velopment EconomicsEconomic and Statistical AnalysisForeign Development and TradeAnalysis

Foreign Analys is Division

Three organizational unit reports are not reviewed in

entirety by any one committee . All of the informationin them is included in the sub je ct matter reports .

Agricultural EngineeringCropsEntomology

SUBJECT'MATTER PROGRESS REPORTS

The second type of report brings together the program and progre ssf or the following commoditie s and subjects

Cros s Commodity Research of Cros s Spe cie s and Mis cellaneousAgricultural Engineering, Crops , Animal Researchand Entomology Research Divis ions 8 Cotton and CottonseedRural Dwellings TobaccoFore stry ( Other than Fore stService )Beef CattleDairyPoultrySheep and WoolSwine

A copy of of the reports may be requested from w. C . Dachtler ,Executive Secretary, Grain and Committee ,

Office of Administrator, Agricultural Re search Service , U . S . Departmentof Agriculture , Washington , D . C . 20250

1 1

Citrus and Subtropical FruitDeciduous Fruit and Tree Nut

PotatovegetableFlorist , Nur sery and Shade Tree

Oilseeds and PeanutSugar

Section A

IntroductionI . FARM RESEARCH

Barley Culture , Breeding , Diseases and variety Evaluat ionCorn and Sorghum. Culture , Breeding Diseases , and

Variety Evaluation 11

Wheat and Rye Culture , Breeding, Diseases and Variety Evaluation 26Oat and Buckwheat Culture , Breeding , Disease , and VarietyEvaluation

Rice Breeding and Genetic s , Disease , Varietal Evaluation , and

Alfalfa Culture , Breeding and Genetics , Disease s , and

Variety EvaluationClover and Other Legume s , Culture , Breeding and Genetic s , Diseaseand Variety Evaluation

Forage Gras s and Turf Culture , Breeding , Disease s and

Variety Evaluat ion - 4

Pasture and Range Seeding, Establishment , Management and

EvaluationSeed Crop Culture , Di seases , Phys iology, Nutrition , Harvesting,

and Variety Evaluation

Corn , Sorghum ,and Small Grain Insects

Rice Inse ctsForage and Range InsectsProduction , Harvesting and Farm Storage Structures , Equipment

Section BNUTRITION , CONSUMER AND I NDUSTRIAL USE RESEARCHCereal Starche s Industrial UtilizationWheat Industrial UtilizationCorn , Sorghum, aid Other Feed Grains Improved Industrial ,Feed and Food Products

High -Amylose Corn Industrial UtilizationWheat and Corn Fermentative Convers ion to New Industrial ,Feed and Food Products

Wheat and Barley Food and Feed Products and Proces s ingForage s and Feed Proces s ing and ProductsForages and Feed Process ing and ProductsRice Proce s s ing and ProductsRice Proces s ing and ProductsHuman Nutrition and Consumer US e Research

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III . MARKETING AND ECONOMIC RESEARCHGrain Market QualityRice Market Quality

Marketing Facilities , Equipment and Methods

Consumer Preference and Quality Discrimination Householdand Industrial

Economic and Statistical Analys is

INTRODUCTION

This report on grain and forage crops re search covers work directlyrelated to the production , proce s sing , distribution and c onsumptionof grain , rice , feed , forage and seed and the ir products . It does not

include extens ive cros s - commodity work , much of which is basic in

character , xvhich c ontributes to the solution of not only grain and foragecrop problems but also to the problems of other commoditie s . Progre s s oncros s - commodity work is found in the organizations ' unit reports of the

several divis ions .

This report is organized by Problem Areas which are shown in the tableof contents . For each area there is a statement of (1 ) the problem ,

(2 ) the USDA program, ( 3 ) a summary of progres s during the past year onUSDA , and cooperative work , and (h) a list of publications resulting fromUSDA and cooperative work .

Re search on grain and forage crop problems is supported by (1 ) Federal fundsappropriated to the research agencie s of the USDA , (2 ) — Federal and Statefunds appropriated to the State Agricultural Experiment Stations , and ( 3 )private funds f or research carried on in private laboratories or f or

support of State station and USDA work .

Farm research in the Agricultural Re search Service c omprise s inve stigations

diseases , nematodes and weed c ontrol , insects , and crop handling and

harvesting equipment and structure s . This research is carried out in the

Crops , Entomology, and Agricultural Engineering Research Divisions . It

involves profe s sional man - years of s cientific effort .

Nutritio r and Industrial Use Research in the Agricultural Research

availability of nutrients and their effects , new and improved methods ofpreparation , pre servation and care in home s , eating e stablishments and

institutions , new and improved food, feed , and industrial products and

the proce s se s related to grains , rice , and forage s . It is carried out in

the following research divis ions : Northe rn , Southern ,and Western

Utilization ; Human Nutr ition; and Consume r and Food Economics . The workinvolve s profe s sional man -years of s cientific effort .

rice , feed, forage , and seed re search in the .Agricultural Marketing Servicedeals with physical and biological aspects of assembly , packaging , trans

porting , and storing , and distribution . It is carried out by the MarketQuality and Transportation and Fac ilities Re search Divisions . Work in the

Economic Research Service deals with marketing costs , margins , and

efficiency; market potential; supply and demand; and outlook and situation .

Consumer preference studie s are carried out by the Statistical Reporting

Service . Research on c ooperative marketing is conducted by the FarmerCoope rative Service . The grain and forage resear ch in these Service sinvolve s profes sional man - years of s c ientific effort .

and Private Re search

A large part of the Department ' s re search is coope rative with StateExpe riment Stations . Many Department employee s are located at Statestations and use laboratorie s and office space close to or furnished by

the State . Coope rative work is j ointly planned , frequently withrepre sentative s of the producers or industry affe cted participating .

The nature of cooperation varie s with each study . It is developed soas to fully utilize the pe rsonnel and other re sources of the c ooperators ,which frequently includes resource s contributed by the intere sted producersor industry . There is regular exchange of information between station and

Department s c ientists to as sure that the programs compliment each other and

to eliminate unneces sary duplication .

Privately supported grain and forage crops research emphasize s the solutionof spe cific production , proces sing , and marketing problems . Much of it

utilizes the results of more basic work done by State Station and Departments cientists . For example , private re search is devoted to the synthesis and

evaluation of chemicals as herbicide s , fungicides , and insecticide s , the

development of new combinations of materials f or use as fertilizers ,product and proces s development improvements in equipment f or planting ,cultivating , harvesting , handling , proce s sing , drying and storing grains ,forage s and seeds . Private research in marketing and economic s is largelyconcerned with studies of consumer preferences , market potential , promotion and market development .

The contributions of producers of grain and forage crops and of relatedindustrie s to the work of State stations and the Department have been an

important factor in the suc cess of public re search programs . Producers ,processors , and distributors offer land

, products , and fac ilitie s f or the

testing of equipment and practices used in the production and distributionof grain , rice , feed , forage

, and seed and the ir products .

Recent Research

Cer ta in Herbic ide s . A r ev iew of th e curr en tly available li tera tu reindica ted the po s s ibili ty of sele c ting inbred line s of corn di f fer ingw idely in r e Spon se to two tr ia z ine herb ic ide s - a tra zine and sima z ine .

The li tera tur e sugge sted a r ela tion be twe en r e sistance s to stalk ro t ,

corn bore r ,and tr iaz in e herb ic ide ba sed on the ab ility of a chem ical

c omplex in c orn to impar t r e s is tance to f ung i and in se c ts and to breakdown tr iaz ine herbic ide s . Thre e inbred lin e s of corn highly re s is tan t

to stalk rot and corn borer and 2 inbred lines with‘

low re sistancewere evaluated f or re sistance to atrazine and sima zine . The inbredsresponded to the herbicides as antic ipated . Those with high re s istanceto stalk rot and corn. borer were highly re sistant to atrazine and

sima zine whereas those with low resistance to stalk rot and cornborer were low . Inbreds with wide differential re sponses shouldprovide excellent material f or more detailed physiological studiesof the basis of selective herbicidal action .

Ho ja Blanca - Re sistant Long- Grain Rice Var ie tie s . When re sear ch on

Hoja blanca r ice viru s wa s star ted in 1957 , no re sis tant long-

grainvar ie ty was available , bu t re sis tance wa s found in shor t and medium

grain var ietie s . Breeding inve s tiga tions wer e star ted tha t year in

coopera tion with the Arkansa s , Lou is iana , and Texa s Agr icultural Exper

imen t Sta tions to develop re s istant long -

grain type s by cr ossingcommonly grown and exper imental long -

gra in var ie ties with Hoja blancare sistant shor t and medium-

gra in var ieties . Progenies were te s tedf or reaction to Hoja blanca and in some ca se s two gene ra tions per

year were grown in te sts in Colombia and Mexico . This work was

condu c ted under an informal arrangement with the Ro cke feller Founda tion, the Divis ion of Agr icultural Re search in Colombia , and the

National Ins ti tu te of Agr icultural Re sear ch in Mex ico . Long -

gra insele ctions now available f rom this re sear ch are r e s is tant to Hojablanca and have the agronomic and cooking charac ter istics ,

needed

f or adapta tion to the sou thern r ice area .

Stabilized Alf alfa Meal ; A New Export Item . Department research onstabilization o f important nutrients o f dehydrated alfalfa is playing a

vital role in the development of a new export market f or this product .

Dehydrated alf alf a meal is us ed pr imar ily as a concentrated source o f

carotene (provitamin A ) , vitamin E , and xanthophylls ( the pigments whichcause the yellow color in egg yolks and in the skin and shanks o f broilers ) .

These alfalfa nutrients are rapidly lost by oxidation under ordinary storage conditions . research on stabilization o f these sensitivenutrients has already led to the development o f the antioxidant f eed additive , ethoxyquin , which reduces los ses to one - third that ordinarilysu f f ered . Without its use , it would be impos s ible f or U . S . produ cers to

deliver a high potency product in Europe or Japan becaus e of the prolongedin trans it" times required . Since ethoxyquin

's acceptance by the Food

and Drug Adm inis tration in 1958 , exports of dehydrated alfalfa have ris enf rom virtually none to tons last year . This f igure is expected to

increase in th e future . In the domes tic market last year ,ethoxyquin was

used on over a million tons o f dehydrated alf alfa meal and helped th e

alfalfa dehydration indu stry ma intain healthy growth despite the pressureo f stable synthetic competitive products .

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Cereal xanthide paper made on pilot-

plagt s cale . By use of the proces sdeveloped by Department researchers , paper containing cereal xanthide hasbeen successfully produced on a pilot- sized paper machine . The waterinsoluble cereal xanthides are produced by treating flour s , starches , or

ground whole cereal grain with readily available , lowe priced chemi cals .

Linerboard paper f or corrugated paper boxes exhibited improved crushresistance under moist conditions , whi ch is a major deficiency in conventional corrugated boxes . Bag paper containing 20 percent cerealxanthide exhibited superior wet and dry strength . Greaseproof papercontaining Mo to 50 percent cereal xanthide showed improved propertiesover conventional greaseproof paper . Other appli cations are beingdeveloped . For example , wheat millf eed xanthide gives coarse , in

dustrialpaper with promising properties . Estimates indicate that the rapidlyexpanding paper products industry - now producing million tons annuallycould utilize cereal xanthides requiring over 100 million bushels of cerealgrains per year .

Vitamin B6 in cereal products determined by new method .An ac curate

method was developed f or separating and measuring the three chemicallyrelated compounds of the nutritionally e s sential vitamin B6 -

pyridoxine ,pyridoxal , and pyridoxamine . This advance will. make it pos sible to

micrograms of vitamin B6 per gram , whereas highly pr oces sed cerealproducts such as all -

purpose flour, white bread

, pre cooked rice,

noodle s , macaroni , and spaghetti generally contained les s than 1 microgram .

Art if ically Dr ied Corn f or Commer cial Use s . Re sear ch engineers havedeveloped a quick and inexpens ive proce s s - and a device f or perform ing the

pro ces s - that c an detect dam age to corn due to overheating dur ing drying ,

as a replacement f or time consuming and expens ive laboratory proce s s es .

:The

n ew proce s s involve s a de termination of change s in hygros copic propert ie sof corn as indicated by the increase in equ ilibrium relative humidity abovethe s tandard f or corn of good quality (de s ignated as the shif t in equ ilitbr ium mois ture content ) ; change s which are dire ctly related to corn quali ty .

Commer cial user s can employ the new pro ce s s in sele cting corn that will mee t

the ir individu al requirements f or we t milling and other end use s ,as well

as f or safe s torage . Studies show the new proces s is 95 pe r cent e f fe ct ivein de te cting sample s that had been dried at temperature s above 190

0FtDevelopment o f this proce s s repre sents a subs tant ial "

break - through in.

providing a satisfactory measure of the su itab ility of corn f or pro ce s s ingand s torage and can e f f e c t savings to the industry amounting to many thou sands o f dollars annually .

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I . FARM RESEARCH

HARLEY CULTUREBREEDING , DISEASES AND VARIETY EVALUATION

Crops Re search Division, ARS

Problem . Of the cereal crops , barley ranks fifth in th e UnitedS tates in acreage , production, and value of the crop .

Dur ing the las t 10 years the acreage planted to barley hasincreased approximately 25 percent to over 16 mill ion acres , butwas s omewhat less in 1962. Barley is grown in h9 of the 50 s tatesand is a major crop in hO s tates , representing a wide var iety ofenvironmental conditions . Half of the crop is used as feed f or

lives to ck, 20 to 30 per cent f or melting, and 20 percent is exported .

Barley is subject to yearly fluctuations in yield and quality due

to factors such as climate , disease , lodging, winterkill ing , shattering, dr ought injury, inse ct damage , and other factors becaus eit is grown s o widely. There is an increased need f or work on

genetics , cytology, breeding me thods , pathology and phys iologyto strengthen the breeding of barleys to buffer the effects of the

hazards mentioned . Studies on the important disease organisms ,including v iruses , hos t- paras ite relationships at both phys iologicand genetic level, nature of disease resis tance , and hos t range ofvarious paras ites need s trengthening . There is an increas ing need

f or research on melting quality, f or a more precise defin ition ofquality and me thods of evaluation . For all phases of breeding , we

need to find a universal way by wh ich individual genes can be identif ied with complete accuracy in the parents and in the ir progeny ;

The bas ic new concepts emerging from studies on DNA , the geneticcode , transduction and other te chn iques ; the newer me thods of Chromosome engineer ing, and the new advances with chemical mutagens needto be thoroughly s tudied and inves tigated f or their poss ible use in

applied barley breeding . The studies on the poss ib ility of hybridbarley need to be intens ified, as well as the role of genetics in

the use of agr icultural chemicals . Applied s tudies that need greater

attention include the effec ts of environmental factor s and culturalpractic es on yield and quality;

and factors to redu ce the yearlyfluctuations in yield and quality .

PROGRAM

The Department has a continuing long- range program of both bas ic and

applied research on barley improvement. In bas ic research the areasunder investigation are genetics , cytogenetics , radiation genetics ,pathology, virology, biochemis try, and phys iology ; Ba s ic and/orappl ied research is carried on in cooperation with the following State

r Exper iment Stations : Ar izona , Californ ia , Idaho ,na raska , North Carolina , North Dakota ,

S outh Dakota , Utah , and W is cons in . A Federal National Barley and

Malt Laboratory is located at Madison,'

Wiscons in , and is operatedin cooperation with the W is cons in Agricultural Exper iment Station .

This laboratory conducts quality work on barley f or bo th State and

Federal programs . The world barley colle ction is maintained and

dis tributed from Beltsville , Maryland . Federal per sonnel supervisefour spring and thr ee winter uniform nurser ies .

The Federal s cientific effort devoted to research , on barley totalsprofes s ional man-

years , of which is f or breeding and

gene tics , f or diseases , f or variety'

quality evaluation ,

and f or culture ( phys iology) .

Additional research on barley is carried out under five Public Lawh80 projects located in three foreign countr ies , namely } PolandEgypt and Israel This research includes s tudies on the

disease affe cting barley, namely, rus ts , smut, net blotch , mildewand s cald, and a search f or var ie ties res istant to these d iseases ;also s tudies on the origin of barley . The effect of genetic and

environmental factors on the feeding value of barley proteins is

being studied by Montana state College under a contrac t involvingan es timated s ix- tenths profess ional man-

year .

PROGRESS

of 50 male sterile stocks . I t is estimated that approximatelyto crosses were made and these have a Chance to recombineafter the F2 be cause of the presence of the male s ter ile gene . Thiscr os s has large inherent potentials f or many env ironments and to date

3? seed lots have been dis tributed to 21 fore ign countr ie s and 2hlots to 17 s tates from Alaska to Florida .

2 . Male Sterile Genes . At Bozeman, Montana and .Aberdeen, Idaho

,

existence of numerous genes , and that these are nearly all found at

different loci in the genome . The number of different loci identified to date is 15 and an additional 15- 20 genes are awaiting tests .

Th is multiplicity of loci is encouraging from. the s tandpoint of finding the required ms- ddt linkage f or hybrid barley. In addition, it

is of both theoreticalf and practical interes t to f ind th e reas on f or

th is multipl icity of loc i f or th is character as compared with the

s ingleness f or other character s . In cases where gene ac tion is

additive , a breeding techn ique by wh ich genes of economic worth couki

be added at will , would be a new and important means f or improvingour crop plants .

3 . Pollen Source Homozygous f or Re cess ive Lethal Genes . A methodhas been devised and tested wh ereby

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a pollen s ource can be producedwhere 100 percen t of the pollen grains are homozygous f or a re cess ive le thal gene . This me thod employs a balanced tertiary tris omicto atta in this result. In th is type of trisomic the le thal geneused is placed in the genome in a manner such tha t through l inkage ,gamete abortion , and transmiss ion barr iers through the male , the

only effec tive pollen is that which is homozygous f or the lethalgene us ed . This technique als o provides a means f or automaticallymainta in ing lines f or s terile or lethal mutants .

h. Breed ing Improvements . At Madis on , W is cons in , progres s is

reported in Breed ing f or s tiffnes s of s traw by us ing as parentalsour ces , Belownee ( a variety f rom. Af ghan istan ) and Joton ( a mutant)varie ty from radiation) . The excellent loose smut res is tance in

Trabi has been combined w ith melting quality f or the first time .

A close linkage was found f or the genes controll ing orange lemma ( 0 )and uniculm ( uc2) on chromosome 6, and the gene order and linkagevalues f or three genes on chromos ome 1 are as follows : t ( 2) un

( 13 ) wx , where t s tem rust re s is tance , un loose smut res is tance ,and wx waxy s tar ch .

5. Inher itance of growth habit and winterhardiness . From 38 cros se sinvolving 12 spring and 5 winter var ieties , it was determined thatspr ing growth hab it may be conditioned either by a re cess ive genepair , or a dominant gene pa ir .

Thirteen of the above spring x winter crosses were s tudied f or wintersurvival in F

3lines under field conditions . A definite as s oc iation

was establ ished between winter growth habit and h igh winter survivalbut this as soc iation was not complete s ince hardy spr ing l ines were

als o isolated .

There was no relation be tween winter survival and the factors f or

spike dens ity and number of rows on the spike , but an ass oc iation'

was evident bet ween survival and the factors f or awn barbing and

rach illa hair length .

6 .

'

world Colle ction . Dur ing 1962 the World Collec tion of barley'

received 629 new acces s ions from a total of 30 countr ies . The'

WOrld

Collection of barley now contains entries . This is an in creaseof approximately 7 percent in number of items in the barley colle ction .

Dur ing the pas t year , b5, 863 seed packe ts from the barley collec tionwere prepared and shipped to barley workers . Barley inves tigatorsin 18 foreign countr ies reque s ted and r ece ived 22, 7hl samples dur ingthe pas t year , whereas workers from 30 s tates re ce ivedsamples .

7 . New Varie ties (W inter) . Four new winter barley varieties were

released to certified and/or foundation seed growers . The varietyCatskill was developed and released by the Cornell AgriculturalExperiment Station . It has an awnleted spike and is superior to

Wong in winterhardiness, test weight, strength of straw and s caldres istance . It matures somewhat later tham

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WOng . Besbar , anotherawnleted variety s imilar to wong , was developed and released

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hyEas tern State s Farmers ' Emphange ,

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west Springfield, Massachusetts .

Its principal advantages over'

WOng are : greater winterhardiness ,higher yield, and more toleranca

\to s cald . A third awnleted

variety, Pennrad, was developed and released by the PennsylvaniaAgr icultural Exper iment Station . Pennrad is more winterhardy

'

than

a g and is highly res is tant to scaId . A bearded variety, Dover ,was developed and released by the Ontario Agricultural College as

a poss ible replacement f or Hudson . Dover is s imilar to Hudson in

winterhardiness but has stronger s traw , high er test weight and

threshes more readily than Hudson .

8 . New Varie ties ( Spring) . Two new spr ing var ieties were releasedthis year . VeIé , developed at the Utah Agricultural ExperimentStation and released by the Oregon Agr icultural Experiment Stationis espec ially well suited to the irrigated valleys of eas tern Oregonand is recommended f or those areas . The advantages of Vale are its

stiff straw, higher yield, te s t we ight, and resis tance to mildew .

Grande is a new feed barley released in California where it is

intended as a replacement f or W inter Tannessee . Grande originatedas a selection from Compos ite Cross II , and its ch ief advantagesare a higher yield, superior roll ing charac teris tics when the

grain is prepared f or feed, more tolerance to leaf diseases thanWinter Tennes see , and larger seeds . It is similar to otherCal ifornia varieties in matur ity and other plant characters .

9 . Distribution and Association of Botan ical Characters in a World

the following maj or conclus ions can

be s tated : The distr ibution of characters within the world barleypopulation is not at random . The barleys from different countr iesand world areas are different. Certa in characters have worldw idedistribution ; others occur in limited areas . Many potentiallypossible character combinations do not occur in this world popula

tion , indicating they may be less f it to survive in evolution .

Evolution in barley through hybridization and mutation has occurredthroughout the world and at different rates in different places .

This study has added to our unders tanding of the genetics and

evolution of barley, and thus , it serves as a bas ic background f or

planning research and improvement programs and f or sele ctive plantexploration .

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A. New Sources f or Re sistance . New sources f or resistance to

obtained through Public Law A8O projects AlO-CR- l in Israel and

Fh- CR- l in Egypt . Hordeum. species resistant to powdery mildew,leaf rust , and net blotch have been received from Israel . varie

ties resistant to the net b lotch f ungus in Egypt have beenObtained . This material is be ing evaluated with strains of thevarious fungi in North America .

5. The relation of meteoro dwarf e emies . In

the

epidemics of the virus disease barley yellow dwarf were started in

1962 . Examination of trap plants of cats , barley, and wheat exposedduring the period June 18 to July 3 showed no aphids , the vectors of

the virus . The trap plants were probably exposed too late in the

season . The United States weather Bureau is cooperating in this study

by providing wind trajectories and pressure patterns f or the area fromTexas to Canada as a basis f or interpreting dispersal of aphids .

C . Var ietal Evaluation (Quality)

1 . Varieties from State and Federal 5 . As in pre

vicus years , a romising selections f rom. breeding programs were evaluated f or quality . The

labora tory located at Madis on , Wis cons in , serves both Federal and

State breeders across the nation in this quality work . The resultsare made available as qu ickly as obtained . In addition> to varietyevaluation , the laboratory also determines the effect of f er tiliz

ers , herbic ides , and other cultural practices on melting qual ity.

A brief des cription of the k ind of mater ial tested follows : ( 1)Var ieties from h unif orm nur series which cover mos t of the barleyareas from wh ich melting barley is bought, ( 2) individual se ts ofvar ieties from 11 states , ranging from 8 to 180 in number were

evaluated th is year , and ( 3 ) winter barley varieties from h s tateswhere breeding work is underway to produce varieties with meltingqual ity, The most promis ing selections from this overall tes tingprogram were also evaluated f or brewing quality.

2. Effect of Chemical Additives on Quality . Fur ther tests withgibberellic ac id indicate that a maximum favorable response is

obtained with 20 p .p .m . based on the dry weight of barley, The low

enzymatic activity of Atlas and Betzes barley was markedly stimu

lated by this treatment.

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When 3 - amino- l, 2,h- triazole was used

instead of gibberellic acid the effect was s imilar although adverseeffects were noted giving dark- colored wort and beer and an objectionable odor . Germination was inhibited with 2- chloroethy1

tr imethyl ammonium chlor ide, potass ium bromate and 2-h- dichloro

plenoxy ace tic acid .

3 . affect of cul tural practices on quality . Forced lodging ofthree Barley

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varie ties incr eased the n itrggen conten t of the kerneland reduced kernel weight. The expected adverse changes in quality correlated with nitrogen content and kernel s ize were realizedin this tes t. The variety Traill was injured less by lodging thanKindred or W is . X9lh- h. When increas ing seeding rates are combinedwith increas ing seeding rates with in reasonable _ limits , malting qualityis affe cted very l ittle .

h. Amino Acids . A mod if ication to the amino ac id analyzer now

permits the s imultaneous record ing of the amino acids and the

nucleic acids in the same run . This modification will permit the

rapid accumulation of data on these constituents , so important inthe me tabolic and phys iologic processes of barley . I t was shownthat the redrying of a malt at a higher temperature in preparationf or its use in brewing did not alter the free amino acid constitu

ents . In air clas s if ied samples of malt ( prepared in a manners imilar to that used f or wheat flour ) it was dis covered that a

greater amount of free amino ac ids were found in those fractionsrich in husk and germ tis sue . Compar isons of the var ious freeamino acids in the germ and endosperm of barley seeds showed thatthe embryo is r icher in these acids than the endosperm and notablyso f or two of the amino acids . All of the glutamine and nearlyhalf of the arginine are located in the embryo . Proline and

asparagine also are relatively abundant in the embryo .

5. Electro ore tic Se aration of Earl oteins . By use ofelectrophores is on p t was poss ible to resolvethe protein in barley seed into 13 to 18 components . The proteinsfrom malts of these same barleys were les s clearly

'

resolved . Thismethod is promis ing and mer its fur ther s tudy ;

6 . Emetic Pr inciple in S cabby Barley . The emetic compound found in

scabBy Barley and which greatly impairs its feeding value , has now

been res olved into two fractions . One , a neutral compound, haschemical properties s imilar to the emetic previously reported frominfe cted corn and from ar tific ial cultures of Fusar ium mon il iformeNo . 111 . The other fraction is a weak acid and may be produced in

culture media as well as in s cabbed barley .

7 . Brewing Tes ts . Preliminary malting and brewing tes ts of hybr idbarley seed indicated no he terotic effect f or the various factorsmeasured . No general conclus ions can be drawn from the se tes ts as

they represent only a l imited set ( h) of hybrids from one location .

D . Culture (Phys iology)

1 . Freez in Pr ocesses in'

W interhardiness . TWO ma j or categories offreez ing pro ces ses have been found : ( 15 Equilibr ium freez ing proces ses in wh ich the amount of l iquid rema in ing in space s between

- 8

living protoplasts is exponentially related to temperature as

freez ing progresses . The equil ibrium proces ses are revers ible .

Cell s contract in equilibrium w ith th e formation of ice in the

Spaces between protoplasts . Equilibrium processes occur in tissueswhere the intercellular liquid is closely associated with livingprotoplas ts as film s in th e cell wall s . In jury occurs whenphysical stresses in the protoplast exceed protoplasmic stability,and ( 2) the other major category cons is ts of non- equilibr iumfreezing processes . These processes are not in equ il ibrium withtemperatur e and they are not revers ible . Ice mas ses form explo

sively at the freezing point of liqu id in xylem vessels or otherspaces where th e liquid is not closely associated with hardyliving protoplasts . The sudden formation of large crystals willdestroy critical regions of the plant.

2 . Phys iological Effect of DDT on Barle In sus ceptible barleyplants injury from DDT oc cur s very s oon after treatment, as avi

denced by the decrease in chlorophyll and transpiration rate .

The pr imary in jury is confined to the treated area . Later ,secondary effects occur which aid in creating a phytocidal effe ct.

Th e b iochemical nature of the injury has not been determined butit is known that DDT enters the plant tissue ; that it is not

translocated; and that degradation of DDT to DDE in res is tantbarley plants does not occur as is the case with some resis tantinsects .

PUBLICATIONS

Breeding

Doney, D . L. ,and Woodward, R . w. 1963 . Purple aur icle inher itance

and linkage in barley . Crop Sci . 3 , pp . 181- 182 (Note) .

Hockett, E . A . and Stevens , Harland . 1963 . Un iform 2- row barleynursery and Rocky Moun tain barley nursery 1962. CropsRes . Div. , CR- l2- 63 .

Pr ice , Phil . 1962. Great Plains barley nur sery 1962.

Crops Res . Div. , CR - 88- 62.

Re id , D . A . 1962. Barley winterhardiness nursery 1962.

Crops Res . Div. CR- 63 - 62.

Reid, D . A . 1962. Fifty hull- les s winter barleys 1962.

Crops Res . Div. , CR- 70 - 72.

Reid, D . A . 1962. Winter barley n ur sery 1962 ( semihardy varieties ) .

Creps Res . Div . , GR- 78- 62.

Reid, D . A . 1962. Win ter barley nursery 1962 ( hardy varieties ) .

Crops Res . Div. , CR- 86- 62.

Shands , R . G . 1963 . Mis sis sipp i Valley barley nursery 1962.

Crops Res . Div . , CR- l- 63 .

9

Suneson, C . A . ,and. Ramage , R . T. 1962. Competition be tween near

is ogen ic genotypes . Crop Sci . , 2, pp . 2h9- 250 .

Sunes on , C . A . ,and

'

Wiebe, G . A . 1962. A "Paul Bunyan" p

lantbreed ing enterpr ise . Cr0p S ci . , 2, pp . 3h7- 3h8.

ward , David J. 1962. Some evolutionary aspects of cer ta in morphologic characters in a world collection of barleys .

ARS Tech . Bull . No . 1276 .

Diseases

Moseman , J . G . 1962. Uniform winter barley disease nursery 1961

1962. Crop Res . Div a , CR- 6S- 62.

Moseman , J . G . 1962. Reaction of Argentina barley sele ctions to

barley yellow dwarf v irus and aphid spe cies . CropsRes. D iv. , CR- 76- 62.

Moseman , J . G. ,and Griggs , Gertrude . 1962. Reaction of 15h entries

in the 1961 international barley disease nur sery to s tem ,leaf

,

and s tr ipe rus t, powdery mildew, s cald,septoria , Helmintho

sporium, and bacterial blight . Crops Res . Div . ,

CR - 8h- 62.

Moseman , J. G . ,and Schaller , C . w. 1962. Interaction of genes

conditioning reaction of .A1gerian barley and pathogen ic ity of

259 359 55329 39 f o 8 9 Phywpath u 52. pp 529- 533Nelson , R . R . ,

and Kline , D . M . 1963 . Gene sys tems f or pathogen icity and pathogen ic potentials . I . Interspe cific hybr idsof HelminthosporiumPhyt0pat5. , 53, pp .

Starl ing, T . H . ,P ineda , C . R . , Chen , Kuo- chun , and Moseman , J. G .

1963 . L oc i of genes f or res istance to race 9 of Erys iphe

graminis hordei among a group of barley var ieties . Cr op Sc i. ,

3 : Pp . lSl - lgfl .

Timian, R . G. ,and Klos terman, H . J . 1962. Th e retention of

v iabil ity of lyophil ized barley s tripe mosa ic virus . Phyt Opath . ,

52 ) pp . 55h- 556

Dicks on , A . D . ,Standridge , N . N .

, Burkhart, Clemens , H . L. ,

and s taff . 1962. Melting qual ity of barley var ieties and

s elections grown in Mis s iss ippi Valley un iform nur sery and at

North Central S tations in 1961 . Crops Res . Div

03 - 61- 62.

Dicks on , A . D . ,Standridge , N . N . , Burkhart, B . A . , Clemens , H . L. ,

and s taff . 1962. Melting quality of barley varieties and

s ele ctions gr own in Rocky Mountain and we s tern S tations in

1961 . Crops Res . D iv . , CR- 7h- 62.

Standr idge , N . ,Clemens

, H . ,and Dicks on, A . D . 1968 . M iss is s ipp i

Valley spr ing barley nursery 1962, preliminary quality report.

Crops Res . Div . , CR- 5- 63 .

Sun es on , C . A . 1962. Hybr id barley promises h igh yields . CropSc i . , 2, pp . t -ul l .

Culture

Prentice , Neville . 1962. Par tial pur ification of a metabol ite ,produced by fusar ium monil iforme , which inh ibits th e utilizationof oxygen by barley dur ing germination . Phys iologia Plantarum,15, p . 693 .

- 1 1 _

CORN AND SORGHUM CULTURE , BREEDINGDISEASES

,AND VARIETY EVALUATION

CrOps Re search Division , ARS

Problem . The combined produ ction of corn and sorghum totalsapproximately M billion bushels annually and constitute s

roughly eighty percent of our feed grain . The rapid expansion and

near self - suffi ciency of the hybrid seed industry require s an

extensive reorientation of the current programs to give increasedemphasis to basic re search in genetics , physiology , and pathology .

Some progre s s has already been made in giving greater emphasis to

such needed re search . Corn and sorghum production are dependentupon the utilization of hybrid vigor but no adequate geneticexplanation of thi s phenomenon is currently available . Inaddition to basic research on this top ic , additional information1

is needed on the relative efficiency of different breeding systemsand the basis and mode of inheritance of disease and insect re sistance . Increased efforts are needed in geneti cs and physiology to

provide inf ormation basic to improvements in the nutritional and

indu strial qualities of the grain . Work is needed on mineralnutrition and the patterns of synthe sis of protein , oil , and

carbohydrate s . More work is needed in pathology to determine the

basis f or re sistance and the capabilitie s of disease organisms to

be come infe ctious on currently re sistant type s and to explore the

whole host - parasite interaction system .

PROGRAM

geneticists , physiologists , pathologists , and agronomists engagedin basic and applied studie s relating to the improvement of cornand sorghum . Corn research is condu cted at Beltsville , Maryland;Charleston , South Carolina ; and in cooperation with State Experi

ment Stations at the following locations : Tifton , Ge orgia ; Urbana ,Illinois ; Lafayette , Indiana ; Ames , Iowa; State Ccllege , Mi s sis sippi ;Columbia , Mi s souri ; Raleigh , North Carolina ; Wooster , Ohio; Brookings ,South Dakota ; Knoxville , Tenne s see , and Madison , Wis consin . Sorghumre sear ch is cooperative with State Experiment Stations at Manhattanand Hays , Kansa s ; Lincoln , Nebraska ; Stillwater , Oklahoma ; Brookings ,South Dakota and Chillicothe and College Station, Texas .

Ten PL 980 proje cts dealing with corn or sorghum are now in operation .

The se are : S3 - CR - 37”Tropi cal cultivated plants , their evaluation and

use as breeding material : Evaluation of corn and beans native to Centraland South America as sources of germplasm f or use in breeding programsin the U .S . A7 - CR - 20

Y'

Genetica1 effects of natural radiation fromthe Monazite Sands of Kerela A7 - CR - 72

" Re search on maize disease swith special reference to Erwinia caratovora var zea A7 - CR~73" Re sponse of various germplasm sour ce s to agronomi c practice sAl8—CR - 2

" Fungicidal control of downy mildew of corn and the resistanceof corn varietie s , hybrids , and inbred line s to Downy Mildew E25- CR—l

Factors affe cting the frequency of monoploid seedlings in maize and

their sub sequent diploidization”

; E30 - CR - 3" Colle ction , clas sification ,

evaluation and pre servation of dome stic maize germplasm in Yugoslavia"

;

A7 - CR - 69" Storage , maintenance and distribution of millets germplasm

”

;

A7 - OH- 7O Catologing and classifying genetic stocks of sorghum”

;

A7 - CR - l9 Carbohydrate metabolism in the tapioca plant , manihotutilis sima .

“

The Federal research effort devoted to corn and sorghum totalsprofes sional man - years . Of this number is devoted to breedingand genetic s , 5 to diseases and to culture and physiology .

PROGRESS

1 . Corn Geneti cs . Basi c genetic studies are under way at Columbia ,Mis souri ; Ame s , Iowa; Raleigh, North Carolina and Beltsville ,Maryland . These studies have as their obje ctive a more completeunderstanding of the principles whi ch underlie the improvement ofcorn . Such. principles have utility f or other plants and animalsof e conomic interest . Current studie s involve three rather distinctfields ; clas si cal geneti cs and cytogenetic s , population genetics and

biochemical genetics . Population geneti c studie s are underway at

Ame s , Iowa; Raleigh , North Carolina and Beltsville , Maryland .

is concentrated at Columbia , Mi ssouri . The cytologi cal inve stigationsdeal primarily with the effects of various types of chromosome abberations on chromosome pairing . Studie s on preferential pairing involving trisomi cs (plants having one chromosome type in tripli cate ) with2 standard and 1 exotic chromosome have indicated that non- randompairing is quite common . Thi s is

’

true whether the additionalchromosome is normal but from an exotic source or involve s structural modifications arising from irradiation .

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a . Inbred line s released . Pollen re storing versions of the inbredline s ES, B10 , 0103 , N6 , ObJ+3 and 011515. have been developed and were

released in 1962 .

One new inbred line , Ohh5B , was released from the cooperative programat Wooster ,

Ohio . Six new hybrids developed in this program will be

available f or commercial production in 1963 . The line OhhSB is one

of the parents of four of the se six hybrids .

Three new white line s were released from the Cooperative program conducted at Columbia , Mi s souri . The se were Mo .luw, Mo .1SW and Mo .16W .

Mo .15W and Mo .16W are used in special hybrids developed f or use by the

cdb - pipe industry .

b . Inheritance of c orn borer re sistance . Chromosomal translocationshave been used to identify the chromosome arms carrying gene s f or

re sistance to corn borer leaf - feeding . The inbred line CI . 31A has

a gene or gene s f or resistance on the short arm of chromosome 2, on

b oth arms of chromosome h and pos sibly on the long arm of 10 .

at the Mi s sis sippi Station on the relative yielding ability of dwarfand normal hybrids . The highest yielding hybrid, of the group te sted ,was a dwarf single - cross , T20h x GT112 . The two height groups , however ,did not differ significantly in average performance .

phyll corns f or the poultry broiler industry is being continued at

Mis sissippi in cooperation with the Northern Utilization Re search and

Development Laboratory . Existing corn inbred line s and hybrids exhibita wide range in xanthophyll content . A f ew line s derived from cros se sof native and exotic type s have xanthophyll concentrations in exce s sof 60 p .p .m . Hybrids having at lea st three of the parental line s highin xanthophyll were evaluated f or yield in 1962 . Several of this groupwere equal to the standard che ck in yield . Therefore the developmentof high - yielding , high- xanthophyll hyb rids appears to be entirelyfeasible .

of amylose percentage on a single kernel basis . Preliminary re sultsobtained at the Mi s souri Agricultural Experiment Station sugge st thatthe mean amylose percentage from single kernel analysis is somewhathigher than that Obtained by bulk analyses , using the standard method .

The single kernels used in this study can be grown and will be usedto determine parent - progeny relationships .

15

f . Earworm re sistance . Mas s sele ction f or earworm re sistance was

begun at Columbia , Mi ssouri in 1956 in two synthetic varietie s . Five

cycles of sele ction have now been completed . Significant progre s s hasbeen made in both syntheti cs . In addition a number of inbred line s havebeen developed posses sing resistance to the earworm . Hybrids involvingthe se lines have been evaluated f or earworm re sistance at both Colu mbia

,

Miss ouri and State College , Mi s sis sippi . Several of the hybrids ex

hibited greater re sistance than the re sistant che ck,Dixie 18 .

In cooperation with the Entomology Re search Division studies were continned at Mis sis sippi on the larval feeding habits of the corn earworm .

Resistance to earwor m damage is in part morphological and involve s suchaspe cts as length of husk extension beyond the ear tip , the diameter ofthe silk channel and the number and growth rate of the silks . Bio

chemical difference s among the silks als o appear to be involved .

Preliminary data sugge st a relationship between earworm sus ceptibilityand the reducing sugar content of the sill .

at each of the locations where cooperative work is in progres s .

Cytogenetic studies are concentrated at Lincoln , Nebraska and

College Station , Texas . Studie s on di sease resistance at Manhattan,Kansas and College Station, Texas and the genetics of othercharacteristic s at Chillicothe , Texas ; Ft . Hays , Kansas ; Lincoln ,Nebraska and Stillwater , Oklahoma .

a . Chromosome marker stocks . Extensive cytogenetic studie s are

underway at College Station , Texas and Lincoln , Nebraska on the

progeny of haploids (one chromosome set per plant ) and triploids(three complete chromosome sets per plant ) with the objective ofi solating suitable chromosomal marker stocks . In the progeny of26 haploids , 386 plants were diploids , 5 were trisomi cs , and 1 was

haploid . No monosomic plants were found . Haploids therefore donot appear to be a useful sour ce f or aneuploid cytologi cal stocks .

In contrast progeny from 1 triploid , 903 , produced 17 trisome s ,1 double trisomi c and additional plants whi ch are probably tri somi c .

Triploids occur in normal populations with a frequency of approxi

mately 1 per 3000 plants .

b . Genetic basis of heterosis . Estimate s of general and spe cificcombining ability provide some evidence on the type of gene actioninvolved in heterosis . 190 sorghum hybrids were studied at Lincoln ,Nebraska . Both additive and non- additive gene effe cts were foundto be of importance f or yield , seed size , and most of the othertraits studied . Additive effe cts , however , were numerically the

greater and were also more stable over environments . Crosses withas f ew as four te sters were found to provide an adequate basi s f or

estimating average hybrid. perf ormance .

tions . The use of 3-way hybrids may have some advantage becauseof possible reduction in seed. production costs . Comparative testsof single , three -way and double - cros s hybrids were conducted at

the Ft . Hays , Kansas station in 1961 and 1962 . Both three -way

and double - cros s yields were signifi cantly greater than. those ofsingle - cros ses . The yield of three -way cro s se s appeared to be

more stable over seasons than either of the other hybrid types .

t have been reported to influence only internode elongation . Re centstudies in Kansas and Texas suggest that leaf area and yield. may alsobe affected .

These findings are substantiated by the lower yieldsof h- dwarf line s as compared with their 3- dwarf counterparts . In

general the yields of h- dwarf have been inf erior to the yields of

similar 3 - dwarf hybrids .

c. New hybrids released . Four neW

'

hybrids were released from the

Texas Station .The se are RS 616 , RS 621 , RS 622 and RS 623 . Each

of the se is 3 x A dwarf combination . Seed was also released of two

grain grass sorghums , SA 3059 and SA 3056 .

Parental seed. has been distributed from the Nebraska Station f or the

commercial production of seed of 6 additional hybrids . The numbersand pedigrees of these hybrids are as follows

Number Exp . Number Pedigree

Martin x Plainsman-Midland M917Combine Kafir 60 x Plainsman

Martin x Txlub,

Combine Kaf ir 60 x Txluh

Wheatland x Plainsman-Midland4917

B . Diseases

1 . Corn Disease s

a .underway at Raleigh, North

Carolina on intra and inter- spe cific hybrids involving severalspe

cies of Helminthosporium, These studie s have as their Obje ctive

a clarifi cation of the importance of hybridization and recombination

on the development of new and more virulent pathogenic forms . The

re sults to date may be summarized as follows

-.L?

(1 ) Studie s with intra - spe cific hybrids of H . sativum indicatethat pathogeni city to spe cific hosts is conditioned by a

single gene or gene system .

(2 ) Interspecific hybrids between H . carb onum an d H . victoriae

indicate gene s f or pathogenicty may be inherited eitherindependently or linked .

( 3 ) Certain interspecific hybrid progeny were pathogenic to hostsresistant to both parental isolate s , demonstrating increasedpathogenic potential from hybridi zation between. species .

(h) Geneti c recombination can produce strains of the fungus withgreater pathogenicity than that associated with the conidialpopulations .

(5) Strains of H . victoriae were shown by bioas say to differ in

toxin producing potential . Variation in toxin production is

quantitative and controlled by many gene s . These studiesconstitute the first demonstration of the genetic controlof toxin. production in fungi .

b . Rust . The identification of sources of resistance to Puccinia

polysora was continued at Beltsville , Nu t Preliminary data on in

heritance indi cate s that several gene s are involved some of whichcondition re sistance in the dominant and others in the re ce s sivestate . The development of isogenic line s , to facilitate furtherte sting , is well under way .

A new inbred line BlhA has been developed at Ame s , Iowa whichpos se s ses resi stance to all of the commonly oc curring races ofcorn leaf rust , Puc cinia sorghi . This line and its rust sus

ceptible counterpart , Blh, were compared in single - cros s yieldtrials under natural and rust epiphytotic conditions . Undernatural conditions the means of the two serie s of cros ses were

similar . Under conditions of heavy rust infe ction the re sistanthybrids produced yield increases of 21 percent .

c . Stalk rots . Comparative studies were conducted at Lafayette ,Indiana with re sistant and sus ceptible single - cros se s using hmethods of inoculation and three stalk rotting pathogens , Diplodiama dis

, Gibberella , zeae and Fusarium moniliforme . The differencesamong methods of inoculation and strains within the pathogen were

small as compared to the difference s between hosts .

Diplodia maydis is one of the important pathogens involved in stalkrot of corn . Experiments conducted at Madison , Wis consin suggestthat there are important difference s in pathogenicity among strains .

These differences appear not to be related to geographical originsince virulent and avirulent cultures were obtained from each State .

18

Spore load of the inoculum appeared to affect the severity of the

di sease symptoms . variations in pathogeni city , however , cannot be

entirely accounted f or by variations in amount of spore formation .

Preliminary ob servations made at Lafayette , Indiana on the relationship of boron and zinc fertilization to stalk rot showed a slighttrend toward less stalk rot where either one or both elements hadbeen applied . The effe ct , however , was not marked and geneticre sistance of the host was f ar more effective in reducing stalkrot than the soil amendments . Observations made on the relationship of soil inse cticides to incidence of stalk rot failed to

indicate any reduction in amount of stalk rot where dieldrin was

applied to soil to control northern and southern corn root worm .

d . Ear rot . A corn ear rot caused by Hormodendrum clados oroideswas generally distributed throughout southern Wis consin in l§62 .

In some fields at least a third of the ears were infe cted with a

resulting loss in yield . This disease has been reported previouslyf or cribbed corn put into storage at a high moisture content .

Artificial inoculation studies are planned f or 1963 to search f or

pos sible sources of resistance .

e . Downy mildew . Studie s on control of downy mildew of corn con

ducted in the Philippines under a PL- h80 proje ct , have indicated that

spraying corn with chemicals can control the disease to a limiteddegree , and that resistant line s of corn are available which can

be used in breeding programs .

a los s of approximately bushels in southern Kansas in 1962 .

Head smut was more prevalent than in previous years . Ten to 25

percent of smutted plants were not uncommon in irrigated fields ofwestern Kansas .

a . Head smut . Artificial inoculation technique s have been devisedf or evaluating re sistance to head smut . With this technique sus

ceptible varieties may exhibit 70 to 75 percent of smutted plants .

The old varieties Early Hegari , Spur Feterita and Double - dwarfWhite Feterita. are highly resistant or immune .

b . Charcoal rot . The evaluation of resistance to charcoal rot has

not proven feasible under uncontrolled field conditions . Evaluationshave been. possible in the greenhouse . All plants appear to be highlyresistant prior to blooming . Af ter blooming inoculated sus ceptibleplants develop typical rotting symptoms very rapidly if subjected totemperature and moisture stre s s . The possibility of field inoculations in Arizona will be investigated . In this State temperature sare favorable f or development of the disease and water stress can

be initiated at any time through control of irrigation water .

c . Milo di sease . A laboratory technique has been devised f or

s creening seedling s f or re si stance to Periconia circenata at CollegeStation, Texas . This organism cause s a very destructive di seaseof milo and milo derivatives . The organism. is cultured in liquidmedia and the seedlings exposed to the dilute filtrate . Sus ceptibleseedlings die in about 6 days while re sistant seedlings are not

seriously affected . Resistance appears to be simply inherited .

The mutation rate from sus ceptibility to re sistance is of the

order of l per h- 5000 gamete s .

Nebraska f or the past 6 years . In some years the seedlings are

killed and in other year s growth is retarded . Good control was

obtained by fumigating the soil with 1 pound of methyl bromideper 50 s quare feet . Nematode counts were suf ficiently high to

suggest that they may contribute to the problem .

C . Culture and Physiology.

1 . Corn .

a . Protein. metabolism , Three ribonuclease s have been isolatedfrom germinating corn seedlings . Ribonuclease A , which is foundin the s cutellum and endoeperm, has been highly purified and appearsto be similar to the Ribonuclease s isolated from other plants .

Ribonucleases B and C can be isolated. most easily by pre cipitatingwith the cellular particulate material with sub sequently separationfrom the particles . It appears that Ribonucleases A is a degredative enzyme but the specific roles of Ribonu cleases B and C remainto be clarified .

corn borer has become a very destructive pe st in the South . Re

sistent type s are not yet available and a comb ination of earlyplanting and use of insecticides offers some measure of control .

Corn planted between April 10 and June 1 in Mi s sis sippi was

severely damaged by the Southwestern corn borer in 1962 .

c . Factors in European corn. borer damage . Studies were conductedon the influence of fertilization and plant populations on yieldreductions caused by leaf - feeding of the European corn b orer . The

results obtained indicated that (a ) yield reduction due to borerfeeding was slight f or single - cros ses involving re sistant parents ,(b ) yield reductions increased with increase s in plant populations ,and ( c ) yield reductions increased with fertilization . First broodleaf feeding re sulted in greater yield reductions than did se condbrood feeding though reduction in yield was significant in bothc ases .

d . Carbohydrate metabolism, In basic studies on carbohydratemetabolism. conducted in India under a LPL-h80 project , and using

tapioca as the test plant , alkaline fr uctose diphospliatase

appears to play an important role in the photosynthetic fixationof carbon dioxide .

2 . Sorghum.

a . Xenia . The problem of xenia was extensively explored at

Lincoln , Nebraska . The F1 seed from crosses of sterile x restorerlines exhibited a significant increase in both seed weight and seedvolume . Hybrid seed also developed at a faster rate than the

parental type s and reached physiologi c maturity in a shorter periodof time .

b . Seed dorman y. Periodi c harvests were used to determine the

effe cts of moisture at time of harvest and drying temperature on

dormancy . Dormancy was more pronounced and persi sted f or a longerperiod when. seed

'

was dried. at temperatures of 100 to 110 F0 ratherthan 70 to 80 F0 . Dormancy was also related to the initial moisturecontent of the seed being more pronounced in samples having higherinitial moisture content .

on developing seeds f or the period 10 to 50 days following pollination . Protein percentages were highest f or the first harvest ,de creased f or suc ceeding harve st finally reaching a constant levelat about the time of physiologi c maturity .

d . Planti rates . Plant population studie s have been conductedf or the Ft . Hays Branch Station in Kansas . The

differences between 18 and 36 inch rows was not significant . The

highest yields were obtained from. the lower'

plant p opulations ,10 to 17 thousand plants per acre .

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Loe s ch , P . J . , Jr . , Zuber , M . S . , and Grogan , C . 0 . 1963 . Inheritance of crushing strength and rind thicknes s in several inbredlines of corn . Crop Sci . pp . 173 - l7h .

Penny, L . H . ,Rus sell , W . A . ,

and Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Types ofgene action in yield heterosis in maize . Crop Sci . 2 (h) , pp .3h1

3hh .

Rawlings , J . 0 . and Cockerham , C . C . 1962 . Analysi s of double crosshybrid populations . Biometri cs pp . 229-2hh. June 1962 .

Rawlings , J . and Thomp son , D . L . 1962 . Performance level as a

criterion f or the choi ce of maize te sters . Crop Sci .

pp . 217- 220 .

Ready, G . M . , and Coe , E . H . 1962 . Inter - tissue complementationa simple te chnique f or direct analysis of gene - action sequence .

Science l38 (35 pp .- 150 .

Reddy, G . M . , and Coe , E . H . , Jr . 1962 . Extension of the gene

action sequence in anthocyanin synthesis in maize by somespe cial tests . (Abs . ) Geneti cs h9 (8) , p . 978 .

Rodrigue z , A . E . , and Ullstrup , A . J . 1962 . Pathogenicity ofmonoascosporic progenie s of Trichometasphaeria turci ca .

Phytopatholosy pp . 599 - 601 .

Russell , W . A . , Penny, L . H . ,Scott , G . E . , and Busch , R . H . 1962 .

1962 Iowa experimental corn trials . (Mimeo . ) Dept . Agron .

Rept . 595 .

Russell ,W . A . , Sprague , G . E . , and Penny, I . 1963 . Mutations

affecting quantitative characters in long - time inbred line s ofmaize . Crop Sci . pp . 175- 178 .

S chertz , K . F . 1962 . Chromosomal behavior of sorghum haploids and

their progenies . Agron Abs . 1962 , p . 75.

S chertz , K . F . 1962 . Cytology , fertility , and gros s morphology ofindu ced polyploids of sorghum vulgare . Canad . J . Genet . and

Cytol . h(7 ) , pp . 179 - 186 .

Singleton , 0 . V . and Zuber , M . S . 1963 . 1962 Sorghum performancetrials . Mo . Agr .Expt . Sta . Spe cial Report 2h. Jan . 1963 .

Singleton, O . V . , and Zuber , M . S . 1963 . 1962 Mis souri hybrid cornyield trials . nMo . Agr . Expt . Sta . Spe cial Report 23 . Feb . 1963 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Hybrid corn . USDA Yearbook of Agriculture1962 , pp . 106 - 107 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Report of the Seventeenth Southern CornImprovement Conference . USDA OH- l7 - 62 , 76 pp . March 1962 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Report of the Seventeenth Northeastern CornImprovement Conference . USDA CR- 25—62 , h3 pp . March 1962 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Minutes of the meeting of the North Centralcorn breeding re search committee , 1962 . USDA CR- 38- 62 , 100 pp .

April 1962 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . The Story of Corn . USDA ARS 3h- 36 , 1h pp .

May 1962 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . Heterosis : a review of theories and currentconcepts . Agronomy Abs . 1962 , p . 76 .

Sprague , G . F . 1963 . Report of the Eighteenth southern cornimprovement conference . USDA CR - 15- 63 , 109 pp . March 1963 .

Sprague , G . F . 1962 . [Release of white inbred line CI .127 ] . USDACR - 2u- 62 . USDA (Mimeo ) . April 1 , 1962 .

Sprague , G . F . 1963 . Report of the eighteenth Northeastern cornimprovement conference . USDA CR- 16 - 63 , 30 pp . March 1963 .

Sprague , G . F . 1963 . Minutes of the meeting of the North Centralcorn breeding research committee . USDA CR- 18- 63 . March 1963 .

Sprague , G . F . 1963 . Plant and animal genetics . In Research neededto solve industry- s 1970 problems and who should do it . Agr .

Res . Inst . Proc . 1962 , pp . hl - h8 .

Sprague , G . F . , Rus sell , W . A . , Penny, L . H . , Horner , T . W . , and

Hanson , W . D . 1962 . Effe ct of epistasis on grain yield and

maize . Crop Sci .- 208 .

Stephens , J . C . 1963 . RS616 - RS621 -RS622 - RS623 . 3 - dwarf x h- dwarfgrain sorghum hybrids . Texas Leaflet 589 . February 1963 .

Ullstrup , A . J . 1963 . Sour ce s of re sistance to northern corn leafblight . Plant Dis . Rptr . h7 (2 ) , pp . 107- 108 .

Walter , T . L. , Gwin , R . E . , Lawles s , J . R . ,Ross

, W . M . , et al .

1962 . Kansas grain s orghum performance tests , 1961 . KansasAgr . Expt . Sta . B . hh6 , 32 pp .

web ster , 0 . J . 1962 . Report of regional sorghum te sts 1961 . USDACH- 37- 62 , 66 pp .

Webster , 0 . J . 1962 . Release of seed of sorghum line 3h9h f or use

as pollinators in the production of sorghum hybrids . Nebr . Agr .

Expt . Sta . and CRD , ARS , USDA (Mimeo . ) April 1 , 1962 .

Web ster , 0 . J . 1963 . Report of regional sorghum tests 1962 . USDACR ' 23 ‘ 63 ) 58 PP

Zuber , M . S . 1963 . Release of three white dent corn inbred line s[Mo .1uw, Mo .l5W and Mo .16W ] . jMo . Agr . Expt . Sta . and CBS , ARS ,USDA February 1

,1963 .

Disease s

Bennett , S . E . , and Josephson , L . M . 1962 . Methods of artificialinfestation of corn with the earworm, Heliothis zea . J . Econ .

Enx. pp . 797- 798 .

Boling , Max , Grogan , C . and Broyle s , J . W . 1963 . A new methodf or artificially producing epiphytoti cs of fusarium ear rot ofmaize . Plant Dis . Rptr . u7 (h ) , pp . 315- 317 .

Broyles , J . W . 1962 . Penetration of meristematic tissue s of cornby Physoderma maydi s . Phytopathology pp . 1013 -1016 .

Cre ss , C . E . , and Thompson , D . L . 1962 . Early evaluation of cornf or resistance to brown spot . Crop Sci . 2 (h) , pp . 330 - 333 .

Fuente s , Santiago , DeLourdes de la Lisa , Maria , Ullstrup, A . J . , and

Rodriguez , A . E . 1962 . Ergot of maize in Mexico . (Abs . )Phytopathology p . 733 .

Josephson, L . M; 1962 . Effe cts of'

potash on premature stalkdying and lodging of corn . Agron . J . 5h(2 ) , pp . 179- 180 .

Hoppe , P . E . 1962 . Doe s the corn leaf blight fungus surviveWis consin winters ? Plant Dis . Rptr . h6 (6 ) , pp . hhh- hh5.

Loe s ch , P . J . , Jr . , Calvert, 0 . H . , and Zuber , M; S . 1962 . Interrelations of Diplodia stalk rot and two morphologi cal traitsas sociated with lodging of corn . Crop Sci . pp . A69-u72 .

Malm, N . R . and Beckett , J . B . 1962 . Reactions of plants in the

t

gibe Maydeae to Puc cinia sorghi Schw . Crop Sci . 2 (h) , pp . 360

3 1 .

Nelson, R . R . 1963 . Interspecific hybridization in the fungi .

Mycologie pp . 104- 123 .

Nelson , R . R . and Kline , D . M , 1962 . variation in. pathogenicitywithin certain Helminthosporium. spp . to sele cted spe cies ofthe Gramineae . (Abs . ) Phytopathology h2 (l ) , pp . . 22 - 23 .

Nelson, R . R . , and Kline , D . M . 1962 . Intraspecifi c variation in

pathogenicity in the genus Helminthosporium gramineous species .

Phytopathology pp . 10h5- 10h9 .

Nelson , R . R . , and Kline , D . M; 1963 . Gene systems f or pathogenicity and pathogeni c potentials . I . Interspecifi c hybrids ofCochliobolus carbonum. x Cochliobolus victoriae . Phytopathology

pp . 101 -105 .

Nelson, R . R . , Scheffer , R . P . , and Pringle , R . B . 1963 . Geneticcontrol of toxin production in Helminthosporium victoriae .

Phytopathology 53 (h) , PP o 385- 387Robert , Alice L . 1962 . New hosts f or three Helminthosporium. species

from corn . Plant Dis . Rptr . u6 (s) , pp . 321 - 3eu.

Robert , Alice L . 1962 . H0 st ranges and race s of the corn rusts .

Phytopathology pp . 1010 -1012 .

R0bert , Alice L . 1962 . Symposium on weather and plant disease .

Turbulent transfer of fungus spore s . Phytopathologypp . 1095- 1100 .

Rogers , W . E . , and Nelson , R . R . 1962 . Penetration and nutritionof Striga asiatica . Phytopathology pp . 106h- 1070 .

Brunson , A . M . and Quackenbush , F . W . 1962 . Breeding corn withhigh. provitamin A in the grain . Crop Sci . 2 (h) , pp . 3hh- 3h7 .

Edmunds , L . K . 1962 . The relation of plant maturity , temperature

and soil moisture to charcoal stalk rot development in grainsorghum . (Abs . ) Phytopathology p . 731 .

Fergason, V . L . and Zuber , M . S . 1962 . Influence of environmenton amylose content of maize endosperm . Crop Sci . pp . 209211 .

Owen , F . G . , and Web ster , 0 . J . 1963 . Effect of sorghum maturity

at harve st and variety on certain chemical constituents in

sorghum silages . Agron . J . pp . 167- 169 .

Rosenow, D . T . , Casady , A . J . , and Heyne , E . G . 1962 . Effe cts offree zing on germination of sorghum seed . Crop Sci .

pp . 99 - 102 .

Ros s , w. M . , and Bieberly, F . G . 1962 . Growing and utilizingsorghum in Kansas . Kans . Agr . Extension Cir . C- 301 .

Sti ckler , F . C . , Pauli , A . W . , and Casady, A . J . 1962 . Comparativeresponses of Kaoliang and other grain sorghum type s to tempera

ture . Crop Sci . pp . 136 - 139 .

Thomp son, D . L . 1962 . Stalk strength of Mexican strains of maize .

N . C . State Col . Dept . Crop Sci . Res . Report No . 1 , 3h pp .

July 1962 .

Thompson , D . L . 1962 . Stalk strength of corn as measured by crushing pres sure and rind thickne s s . Agron . Abs . 1962 , p . 77 .

webster , O . J . 1963 . Effect of harve st dates on forage sorghumyields , percentag es of dry matter , protein , and soluble soils .

- Agron . J . pp . 17h- 177 .

BREEDING , DISEASES AND VARIETY EVALUATIONCr0ps Research Division , ARS

Problem. Wheat and rye are grown under a wide variety of conditionsin the United States . Consequently, a broad array of

environments, diseases, market outlets, etc . , are met. The probleminvolves breeding better adapted varieties with resistance to peststhat will give good yields to the farmer and have high quality in the

market place . Specific aspects of the problem. may be very differentin different geographical areas ; hence, a program of work at many

'

locations is required.

PROGRAM

The Department has a long- range program of research and researchleadership in wheat and rye investigations . The objectives of the

research are to stabilize production by reducing losses, to increaseefficiency of production, to improve the quality of wheat and rye

wherever grown in the United States, and to accumulate and dissemi

nate knowledge . This basic and applied research program is performedin the laboratory, greenhouse or field, and involves the sciences ofagronomy, ecology, physiology, genetics, cytology, pathology,entomology, chemistry, physic s, and stati stic s . Regional and national leadership is given to several phases of the work.

The primary Federal effort is concentrated in 10 resear ch centers .

Twelve additional locations are required either to provide proximity'

to the location of the problem, or to take advantage of facilitiesor contacts with workers located at such stations ,

Basic and applied work on three rusts of wheat, four smuts, two

Septoria diseases, four viruses, several root rotting organisms,mildew, and numerous other diseases to obtain means of controlreceive the attention of 19 professional employees . In four center squality testing and evaluation of varieties and basic chemistry and

technology research utilize 20 professional employees . The numerousaspects of quality come into prominence in all breeding programs( state , federal, or private ) , and chemical treatments, soil management and f arm. handling practice s all have an influence on levels ofquality that m ay result in what the farmer sells . Basic work on

wheat genetic s and the development of improved germ plasm and breeding of new varieties involves 18 professional workers . Included isbasic work to transfer useful genes to wheat f rom. other specie s ofplants, learn the inheritance of important characters , study,

catalog,and maintain the world Collection (about accessions ) ,

and breed new types of wheat f or Special purposes semidwarfs,higher protein flour , mor e combinations of genes f or insect and

disease resistance ) . Leadership in each of the four maj or Wheatregions facilitates state- federal regional planning of certain tests,obtains uniform quality tests

, and promote s exchange among worker sof seed stocks

,data, and useful information. Culture, physiology,

hardiness, stand establishment and other such problems utili ze 3 .hprofessional men. The cost of this research is estimated at about2¢ per harvested acre of the creps concerned.

Under the Public Law'

h80 program six wheat and rye research proj ectsare sponsored in Poland, Egypt, Spain, and Israel . These includework on rusts, smuts, and root systems of wheat, natural hybridizetion in relation to the origin of wheat and rye, and the use of polypoidy in rye breeding .

PROGRESS

A . Br eeding and Genetics

1 . H brid Wheat . Research in Nebraska and Kansas revealed a

restorer mechanism f or use with timopheevi male sterile stocks .

This discovery makes possible f or the first time an Opportunity to

study heterosis in wheat on a field scale and to determine the

economic feasibility of hybrid wheat. Irrespective of its economicuse

,the system. will permit population genetic s experiments with

wheat heretofore quite limited by the requirement of hand pollinationin ordinary stocks . Se ed stocks are being made available to

breeders .

2 . New varieti es . New varieties released j ointly by ABS and one or

more States are given below.

Three new winter wheat varieties were released and certified inNebraska in 1963 . They are Gage Scout 135u6 ) ,and Lancer 135h7 ) . All are highly productive and possess theHope resi stance to stem rust. Other important characteristic s ofGage are leaf rust resistance, moderate resistance to soilbornemosaic , moderate hessian f ly resistance, resistance to loose smut,and early maturity. Scout has excellent tolerance to streak mosaic ,some degree of re sistance to hessian f ly, resistance to loose smut,early maturity, and excellent quality , Lancer has good winter

hardiness, moderately early maturity, stiff straw, and excellentquality. Gage is best adapted f or southeastern Nebraska, Scout f orsouth- central and southwestern Nebraska, and Lancer f or all areasof the State except the southeastern and south- central croppingdistricts . An estimated 1200 bushels of Gage, 1200 bushels of Scout,and 500 bushels of Lancer will be available f or distribution in 1963 .

Crim is a new hard red spring wheat variety released in Minnesota.

The variety 131465, Minn. II-SB-hOh) has given excellent yields,has high resistance to stem rust and good quality. About 900 bushelswere distributed.

Knox 62 became available to certified seed grower s in the fall of1962 in Indiana and nearby States . It has resi stance to hessian f lyand generally shows less loose smut than Knox. It has earliness ,good yield, and high quality similar to Knox.

Reed al so became available in the fall of 1962 through the Indiana

program . It is a soft red winter wheat of the Dual type that is

superior to the latter variety in yielding capacity, grain quality,and straw strength .

3 . Gaines Semidwarf Makes Record Yield. What appears to be a worldrecord yield of BusheIs per acre was established by Gaines on

11 acres in Washington . Increase of the variety was from 75 bushelsin 1960 to bushels in 1962 in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho .

The 1963 acreage of this variety is e stimated to be nearly one

million acres.

11. Semidwarf Clubs and Other fi gs. Progress in breeding f or semi

dwar clu s equ ing Gaines in e i ciency of production is slow but

encouraging. The two be st ones performed favorably with Gaines inthe regular variety trial s but were more severly damaged by striperust. However , when compared with Omar these two represent verygood progress . Even more encouraging progress appears

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to be re

presented in the several thousand new F plant selections made fromcrosses of Selection 101 and Gaines wit several of the semidwarfclubs .

Semidwarf har d red spring and hard red winter types showed goodperformance in Idaho, Utah, Montana, Texas, and Nebraska trials .

Semidwarf durums presently available are deficient in quality ofseed and semolina color but under favorable conditions they givegoodg i elds.

5. Genetics of High Protein Content in Wheat. In Nebraska tests,

grain protein n t e crosses s u is was a h ghly heritablecharacteristic ; two or more genes conditioned high protein in the

crosses studied; one of the genes f or high protein was closely linkedwith a gene f or leaf rust resistance in Atlas 66; the linked proteingene may be dominant in effect but there is no evidence of a pre

ponderance of dominant gene s f or either high or low protein. The

high grain protein was attainable without sacrificing yield or otheragronomic and most quality characteristic s .

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8. Translocations f rom .A ro on H brids. In recapitulation of the

work done on this project since its beginning in 1959, a total of 9translocations have been recovered from. the first lot of 500 Xoseed. Results with the second lot of 620 X0 seed though lessadvanced indicate up to 12 more translocation types may be at hand.

These figures may have to be revi sed downward after complete and

exhaustive cytogenetic analysis has been conducted with each . Howe

ever,both genetic and cytological data support these estimates .

The mere fact that in 5 cases translocation types have been recoveredin which the inheritance pattern f or leaf rust follows a simplemonofactorial type of inheritance indicates a high degree of successin this proj ect.

9 . Cause of Sterilit in‘

WheatAR e H brida Sou ht.‘

When the selffertile species Seoale vavilovii was used instead of self - sterilecommon rye in the production of an amphiploid with Chinese Springwheat, the resulting allo- octoploid was highly sterile . Th erefore,the less than full fertility of wheat- rye amphiploids probably hasother causes than self- sterility of the rye .

A P.L. M8O project in Spain (E- 25- CR- 5) involves development ofseveral autoploid ryes f rom. inbred and ordinary varieties and new

amphiploids of wheat crossed with rye to improve fertility and

increase disease resistance in rye.

10." Pairin Gene" Basic to New Theo of Evolution of Wheat. Of

great significance in wheat cytogenetic s was the recent discovery(in Missouri and England) of a gene that prevents the pairing ofrelated (homoeologous ) chromosomes without appreciably interferingwith the pairing of homologues . It now seems clear that when

tetraploid wheat arose, through chromosome doubling in a hybridbetween two closely related species, its chromosomes pairedirregularly, with numerous multivalent associations. Fertility was

consequently low, and survival of the new Species was in doubt. A

mutation to preVent homoeologous pairing would allow only bivalentpairing and thereby result in full fertility.

In wide hybrids, with the pairing gene absent, up to ten times thenormal amount of pairing may occur . In order that the fulle st use

may be made of the chromosomedv effect, as it is called, the

increased pairing must be obtainable in another way than throughcomplete deficiency f or chromosome 53 (V ) . Therefore, in collaborative work, X- rays have been used to knock out the locus of the

pairing suppressor . Three deficiencies have been obtained and are

to be tested f or male tra nsmi ssion and homozygote vigor .

11 . Chemical .Muta ens Give New Genetic Markers . A. number ofmutants were oBtEined in Missouri using ethylemethane - sulfonate thatwere dif f eront from tho se resulting f rom. ionizing radiation In

cluded was a chlorophyll mutant, apparently a simple recessive . It

seems clear that EMS induces frequent gene changes in wheat, whilethe effect of X- rays is almost exclusively the production ofduplications and deficiencies . It may be possible with EMS to obtainenough mutants suitable f or genetic studies to permit the mapping ofall the chromosomes of wheat.

Two "banded- shrivel " mutants and a virescent seedling mutant were

induced by ethyl sulfate in wells durum in North Dakota. Eachappeared to be controlled by

'

a single recessive gene .

12. Inheritance of Bunt Resistance . Fh data support interpretationof F

3datd in regard to the number of genes which condition bunt

resistance of P .I . 178383, P .I . 178210, and P .I . 116306 to bunt(Oregon ) . Resistance is conditioned by three, one and one gene s,respectively. Resistance is dominant in all 3 varieties . Mbnosomic

studies indicate the T and R genes are located on chromosome 1.

Bronze chaff factor in Golden is also on chromosome 1 which supportsreports of linkage between T, R, and the bronze chaff factor .

13 . Crown Roots and Related. In a P.L. h80 proj ect inIsr pattern of crown roots in earlymaturing wheats proved to be quite different from that seen in certain

late maturing varieties . Varieties differing in lodging rates haVebeen incorporated into crosses to study the relation of roots and

lodging .

B . Diseases

1 . Stem Rust Continues to be Serious Threat. The Unif orm. and

Internatiofidl Rust Nursery programs were continued. Results from1961 and 1962 indicate that in some locations (Kenya particularly )almost none of our sources of stem rust resistance are effective .

This indicates that a more intensive search f or resistance must beinitiated and other means of control inve stigated. Tests in PuertoRico were at 3 locations . The 1962 IBM comprised 600 entries ofspring wheat at 6h locations and 300 winter wheats at 32 locations .

New races of stem rust have been discovered on the North Ameri can

continent which in seedling tests conducted by the Cooperative RustLaboratory in the greenhouse are virulent on many common wheatsresi stant to the previously known races . Races 111i: and D E ,especially, and ISE-h are important in thi s respect since they are

virulent on most of the following wheats : Selkirk, Frontana x

K58/Newtatch, Kenya Farmer, Bowie, Pembina, Canthatch , and Sr6, Sr7,Sr8, Sr9, SrlO, and Srll substitution lines . However , Justin, Milam,the wheat- rye translocation and substitution lines of Acosta and

Sears, and a number of durums are resistant to these races . Certain

of these cultures are to be used in Puerto Rico tests in 1963- 614 .

Stem rust caused losses of to of the winter wheat crop incertain central and north - central States. These losses are attri

buted to susceptibility of the winter wheat varieties grown to

physiologic race 56. In contrast, losses in spring bread wheats were

negligible because the widely grown varieties Selkirk and Conley are

resistant to race 56 and cultures of race 15B that prevailed. A

small less in durum wheats is attributed to the susceptibility ofLangdon to a culture of 15B (158 Lakota and Wells, released in1960, were resistant. t is estimated that about 50% of the durum

acreage consisted of these varieties .

A broader attack on this disease is made possible by a P.L. h80project (E- 25-CR- 3 ) in Spain where types representing a wide rangeof pathogenicity have been collected

,some dif fering from those in

the USA . Another is being initiated in India.

2. E0 010 of Rust . Further experimants confirmed and extended

previous 512ndings of differences in incubation period in rust races .Apparent differences in sporulation were observed at various temperatures . The ability of stem rust race 56 to develop more rapidly than1SE under Kansas conditions (and at lower temperatures ) was demonstrated by pustule counts on ar tificially inoculated plants . . A lessefficient infection phenomenon seen in ' Klein Cometa' appears to beinherited based on F

3progeny inoculated at Minnesota.

Rust movement across Texas was studied. A heavy spore shower causeda build-up of stem rust in the Iowa Park and Sherman areas which in

turn supplied inoculum f or the rust epidemic that occurred in Kansasand Nebraska .

3 . Liguid Nitrogen Storage of Rust. The utility of liquid-nitrogen

storage 0 rus inocu um as een emonstrated. Use of this methodin other labs should increase quality and quantity of work wi th the

same facilities previously available plus a liquid- nitrogen re

f rigerator .

h. New Leaf Rust Differentials gfiplored. The genes f or resi stance

to la rus races an ave een red into a Wichita background by crossing Wi chita with each of the differential varietiesfollowed by repeated backcrossing to Wichita. They were in the uthto the 6th backcross in 1962 and all appear to be typical Wichitafrom the standpoint of plant character s . These lines were comparedwith the standard differentials by simultaneous tests with 10 of the

most widely known races in the US, and to many other cultures . For

many races the backcross lines gave the same reactions as the

standard differentials but always placed the races in the same unifiedgroup. These backcrosse s would have many advantages because the

seedlings are all alike morphologically;

A P.L. h8O project (E21- CR-h) in Poland has shown the presence ofraces of leaf rust useful in identifying new sources of resistance .

Two such varieties have been made available .

5. Chemical Control of Rust. In Minnesota, using an isolated plottechnic, Etudies of the relations between inoculum production,epidemic development, and chemical control of leaf and stem rusts on

Marqui s wheat indicated that rate of inoculum. production might be usedto forecast epidemic development by

'

5 to 7 days, that suppression ofinoculum. production by Chemicals has a role in the control of rustepidemic s, and that treatments of Dithane S- 31 are most ef f ectiVe

against epidemics of rust when applied at a rust incidence of 10 to

100 uredia per culm.

Dithane S- 31 applied to spring wheat in Minnesota by an airplaneand to winter wheat in Kansas controlled a leaf rust and a stem rustepidemic , respectively, and appeared to be financially profitable .

In the Kansas test, two applications of 3 pounds each 'reduced rustreadings from. 35% to Trace. Los s of effectiveness of nickel in wheatseedlings against infection by stem rust is associated with decliningconcentrations in the treated tissue as the nickel is redistributedthrough the untreated portions of the plant.

6. Host- Patho en Metabolism Studied. Niacin and pantothenic acid

contents of idlected plants Begin to increase with the developmentof internal stem. rust mycelium. and rise significantly as the fungussporulates . Vitamin B6 does not ri se with the progress of the disease .

Inherent differences in concentration of the 3 vitamins betweenresistant and susceptible varieties of wheat did not account f or theirresistance or susceptibility; The rise of niacin and pantothenic acid

level in the diseased- host tis sue is an effect of infection. Stem

rust uredospores are very rich in f at, in niacin, and pantothenicacid, but not in vitamin B6 '

Symptoms of powdery mildew in heavily infected leaves were divided

into two stages : young infections and at time of sporulation. The

first stage was one of delayed senescence in which host tissues hadrespiratory rates twice those of healthy tissues, increased dryweight and retardation of nitrogen loss . Since similar symptoms are

produced by chemical senescence inhibitors, it is likely thatsymptoms of young mildew infections are produced by an inhibitor of

senescence .

'

When the mildew sporulates , this stage is characterizedby an increase in respiration to rates three times those of healthytissue, by maintenance of dry weight, and by

'

a marked loss ofnitrogen. There is an equivalent gain in nitrogen by spores of the

mildew. The chlorosis which accompanie s this second stage, as wellas the nitrogen loss, suggest that the tis sues are in a state ofaccelerated senescence .

7. St e Rust See also A The finding that Golden, RedRu3 3 1an Morin 0 an Norin revor 1h were highly susceptible tostripe rust in all stages of plant development under field conditionswas of signif icance to plant breeders . These varieties had Showngood stripe rust resi stance prior to 1962. The cause of the reversalin varietal behavior is unknown, but it is known that three diver sepathogenic cultures of stripe rust exi st in the Northwest and thatclimate alter s the expression of resistance .

The effect of stripe rust on yield and test weight was measured at

washington in near isogenic lines of Burt of varying height levels .

These lines also varied as to presence or absence of so- called "adult

stripe rust resistance ." Susceptible isogenic lines yielded from 7

to 30 bushels per acre; adult resistant lines ranged in yield from39 to 63 bushels per acre . Susceptible lines of short height levelproduced 82% less than their adult resistant sibs, while within the

intermediate height group susceptible lines yielded 55 to 73% lessthan their resi stant sib s ; in the tall height group the differencebetween susceptible and adult resistant lines was h0% . Test ‘

weights

ranged from h0.0 to pounds per bushel f or susceptible and h8.9to 58.h pounds per bushel f or adult resistant lines . variety trialsin Montana showed large reduc eicns in yield but not in test weight.

The high degree of resistance of the variety Nerd Despraz was foundto break down when this selection was infected with L- 7 race ofcommon bunt under field conditions . This reaction was noted whenthe smut infected plants reached the flag leaf stage .

8. Mildew. Significant changes in the mildew population were

indi cated by infections on varieti es that had been resistant.

Increased virulence of the pathogen was noted in Michigan, New York,

Pennsylvania, and Maryland. Knox and Redcoat, two important softwinter wheat varieties that have been resistant, sustained con

siderable damage in 1962. The search f or new sources of resistancewas continued.

Through a series of backcrosses the diverse genes identified in the

commonly used differentials , and some other varieti es, includingvarieties from species other than the hexaploids, have been transferred to a common background in Chancellor . About 35 sources, someof which carry identical genes, are involved. About to wheatvarieties haVe been screened to 3b cultures of mildew although Over

250 varieties have been screened to several cultures and about 1000

wheats have been screened to one or more cultures of mildew.

9 . Smut Research. In view of the apparent increasing scope ofcereal disease problems in the Pacific Northwest and considering the

current low incidence of hunt, the activities of the Regional SmutResear ch Laboratory are gradually

'

expanding to include diseaseproblems other than smuts . Therefore, the name Regional Smut Researchlaboratory has been changed to Regional Cereal Disease ResearchLaboratory.

Collection originally collected f rom the variety Cache near

Malad City, Idah o, has been designated as a new race,T- 19. It is

similar to race T- 13 in pathogenicity but in addition attacksresistance conditioned by the M2 factor of Martin resi stance .

Data obtained indicate that sexual compatibility between 2 lines as

determined by the fusion of secondary'

sporidia, does not necessarilyinsure infection by such a combination Something other than a

sfimple plus and minus relationship is involved in the matings betweencertain isolates .

C .I . 7111 appears to carry resistance to all key races except L- 7.P .I . 173501 appear s to carry some unknown factor or minor factor sf or resi stance to race T- 15 alone . Two Elgin- type wheats, one

carrying the Hohenheimer- type resistance and the other carrying the

Hus sar factor f or resistance, have proved to be adequate replacementsf or the differential varieties Hohenheimer and Selection lho3,respectively ; Omar lhh will be substituted f or Omar lho among the

differential Varieties since it is more susceptible to race T- 18.

A Brevor- Idaed cross has some unknown factor since it is resistantto race T- l5 while being highly susceptible to races T- 13 and T-16 .

There is no previously known factor or combination of factors whichconditions this type of resistance .

Of 57 wheat entries screened f or resistance to dwarf bunt race D- 3,only P . I . 178383 remained completely smut- free . Other entries exs

hibiting high resistance were P .I . 173h38, P .I . 167556, P. I . 191096,P . I . 166910; h9 and Requa ° Delmar exhibited high resistance torace D~3 in tests at Pullman, washington, but was found to bemoderately susceptible in tests at Kalispell, Montana.

Time of infection studies with dwarf bunt have Shown over a 5fiyearperiod that infection oc cur s f rom. mid- December to April and that thegreatest amount of infection takes place during January;

Infection by seedborne spores of flag smut was best at 15°C and in

soil that was relatively dry, in this case 13 percent moisture on

an oven dry basis .

Nutrition studies with flag smut infected plants revealed thatnutrition did not affect sporulation in the leaves and that similarpercentages of flag smut developed in all nutrient solutions and in

distilled water .

Control of seedborne plus soilborne common bunt was obtained onlywith formulations of .HCB and TCNA . TCNA at 2 ounces per bushel was

particularly effective this year .

Good control of dwarf bunt was obtained by soil- surface applicationsof HCB, TCHA, and PCNB in experimental plots in

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washington . Goodcontrol of dwarf bunt was also obtained by soil- surface applicationsof HCB and PCNB at 2 to 10 pounds per acre under field conditionsnear Kalispell, Ehntana where high percentages of inf ection .occurred

in untreated plots . Aerial applications of HCB in _western Nontana

reduced the incidence of dwarf bunt from percent in the untreated

areas of a field to h. 6 percent in the treated portion (u.7h acres ) .

10. S orulates in Culture . The dwarf bunt fungus wasread eat kernels . The isolatedhyphae grew well and produced teliospores in sterile culture . However ,subcultures of the isolated hyphae gradually lost their capacity to

produce teliospores and were demonstrated to be non- pathogenic .Observations indicate that physiologic and pathogenic changes occurin the fungus soon after its isolation f rom. host tissue .

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Fear that the average protein content of the white wheat wouldincrease as the result of the wide- spread production of Gaines isunfounded. The evidence available indicates that even with the muchheavier applications of nitrogen fertilizers recommended f or thisvariety, there may be a slight decrease in the average proteincontent of the crop under the same weather conditions that producedprevious crops because of the much higher yield Gaines makes ."Luxury

"amounts of N produce higher protein wheats .

3 . Differential Varietal Response in D

11

}!vs . Irrigated Treatments .

ea varie m s 0 ass:. i s as s a e um er 0 reatments some imesbecome unstable when irrigated. Mellow gluten hard winter varietiesweakened more often under irrigation than strong gluten forms .

h. Triumph Wheats Similar . No one of h, Triumph wheats was con

sistently Best or poorest when grown at 14 locations in Oklah oma . The

Triumph wheats had similar overall quality characteristic s . If a

preference had to be indicated, it would be in favor of C .I . 12132.

5. D Bison wheat was sprayed with various quantities ofthe t salt, i sopropyl ester, and isooctyl ester ofdichlorophenonqracetic acid at 3, 2, and 1 week before ripe at Hays,Kansas(CPRB ) . Deviations in absorption, mixing time mixegram,corrected loaf volume, and other bread baking properties wi thin and

between treatments were no greater or less than would be expected f orreplications of any given treatment. Thus, none of the chemical,milling, or baking properties of Bison wheat were af fected by the

spraying treatments .

6. Free Amino Acid Content of Varieties Durin Develo ment. Kaw

and Pawnee wheat harvested at various stages 0?maturity from 27 dayspreripe to ripe were used to follow the changes in free amino acid

contents during maturation and gluten synthesis . Flour s from thesesamples were subjected to two- dimensional paper chromatography. The

concentration of each amino acid as well as the number of amino acidsf or Pawnee and 25 f or Kaw ) decreased materially and progressively,

in general, as the wheat kernel developed and matured, to such an

extent that only 7 of the 2b, or 25 detected at an early stage were in

sufficient concentration at the ripe stage to be detected. Bald ngdata showed that gluten protein synthesis was taking place during the

period when the concentrations of free amino acids were highest.

The two amide amino acids glutamine and asparagine are among the mostabundant amino acids at all stages of maturity. This may be ofsignificance when considering the origin of the purported high amide

N value of wheat gluten. Several non- protein amino acids were foundin both Pawnee and Kaw at the earliest stages of maturity.

7. Quality Changes with Maturity. Kaw wheat, which usually has a

somewhat lo wloaf volume potential often labeled as questionable, has,at 17 days before ripe, a volume potential that is more than 100 cc .

abOVe normal a nd superior to that f or Pawnee at a comparable stage ofmaturity ; Loaf volume potential of Pawnee is excellent. Proteolyticactivity of Pawnee and Kaw wheats and flour s was highest f or the

earliest stage of maturity and fell off sharply to a minimum. at 19days before ripe, remaining approximately

'

constant thereafter to ripe .

8. Sedimentation values Ref lect. Rbre Than Protein Differences .Material obtained By milling on TagéHeppenstafi moisture meter rollswas not representative of the total wheat endosperm, thereby

'

accounting f or some variation in sedimentation results . Low cor

relation of sedimentation with loaf volume and difficulty in blendingf or a specific sedimentation value are partially explained by this .Variation in wheat hardness appear s to account f or at least part ofthe inconsi stent and peculiar variation in protein content of wheat

and Tag flour . Protein quantity and quality differences that are

reflected in loaf volume above 1000 cc . essentially are not manifestedby sedimentation, primarily because protein contents above 1h to 15%in good quality samples are not clearly identified by the sedimentstion test. A. modif ied procedure has helped alleviate this limitation .

The flour f rom. f our varieties was fractionated and part of the crude

starch from each variety was ball milled before reconstitution. Noneof these reconstituted flours gave normal - looking sedimentation tests,and those with ball. milled starch were most abnormal . Apparently,the treatment

\so altered the various flour components that no useful

data could be obtained from the sedimentation test. After an hour ' sball milling, flour from these same four varieties all showed increased sedimentation volume s and the soft pastry flour was placedin the bread flour range . The increase in damaged starch and/oralteration of other flour components may account f or the change .

In Ohio, sedimentation values on flours f rom. Seneca Wheat dried at

130°C to 260°C showed a rise to a temperature of 210°C, followed byincreasing loss of volume at temperatures above this value . Pearlingindex rose with drying temperature, indicative of a kernel softeningeffect of heat.

9. soy Flour Bread. Bread- baking potentialities are affected by'

a

number of variables in the manufacture and composition of soy flour(used at approximately a soya protein level ) . Soy grits had a

le ss deleterious effect than finely powdered soy flour in Kansastests . Heat treatment tended to lower bread- baking potentialities,but the effect of such treatment was le ss pronounced in coarse soya

meals than in soy flour . The addition of f at or lecithin had a

beneficial effect.

‘

Water non- disper sible soybean protein isolatereduced oxidation requirement, but otherwise was comparable in its

action in bread baking to properly treated soy flour . waterdispersible protein isolates and 70% protein concentrates had a

deleterious effect. The use of toasted soy grits gave moreappetizing breads and overcame the somewhat objectionable browncolor of breads containing finely powdered soy flour s .

10. Effect of Amino Acids and Su are on Bread. Three amino acids

and 17 sugars were added and their effects on bread evaluated. Nodeleterious effect of . 2 to .8% free amino acids or up to h% sugarwas noted on bromate requirement, mixing time, or water ab sorption .

Color of crust was altered in some instances and loaf volume sometime s was reduced.

11 . Pearlin Predicts Break Flour . A stati stical study in Ohioof the relationship between pearIing index and break flour yieldshowed that f or 759 samples of the variety- protein and easternuniform nursery series, covering as many as 12 crOp years, a

correlation coefficient of was obtained. This value, clearedof confounding effects of season and location, indicated the greatprobability that break flour yield is associated with kernelhardne ss .

12. Mi cro Test Procedures f or Soft Wheat Quali Development ofa g . ing proce e, pear test, and a micro

AWRC test, and the clarification of the relationship of test re

sults to quality factor s resulted in a routine procedure f or the

processing of large numbers of small quantities of grain f or

milling and baking quality evaluation. It is estimated that about3h. minutes actual processing time is required per sample f or com

plete results . This facilitates studies of genetic populations.

D . Culture and Physiolog

l . Emergence Rate Rapidly emerging types of wheat include Nigger,Spin co Dic son 11h, and P. I . 178383 . Among 527 hybridselections observed in Washington, 1463 rated inferior to Gaines inspeed of emergence, but 614 lines exceeded the emergence ratings of(114 x 53 )B5, presently the most rapidly emerging semidwarf. Noneof the lines emerged as rapidiy

‘

a s Dickson 1114 or Spinkcota. Two

of the most rapidly emerging lines ware from a compound crossbetween (Nigger x Sol . 101 ) x Gaines.

The cross SD Sel . 25 x P. I . 178383 gave very rapid emerging semidwarf selections . Several of the P. I . 178383 derived semidwarflines placed above Omar in emergence rate . In general, they haveweak straw, light grain of rough texture, brittle rachi s, and

thresh poorly.

2. Hydroponic Culture Masks Hi h Protein Gemot es. Atlas 66,Wichita, and Comanche were studiaunder 53 nutrient regimes inNebraska in which the availability of nitrogen was the principalvariable . It was possible to mar kedly alter the protein content ofthe grain produced by the 3 varieties by controlling nitrogen in the

nutrient solution. The established grain protein superiority ofAtlas 66 over Comanche and Wichita was not expressed under any of the

nutrient regimes . Reasons f or this are unknown at this time .

3 . Vernalin Sou ht in Wh eat. It was found that Elgin could bevernali zed in the dark, in aerated distilled water without theaddition of exogenous organic or inorganic substances . It was

further shown that during vernalization in aerated distilled water

biologically- active substances associated with the vernalizationresponse diff use into the aqueous medium . Despite the loss of suchdiffusible substances the wheat seedlings still retained the

flowering respons induced by the cold tream ent. Dif f usates obtainedfrom the spring wheat, Red Bobs, stimulated the treated plants togrow taller and head earlier than control plants. Dif fusates fromthe winter wheat, Elgin, had the opposite effects ; that is, shorterplants and later heading . Light quality during the vernalization

process had no consistent effect on heading in winter wh eat, but

winter barley seedlings exposed to either red or f ar-red lightduring the cold treatment headed much earlier than similar plantsexposed to either white or black light. The external applicationof nucleotides (10 compounds ) , ond dation-reduction reagents(11 compounds) and a lipid anthogen hormone extract to nonvernalized

winter wheat seedlings appeared to have little or no effect on the

growth of the terminal meristems or the flowering response of the

wheat plants.

Moisture Before °na n

r e the

preplanting moisture'

was high in an experiment at North Platte,

Nebraska . ‘MOisture levels wer e 0, 2, h, and 6 feet of soil wet to

field capacity at sowing time plus normal rainfall .

5. 8-Row Seeder Perfected. An 8- row seeder with 8 wheels toprovide even pacEing to the land was put into operation at Pullman,washington . A 3-man crew can sow one 8- foot row per second on a

nonstop schedule .

Breeding and Genetics

Atkins, I . D . E. , and Gilmore, E. C . 1962. Extra

Early Blackhull , an unusual new strain of the Blackhull wheats .

Crop Sci . ,2(h) , pp .

Berg, Ah A . , and MbNeal, F . H. 1962. Segregation in six semidwarfspring wheat crosses . Crop Sci . ,

p . 536.

Chowdhry, A. R . , and Allen, B. E. 1962. The inheritance ofcoleoptile length and seedling height and their relation to plantheight in four winter wheat cros ses . Crop Sci . ,

pp .

Cough , F . J. ,and Willia ms, N . D . 1962. The inheritance of stem

rust reaction in the durum varieties, Acme and Mindwm.

Phytopath . , pp. 295- 299 .

Haunold, Alfred, Johnson, and Schmidt, J.

'

W . Genetic measurements of protein in the grain of Triticum. aestivum. l . .Agron . Jour . ,

5h( 3 ). pp. 203- 206 .

Heyne, E. G. , Johnston, 0. and Finney, K. F. 1961 . Kaw A. hard

red winter wheat f or the western half of Kansas . Kansas Leaflet.

Heyne, E . G. ,Johnston, C . and Jones, E. T . 1961. Ottawa A

hard red winter f ly and disease re sistant wheat f or eastern Kansas .

Kansas Leaflet.

Johnson, V. A . ,Schmidt, J . P . J. ,

and Haunold, A . 1962.

Agronomic and quality* characteristics of high protein FZ

- derived

families from. a soft red winter w hard red winter wheat cross . CropPp.

Johnson, V. .A Schmidt, J . W . , Dreier, A . P. ,and Mattern, P . J .

1961. Omaha hard red winter wheat. Nebraska State Bull . b63 .

Johnson, V. A . , Schmi dt, J . W ; , Dreier, A . F . , and Mattern, P. J .

1961. warrior A productive, high quality'

har d red winter wheat

f or Nebraska. Nebraska State Bul l . h62.

Kao, F . T. , Ausemus, E. R . ,Stevens, H. , and Caldecott, R. S. 1962.

An X- ray induced awned mutant in Thatcher wheat. Wh eat Inf . Serv.

No . 1h.

Lebsock, K. L . 1962. Contributions of the durum breeder . MacaroniJour . ,

July, p. 20 0

Metzger , R . J. ,Rohde, C . R. , and Trione, E. J . 1962. Inheritance

of resistance to common bunt, giiletia car in a cross of

P.I . 178383 x Elgin wheat. Phytopath . , p. (Abstract ) .

Merrison, K. J . , and n el,0 . A . 1962. Gaines

,a semidwarf

winter wheat f or the Pacif ic Northwest .

“

wash . State Univ. F

Ciro . 332.

Reitz, L . P. 1962. Improvement of wheat. Yearbook of Agriculture1962, Unit 9, pp. 108-115.

Schmidt, and Johnson, V. A . 1962. A sphaerococcumm like

tetraploid Wheat. Crop Sci . , pp. 98- 99 .

Schmidt, J . W. , Johnson, V. A. , and Mean, S. S. 1962. Hybrid wheat?

Nebraska Agr . Expt. Station Quarterly, Fall 1962, p. 9 .

Sears, E. R . , and Loegering, W } Q. 1961. A pollen-killing gene in

wheat. Genetics, h6 (8) , p. 897.

‘

th, G. S. , Lund, H. Roald, Ebeltof t, D. G. , Gough, F . J. , and

Harrison, R. L . 1962. Justin, a new high -quality, rust-resistantwheat. I . Agronom

i c and disease characteristics. North DakotaFarm. Research Bull . , pp . h-lo.

Sunderman, D. W . , and Ausemus, E. R. 1962. Inheritance of reactionto stem rust in crosses between certain hexaploid wheats .

Minnesota Station Tech . Bul l .

Suneson, C . A . , and Ramage, R. T . 1962. Competitidn between near

isogenic genotypes . Crop Sci . , pp.- 250.

Suneson, C . A . , Pope, w; K. ,Jensen, N. F . , Poehlman, J . M. ,

and

Smith,G. S. 1962. Wheat composite cross I

,created f er breeders

every where . Crop Sci. , pp. 10l-102.

Suneson, C . A . 1962. Use of Pugsley‘s sterile wheat in cross

breeding . 1962. CrOp Sci . , pp. 53h- 536 .

‘

Wilson, J . A . , and Ross, w; M. 1962. Male sterility interaction of

T . aestivum. nucleus and g, timopheevi cytoplasm. Wheat Inf . Serv.

Wilson, J . A . , and Ross, w; M. 1961. Cross breeding in wheat,T.

aestivum. L. I . Frequency of the pollen- restoring character in“ W

hybrid wheats having Aegilop s ovata cytoplasm. Crop Sci.

ppo 191-193 0 1961.

3

‘

Wilson, J . A . , and Ross, w; M. 1962. Cross breeding in wheat, T.aestivum. L. II .

’

Hybrid seed set on a cytoplasmic male- sterilewinter wheat composite subjected to cross- pollination. Crop Sci . ,

Pp. h15-hl7.

Diseases

Al lan, R . E. , and n el, 0 . A . 1962. Str ipe rust resistance of

Suwon 92 and its relationship to several morphological characteristics in wheat. Plant Disease Reporter , h5(10 ) , pp. 778- 779 .

Andersen, A . S. , and Rowell, J . B . 1962. Duration of protectiveactivity in wheat seedl ings of various compounds against stem. rust.

Phytopath . , pp. 909- 913 .

Atkins, I . M. , Merkle, 0 . G . ,Porter , K. B. , Lahr, K. A.,

and‘

weibel, D. E. 1962. The inf luence of environment on expressionof loose smut, reinf ection, and yield of grain at f our locationsin Texas. Plant Disease Reporter , h7( 3 ) , pp. 192- 196 .

Brakke, M. K. 1962. Stability of partly purif ied barley stripemosaic virus. Virology, 17(l ) , pp. lBlfl t .

Browder, L . E. , Johnston, C. and Pady, S. M. 1962. Cereal rust

epidemiology in Kansas in 1959. Plant Diseasepp. 89h- 8980

Fellows, Hurley; 1962. Ef f ect of light, temperature, and f ertilizeron inf ection of wheat leaves

'

by Santeria tritici . Plant DiseaseReporter, h6 (12}, pp. 8h6- 8h8.

Hobbs, C . D. , and Futrell , M; C . 1962. Inf luence of vitamins and

other campounds on the degree of inf ection of wheat by stem. rust.

Phytopath . , pp. 230- 231 .

Hobbs, C . D. , and Futrell, ML C . 1962. Control of wheat stem. rust

with nicke l and carbamate Sprays. Phytopath . , p. 736,

(Abstract) .

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Nb Neal , F . H. ,and Berg,

'

M . A . 1963 . Bar ley stripe mosaic virus in

Thatcher and Centana wheat seed. Plant Disease Reporter , h7(h) ,

pp. 276- 2770

Miller, J. D. ,

and Stewart, D. M. 1962. Reaction of wheat seedlings

to new isolates of wheat stem rust . Plant Disease Reporter, u5(8 ) ,

pp. 657- 658.

Purdy, L . H. 1962. Dwarf bunt control by aerial application of

herachlorobenzene . Plant Disease Reporter, h7(l ) , pp. 5- 6 .

Purdy, L . H. , and Kendrick, E. L . 1963 . Inf luence of environmentalf actors on the development of wheat bunt in the Pacif ic Northwest.

IV. Ef f ect of soi l temperature and soil moisture on inf ection bysoi lborne spores. Phytopath . , 53 (h) , pp. hlé-hld.

Rohde, C. R . , and Purdy, L . H . 1962. Ef f ect of seed- treatment

fungicides on grain yield and stands of winter and spring wheat.

Plant Disease Reporter, h5( 7) , pp. 522-526 .

Scharen, A . L . 1962. Inhibition of powdery mildew'

f ungus bychlordane . Phytopath . , pp. 173- l7h.

Stakman, E. Stewart, D. M. ,and Loegering, M . Q. 1962.

Identif ication of physiologic races of ui amimie var .

tritici . Pamphlet of Plant Pest Contro D Vi si on, pp. 5h.

Bequette, R . K. , McNeal, F . H . , and Potts, R . B . 1961 . Fieldperf ormance, quality characteristics of Montana spring wheat

varieties. Northwestern Mi ller , Sept. 18, (5 pages ) .

Braaten, M. Lebsock, K. L. , and Sibbitt, L. D. 1962; -Inter

generation relationships of physical properties of dough and

carotenoid pigment content in durum. wheat. Crop Sci . , 2(h) ,pp 0

Donelson, J . R . , and Yamazaki, W . T . 1962. Note on rapid method

f or the estimation of damaged starch in sof t wheat f lours .

Finney, K. E. , Shogren, M. R. G. , Bolts, L . G. , and

Heyne, E. G. 1962. Chemical, physical , and baking propertiesof preripe wheat dried at varying temperatures. Agron . Jour . ,

5h( 3 ) . pp . 2hh- ah7.

Lamb, C . A . , and Bode,C . E. 1963 . Qual ity evaluation of sof t

winter wheat. Ohio Agr . Expt. Station Res. Bull . 926, ( 23 pages ) .

Linko, Y. T. , Johnson, J . A . , and Miller,B . S. 1962. The origin

and f ate of certain carbonyl compounds in white bread.Cereal

Chem . , pp. 1468-11-76 .

Linko, Mi ller, B . S . , and Johnson, J. A . 1962. Quantitativedetermination of carbonyl compounds in pref erments. Cereal Chem39 (h) . pp. 263- 272.

Pomeranz, Y. , Mi ller , B . S. ,Millers, D. , and Johnson, J . A . 1962.

Use of lactase in breadmaking . Cereal Chem . , pp. 398-h06 .

Pomerana, I . The lysine content of bread supplemented with soya

f lour , wheat gluten, dry yeast and wheat germ. Jour . Sci . Food

jig 13, pp. 78- 83 0

Reitz, L . P . ,Schl ehuber , A . M. , Mattern, Paul, Finney, K. F and

Barmore, M. A . 1962. Breeding wheat f or improved qual ity. FirstNat ' l Conf erence on Uti li zation Resear ch, Oct. 29- 31, 1962. Rept. ,

pp. 128- 1hh.

Robinson, R . J. , Mi l ler, B. S . , Johnson, J . A . , Curnutte, Basil,and Lord, T . H. 1962. Studies of two polypeptide antibioticselaborated by Saccharomyhes cerevisiae . Cereal Chem. ,

pp. 183- 188.

Shograng M. D. , Finney, K. E. ,Hessney, R . G. , and Bolte, L . C .

1961 . Correlations of certain properties of the alVeogram with

important hard winter wheat qual ity characteristics . Agron .

Jour . , 55(l ) , pp. 21- 2h.

Shogren, M. D. , Finney, K. P . , Bolte, L . G. , and Hoseney, R . C.

A modif ied alveogra technique f or hard winter wheat

f lour . Agron. Jour . , pp. 19- 21.

Stuber, C . W., Johnson, V. A . ,and Schmidt, J . w. 1962. Grain

protein content and its relationship to other plant and seed

characters in the parents and progeny of a cross of T . aestivum L .

Crop Sci . , pp. 506- 508.

Stuber, C . M . , Johnson, V. A . ,and Schmidt, J . W. 1962. Intraplant

and interplant variation of grain protein content in the parents

and the F1

of a cross of‘

T. aestivum 1 . Crop Sci . ,2(h) , p p .

286- 289 .

Yamazaki , w. T . , and Lamb,C . A . 1969 . Ef f ects of season and

location on cookie quality . Agron . Jour . , pp.

Culture and t siologym m

A llan, R . E. ,Vegel, O . A . , and Peterson , C . J. , Jr . 1962 . The

association of seedling emergence rate of f all - sown wheat with

plant height and co leopti le length . Agron. Jour . , 5h(h) , pp.

3h7‘ 3500

Allan, R . E. , and Vogel , O . A .’ 1962. Length and estimated number

of coleopti le parenchyma cel ls of six wheat varieties grown at

two temperatures. Crop Sci . , pp. S22- 52h.

Atkins, I . M. , Gilmore, E. G. , and Merkle, 0 . G. 1962. Perf ormance

of small grain and f la x varieties in Texas, 1958- 61. Texas Agr .

Expt; Station Bul l . E99h, ( 20 pages, Nov. 1962

Patterson, F. L. ,Compton, L . E. , Cald wel l , R. M. ,

and schaf er, J. F .

1962. Ef f ect of awns on yield, test weight, and kernel weight of

sof t red winter wheats. Crop Sci . , pp. 199-200 .

Quinby, J . R . , Reitz, L . P. , and Laude, H . H. 1962. Ef f ect of

sour ce of seed on productivity of hard red winter wheat. Crop

vogel , O . A . ,Peterson, C . J. , and Allan, R . E. 1962. An 8-whee1

tractor and 8-row planter f or more unif orm. and timely preparationand planting of plot land. Agron. Jour . , pp. 201- 202.

‘

Wi lson, J . A . ,and Swanson, A . F . 1962. Ef f ect of plant spacing on

the development of winter wheat. Agron. Jour . , Sh(h) , pp. 327- 328.

Crops Research Division , ARS

Pr oblem . Most of the Un ited S tates oat cr 0p is produ ced under warm,

humid conditions high ly f avorab le f or disease deve lopment .

The maj or l imiting f actors f or prof itab le oat production in the

Uni ted State s have been the heavy damage re su l ting f rom oat diseasesand winter ki l l ing . Oats

,more than any other cereal cr 0p , have su f

f et ed f rom a succession of severe epiphytotic s of new or dif f erentdiseases and have exper ienced several rapid and near ly comp le te con

sequent change - overs to resistant varie ties . Be cause of the constantacute need f or new disease - resistant varie ties

,it has not been pos

sib le to give adequate attention to improving straw strength , adap ta

tion,

nutritive va lue,winter hardiness

, yie ld, grain and f orage

qual ity, e tc . A wide ly dep loyed but intensive research program is

essential to cope wi th the diverse prob lems af f e cting the oat crop .

Buckwheat has been long negle cted f r om the standpoint of breeding f or

increased yie ld, grain qual i ty, straw strength , disease resistance,

adaptation, e tc . There has been no re cord of any surp lus of buckwheat . Inf ormation is needed about physio logy and cu l tural me thods

,

inc luding e f f e ct of temperature , date and rate of sowing , f er ti l ization

,ro tation

,bee po l l ination , hormone app l ication , e tc . ,

in order

to increase the stabi lity and e f f i ciency of production .

PROGRAM

The Depar tment has a continuing long- term re search program invo lvingpathologists , gene ticists , and agronomists engaged in both basic and

app l ied research in an attempt to solve the prob lems bese tting the

cat crop . The u l timate ob j e ctive is to stabi l ize produ ction ,in

crease e f f iciency, and improve the qual ity of cat grain and f orage

wherever it is grown . Most of the work on the breeding , gene tics ,and disease o f oats is conducted in cooperation with the State Exper

iment Stations at Gainesvi l le, F l or ida ; Tif ton

, Georgia ; Aberdeen ,Idaho ; Urbana , I l l inois ; Laf aye tte , Indiana ; Ame s , Iowa ; Manhattan ,Kansas ; Be l tsvi l le , Maryland; S t . Pau l

,Minne sota ; S tonevi l le , M issi

ssippi ; Co lumbia , M issouri ; I thaca,New York; Universi ty Park, Penn

sylvania ; Brookings , South Dakota ; Co l lege S tation,Texas ; B lacksburg ,

V irginia ; Pu l lman ,Wash ington ; and Madison , Wisconsin . The Wor ld Oat

Co l le ction is maintained and distribu ted f rom Be l tsvi l le , Maryland,with increases of the col lection be ing grown in cooperation withState Exper iment S tations at Mesa

,Arizona ; and Aberdeen , Idaho .

Oat re sear ch is be ing condu cted under three P .L. 480 contracts . One

in Poland,E21- CR - 4

,covers a wide range resear ch on cerea l rusts

,

inc luding crown rust of oats . The se cond in Co lombia, Sou th Amer ica

,

SS - CR - Z,covers resear ch on extreme ly v iru lent race s of oat stem

rust . The th ird in Israe l , A lo- CR - Z O,cover s re sear ch on co l le cting

and screen ing f ive native wi ld Spe cie s o f oats f or resistance to vir

u lent races of stem and crown rust .

Bu ckwheat breeding and gene tics are l imi ted to an industry suppor ted

graduate student at Un ivers i ty Park,Pennsylvania .

The Federa l scienti f ic ef f or t devoted to resear ch in this area tota lsprof e ss ional man -

years . O f this number is devoted to breed

ing and gene tics ; to diseases ; and to pr ogram leadership .

PROGRESS

A . Breeding and Gene tics

1 . Improved Oat Var ie tie s . Clintland 64 ( C . I . 7639 ) is an improvedbackcross der ivative o f Clintland and Cl inton deve loped in cooperation wi th the Purdue Univers i ty Exper iment Station . Clintland was

crossed wi th [Landhaf er x (M indo x Haj ira- Joanette ) ] x Andrew , Minn .

3 13,

and the F 1 progenie s backcrossed f our time s to Clin tland

se le cting in each generation f or the ABCD stem - rust res istance inher

i ced f r om Minn . 3 13 . Cl in ton 59 was cr ossed with Grey A lger ian and

the F1 progenie s backcrossed f ive times to Cl inton 59 - se le c ting in

each generation f or the Grey A lger ian type o f crown- rust re sistance .

A s tem - rust resistant (ABCD genes ) and crown - rust re sistan t (Bondp lus Landhaf er type s ) der iva tive o f the Clintland5 x Minn . 313 was

then cr ossed with a stem - rus t resistant ( D gene ) and crown- rust re

sistant (B ond p lus Grey A lger ian type s ) der iva tive of C l inton6 x

Grey A lger ian . Clintland 64,

a der ivative o f the las t cross, pos

sesse s the comb ined s tem and crown rus t re sis tance o f Clintland, Minn .

3 13 , and Grey A lger ian . I t is indistingu ishab le f r om Cl inton and

Clintland excep t f or its added resis tance to stem and crown rus t .

It is expe cted that seed of the new Clintland 64 wi l l be avai lab lef or distr ibu tion to growers o f cer ti f ied seed in Indiana and other

S tate s in 19 64 .

Nea l ( C . I . 7440) is a new ear ly, shor t , and s ti f f - strawed oat var ie tydeve loped in cooperation with the Nebraska Exper iment Station f rom

the cross Nemaha x. Andrew-Landhaf er . The grain is of satisf actorymi l l ing quality and var iab le in co lor with ivory and l ight buf f pre

dominating . I t is he terogene ous f or reaction to race s 7A and 8 of

s tem rust and suscep tib le to races 6,6A

,and 13A . Nea l is moderate ly

res istan t to some race s of crown rust . I t appears to have some

to lerance to bar ley ye l l ow dwar f . Nea l has be en ou ts tanding f or pe r

f ormance in the southeas t,

sou th - centra l and s ou thwe st regi ons o f

Nebraska .

2 . Cr own Rus t Re s istance f rom W i ld Oa ts . Avena scr i osa,C . I . 3815

,

a dip l oid oat and one o f the be s t source s o f re sis tance to the cr ownrus t f ungus , has been crossed to cu l tivated oats and its gene f or re

sistance carr ied to the 7 th backcross genera tion in cooperati on w i ththe Iowa Exper iment S ta tion . A l though the chr omosome number o f see d

l ings in the 7th genera tion ranged f rom 40 to 43 ( cu l tiva ted oa ts

have 42 ) the f er ti l i ty is s ti l l very p oor . Successf u l transf er to

cu l tivated oats of this gene f or re s is tance w i l l pr ov ide f armers w i thone of the bes t ava i lab le sour ce s of cr own rust re s is tance .

The cr own rus t re s istance o f the derived te trap loid Abd . 101 ( C . I .

7232 ) re ce nt ly transf erred to hexap loid oat var ie tie s has been f ound

tightly l inked wi th brown kerne l co lor . Th is unexpe cted l inkage has

inter f ered with oat breeder s u ti l i z ing th is gene in bree ding pro

grams . Ev idence has been ob tained in cooperation w i th the Iowa Ex

per iment S tation that this l inkage can be broken,a l though the de s ired

comb ina tions have so f ar be en obtained on ly in high ly ster i le l ine s .

3 . Impr oved Cr ossing Te chn ique . Low seed se t f o l low ing hand po llin

ation has long been a ser i ous handicap in hybr idi zing oats . Hightemperature and low hum idi ty have been re cogni zed as impor tan t f ac

tor s in reduc ing the seed se t o f hand-

po l l inated oat cr osse s . A”we t

bag” te chn ique has been deve l oped in cooperation w i th the Pennsylvan ia

Exper iment Station whi ch great ly enhance s the succe ss o f oat hybr idi

zation . The"we t bag

”te chnique cons is ts o f emers ing g lass ine or

par chment bags in water so they are we t ins ide and ou t be f ore they

are used to cover the panic le s immediate ly f o l low ing p o l l ination .

The cool ing e f f e ct and increased hum idi ty re su l ting f r om the we t bag

te chnique have re su l ted in a str iking increase in seed se t w i th60- 75% seed se t be ing common .

4 . Inher i tance of S tem Rust Re sis tance . A new dominant gene G has

been f ound to contro l re s is tance to race s 6,7,7A

,8,

and 13A of

oat stem rus t p osse ssed by the hexap loid var ie ty, C . I . 2413 , intr oduced f rom Ch ina . In f ur ther cooperative s tudie s wi th the I owa EX P

per iment S tation,C . I . 3030

,a hu l l - le ss hexap lo id var ie ty f rom

A f r ica ,was f ound to p ossess two new gene s wh ich condi tion re s istance

to the same f ive race s . The re cent ly de scr ibed f gene ,the G gene ,

and the two genes in C . I . 3030 are inher ited independent ly f rom the

B gene , bu t are e i ther l inked or are al le lomorph ic w ith the l inkedA and D gene s .

5 . Oa t M onosomes . Six di f f eren t oat monosome s f rom hexap lo id oats

have been iso lated and identi f ied to date in cooperat ion w i th the

Iowa Exper imen t S tation . The se monosome s have been designated a to f ,

inc lus ive . I t has been de term ined that the genes A ,B,

and D contro ll ing reaction to oat stem rust are no t located on monosome s a to f .

Severa l other gene s , including the L gene ( f r om Landhaf er ) contro l l ingreac ti on to cr own rust

,have been f ound associated w ith spe cif ic mono

8 01116 8 .

6 . W or ld Oa t Co l le ction . Dur ing 19 62 the W or ld Oat Co l le ction was

increased by 82 in tr odu ctions f rom 8 f ore ign countr ies and by 147

acce ss ions f rom 16 S tates . A tota l of enve lope s o f seed were

distr ibu ted to 10 f ore ign countr ie s and enve lope s to 18 States .

The W or ld Oat Co l le ction as now be ing ma intained is composed o f

entr ie s . Oats make up approximate ly 20 percent of the to ta lUSDA W or ld Sma l l Grain Co l le c tion .

7 . Buckwheat . There are now 153 entr ie s in the buckwheat co l le ctionsbe ing ma intained in cooperation wi th the Pennsylvania Un iversi ty Ex

periment Station . Currently o f most intere st are 7 that were ob tainedf r om Russ ia dur ing 19 62 . Two of the se are l isted as te trap loids . A

tota l of 20 co l le ctions were gr own in iso lation dur ing the year ,but

l i ttle seed increase was obta ined be cause o f severe dr ought . The

Canadian var ie ty Tokyo was f ur ther increased and abou t 8 bushe ls of

seed are on hand . Th is var ie ty may be re leased to grower s in the

near f u ture . A pre l im inary increase o f a promis ing Russ ian te trap loidwas also made and abou t 6 pounds o f seed was obtained .

B . D isease s

1 . To lerance to Cr own Rus t . The pr oj e ct o f scr een ing the Wor ld Oat

Co l le c tion f or sources of cr own rust to lerance was continued at Ame s,

Iowa . Cer tain l ine s were shown to have a higher degre e o f to lerancethan o thers . A study o f the re lative to lerance of 25 oat var ie tiesto cr own rus t race s 203 and 216 indicated that var ie tie s to lerant of

one o f the se race s wou ld pr obab ly also be to leran t o f the other race .

Bu lk popu lations f rom crosse s invo lv ing sour ce s of to lerance were

sub j e cted to crown rus t in the f ie ld . Se le ction o f heavier and den

ser seed f rom th is mater ial re su l ted in heav ier and denser seed

be ing produced under condi tions o f heavy rust in the f o l lowing year .

In a pre l im inary s tudy of the her i tab i l i ty of the cr own rus t to lerance of Andrew

,the yie lds of F4 l ine s f ormed an array intermediate

be tween Andrew and the susceptib le parent,whereas seed we ights were

skewed in the direction o f heav ier seeds .

2 . E f f e ct of Crown Rust on Components o f Y ie ld . Average seed

we igh t , as de termined by 100 - seed samp le s , was f ound in cooperativestudie s at the Iowa Exper iment Station to be a more pre c ise measure

of host re sponse to cr own rust than e ither average yie ld or bushe lwe ight . Seed we igh t , number o f kerne ls per p lant , and number o f

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suscep tib le to race 264 . S tudie s o f the inher i tance o f the f ie ld re

sis tance of severa l strains o f oats in Puer to R ico f a i led to give a

Spe ci f ic f ac tor ial hypothe s is , bu t did show that res istance was gen

erally re ce ssive to suscep tib il i ty . Studie s on hyphal f usion and

race compe ti tion have been ini tiated in Puer to R ico .

6 . S tem Rust Resis tant Germ P lasm . The e stab l ishment of an oat stem

rust r es is tance re servoir in cooperation with the Minnesota Experi

ment S tation was ini tiated at S t . Pau l , M innesota ,in 19 62 . The pur

pose of this re servo ir bank is to discover , te st,

and make avai lab leas many di f f erent type s o f res istance as possib le to the oat s tem

rus t f ungus . The term"type of re s istance "

as used here imp l ies t e

sistance attr ibuted to physio logica l , morpho l ogica l , or f unctionalreasons

,as we l l as

"f ie ld re sistance ,

” "

par tia l resistance,

”and

"to lerance .

" Such a co l le ction o f oats wou ld be va luab le as supp lementa l , dif f erential hosts in physio logic race identi f ication

,as

possib le sources of re s istance to new ly discovered race s and subrace s,

and va luab le in gene tic s tudie s wi th host,pathogen ,

and host-

patho

gen interactions . A t least one oa t possessing each o f the maj orgene s , A

,BC

,D , E , f

,and G and all p oss ib le comb inations o f these

maj or genes wi l l be inc luded. A t the pre sent time,102 dip loid,

te trap lo id, and hexap loid oat se le ctions have been increased f or

entry into the reservo ir .

7 . E f f e ct of Temperature on Reac tion to S tem Rust . The expre ssion

o f re s istance to cer tain race s o f stem rust at low temperatures and

suscep tib i l i ty at high temperature s o f oats wi th the BC gene was oh

served at S t . Pau l, M inne so ta , to depend up on the re lationship o f

two f actors : ( 1) The stage of rust deve lopmen t at the time of expo

sure to high or low temperature ,and ( 2 ) the duration o f exposure .

There is a cr itical per iod in the deve lopment o f the rust pus tu le ,

a time be tween the inocu lation and the appearance of rust f le cks,

when a change in temperature may al ter the rus t re sponse of the host .

P lants transf erred f rom low to high temper a ture be f ore f le ckingstage had a suscep tib le response ; p lants trans f erred dur ing f leckingwere me sothe tic ; and p lants transf erred af ter f le cking had a res is tant re sponse to race s 7 and 8 . The m inimum exposure to h igh temper

ature f or the sus cep tib i lity of Rodney (BC ) to race 8 was de term inedto be at least 3 and poss ib ly 4 days at a continuous ly high tempera

ture ( 859F ) ; the m in imum per iod of exp osure to low temperature f or

re s istant re sponse , when p lants were grown at high temperature af ter

inocu lation,was f ound to be 4 days at a continuous ly low tempera

ture The 3 - day exp osure to 85°F f or suscep tib i l ity and the

4- day exp osure to 75°F f or re sistance mus t be in i tiated pr ior to

f le cking by the rust .

8 . Smu t . The deve lopment o f a s tandard gr oup of homozygous patho

genic races ranging f r om the narr owest to the widest range s in

pathogenici ty patterns is the basic ob j e ctive o f the race study be ingcondu cted cooperative ly with the Washington Exper iment Station . Hom

ozygosity f or pathogenici ty apparently has been es tab l ished in

several of the race s o f U . avenae ,whereas disp lays o f erratic patho

genic patterns f rom one year to the next are character istic of cer tainother race s and gene tic l ine s . A se cond successf u l step seems to havebeen made in br inging all known viru lence gene s toge ther in one

gene tic smu t l ine . The Games viru lence of A - 7 appear s to have been

added to A - 6a,br inging the total range of viru lence in this l ine to

7 of the tester var ie tie s .

9 . Ye l l ow Dwar f Re sistance Be ing Transf erred . The bar ley ye l lowdwar f virus (BYDV ) disease caused the h ighe st average annua l loss

percent) in Uni ted States oat production o f all oat disease sdur ing 19 50- 61 . The causa l agent o f this disease was discovered and

'

named in 1951 . In 1954,

a cooperative program was in i tiated with the

I l l ino is Exper iment S tation to discover sour ces o f resistance to BYDV

in oats and to incorporate such re sis tance into agronomi cal ly accep

tab le oat var ie tie s . Marked progress has been ach ieved in attainingth is obj e ctive . Moderate re s istance to BYDV was discovered in the

old oat var ie ty .A lbion as a resu l t of screening the entire Wor ld Oat

Co l le ction . Through an intensive and acce lerated backcr ossing and

te sting pr ogram ,this valuab le leve l o f BYDV re s istance has been ih

corporated into Clintland 60 and Minhaf er - type var ie tie s . Thesepromis ing se le ctions are the f irst o f a ser ies be ing deve loped in

the USDA - I l l inois program ,and they repre sent the f irst agronomical ly

desirab le types possessing comb ined res istance to BYDV ,crown rust

,

s tem rust,

and the smu ts .

10 . Transmiss ion Studie s on Ye l low Dwar f . In s tudie s in cooperationwith the Corne l l Universi ty Exper iment S tation on improvement of

te chniques f or basic work on bar ley ye l low dwar f v irus (BYDV ) , the

membrane - f eeding me thod has no t proved as use f u l wi th Rh Opalosiphum

padi as wi th Macros iphum granar ium f or assay o f BYDV in l iquid ex

tracts . Stre tched Paraf ilm was f ound to be a be tter membrane than

S i lver l ight f or v irus assay by both aphid Spe cie s . The membrane

f eeding me thod was more sens i tive than the needle - inj e ction me thod

f or routine assays . Pre l im inary te sts on the po ssib le mu l tip l ication o f BYDV in its aphid ve c tor were inconclusive large ly be causeof poor surv ival of in j e cted aphids .

11 . Ve ctor Spe ci f ic i ty with Ye l low Dwar f . In coopera tive studiesat the Corne l l Un iver si ty Exper iment S tation on vector Spe c if ici tyo f iso late s of BYDV

,Spe cif ici ty occurred when acqu is ition was by

means o f aphids f eeding thr ough membranes on l iqu id virus preparat ions

,as had been f ound p rev ious ly when acqu is i tion was by f eeding

on leave s or by inj e ction . Ve ctor spe ci f ici ty o f 3 prev iously de s

cr ibed strains continued in all 6 comparative ser ial transmissions

made dur ing 19 62 . Study o f a system invo lv ing doub le inf e ctions by 2

ve ctor - spec i f ic strains o f BYDV and the apparent loss o f Spe ci f ici tyby l o f the 2 virus strains showed that the interaction of the

s trains dur ing s imu l tane ous mu l tip l ication in the p lant was more im

por tant f or the loss o f Spe ci f ici ty than was the interac tion o f the

strains within the aph id .

C . Cu l ture - Physio logy

1 . W inter Hardine ss . Seed sour ce was f ound to inf luence the pre

emergence and se edl ing survival of Dubois w inter oats in c0 0 perative

studies conducted at the Corne l l Universi ty Exper iment S tation . A

lo t o f f oundation Dubois seed was div ided and seeded at 11 locationsin the Uni ted State s . Signi f icant di f f erence s in co ld resis tance o f

5 - day- old seedl ings were observed among the di f f erent seed sour ce s .

There were s l igh t di f f erence s among the seed source s when l4- day- old

seedl ings were f rozen . In general , seed sour ce did no t inf luenceco ld resistance o f 21 and 28 - day

- old p lan ts . In on ly excep tionalcase s did seed sour ce af f e ct the re lative surv iva l o f 4- week- old

p lants . I t was concluded that the dif f erences in co ld res is tanceamong the seed lots were probab ly due to di f f erences in the nutr ientre serves o f the endosperm and/or embryo acquired f rom the paren t

p lants gr own at the di f f erent locations . No s igni f icant corre lationscou ld be f ound

,however

,be tween the content o f N

,P,K,Ca

,Mg , or

Fe in the seed f rom di f f erent locations and pre- emergence ( or seed

l ing ) surv iva l .

2 . Host - Paras i te Re lationship . S tudies conducted in cooperationwith the F lor ida Exper iment S tation on the e f f e ct o f the phyto toxinv ic tor in on the ni trogen me tabol ism o f oa ts indicated that toxintreatment has no e f f e ct on f ree and bound am ino ac ids o f resistantvarie tie s run

'

doe s it af f ec t the bound am ino acid content of suscep

tib le var ie ties . Victor in doe s, however ,

cause marked change s in

the f ree amino acid me tabol ism of susceptib le glu

tam ine and val ine increase ,whereas a lanine de crease s . Va l ine syn

the sis increase s wi th increasing toxin concentra tion . These trends

are f irst observed af ter 4 hours o f treatment and are very pronouncedaf ter 6

,8,

and 10 hour s o f treatment . S ince l i ttle is known abou t

the synthe sis o f the branch chain amino acids,i t was no t p oss ib le

to ascer tain the ro le o f increased va l ine pr oduction due to toxintreatment . The reduc tion in a lanine indicate s that a lanine may p laya r o le in increased re sp iration by a ser ie s o f re actions in whichpyruvate is synthes i zed through a transaminase system . Pyruvate ,through a C02 f ixation reaction

,cou ld increase ma la te synthe sis ,

whi ch is conne cted to the cytochr ome s through a ma late dehydrogenase

pathway.

PUBLICATIONS

A tkins , I . M . 19 62 . Registration of A lamo - X oats . Cr Op Sc i . ,

p . 53 1 .

A tkins , I . M . ,Pawlisch , Pau l E.

,Merkle , Owen G . ,

and Pe ier ,Dennis .

19 62 . Per f ormance of sma l l gra ins and f lax var ie tie s in Texas,

1958- 61 . Texas Agr . Exp t . S ta . Bu l l . 994, 39 pp .

Br own , Ge orge E .,and Poeh lman

,J . M . 19 62 . Her i tab i l i ty of re sist

ance to bar ley ye l low dwar f virus in oats . Cr Op Sc i . , pp .

259 - 262 .

Br own ing , J . A . ,and Frey, K . J . 19 62 . Gene tics of oat stem rust

resistance . I . Inher itance of reaction to races 6,8,

and 1BA in

C . I . 3039 . Iowa Sta te Jour . Sc i ., pp . 483 - 489 .

Cof fman , F . A . 19 62 . Repor t on the Uni f orm W inter Hardine ss Oat Nur

ser ies f or 19 61- 62 . USDA ,ARS

,CR , CR - 55- 62 .

Cof fman , F . A . 19 62 . Repor t on Unif orm E l ite Hardy Oat Nursery in

19 61- 62 . USDA ,ARS

,CR

,CR - 57 - 62 .

Co f fman,F . A . 19 62 . Repor t on the Un if orm Hardy x Hardy Bu lked Hy

br id Oat Nur sery. USDA , ARS , CR ,CR - 58 - 62 .

Cof fman,Frankl in A . ,

and F inkner ,Verne C . 19 62 . Bal lard . A new

winter - hardy se le ction f rom Pentagon oats f or use in hybr idization .

USDA,ARS

,ARS 34- 41

,4 pp .

Compton , L . E . ,Ca ldwe l l

,R . M . , Schaf er , J . F Mu lvey, R . R . ,

Patterson , F . L. ,Teare , I . D . ,

and Hodge s , H . F . 19 62 . Smal lgrain var ie ties f or Indiana . Character istics

,per f ormance

,1958 - 62

,

and re commendations f or 19 63 . Purdue Un iv . Res . Bu l l . 758,16 pp .

Frey, K . J . 19 62 . E f f e ctivene ss of visua l se le ction upon yie ld in

oat crosse s . Cr 0 p Sci . , pp . 102- 105 .

Le ininger ,L . M .

,and Frey, K . J . 19 62 . Backcross var iab i l i ty I .

In oats . Crop Sci . , pp . 15- 20 .

Morey, Darre l l D . 19 62 . Registration o f AB - llo oats . Crop Sci . ,2

p . 5 31 .

Morey, Darre l l D . 19 62 . Registration o f Radar 1 oats . Cr Op Sc 1 2

p . 532 .

Morey, Darre l l D . 19 62 . Registration of Radar 2 oa ts . Cr Op Sci . ,2

pp . 532- 53 3 .

Murphy, Char les F . ,and Frey, Kenne th

,J . 19 62 . Inheritance and

her i tab i l ity o f seed we ight and its componen ts in oa ts . Cr 0 p Sc i

pp . 509 - 512 .

Poeh lman,J . M . ,

19 62 . Registration o f Nodaway oats . Crop Sc i 2

p . 53 3 .

Sadanaga , K . 19 62 . Cyto logy of three Spe cie s o f He lic totr ichon .

Canadian Jour . Gene t . and Cyto l . ,4, pp . 302- 306 .

Sadanaga ,K . 19 62 . Cyto logy o f inter spe ci f ic hybr ids be tween au to

te trap lo id Avena str igosa and A . sativa and the ir progenie s . A gron .

Abs tracts , p . 75 .

Sune son , C . A . ,and Mi l ler

,M . D . 19 62 . Wi ld oats sown f or science

yie ld the improved S ierra var ie ty . Ca l i f ornia Agr . , pp . 8 - 9 .

(A lso in Agr . Re s pp . 15- 16 )

Diseases

Browning , J . A . , S imons,M . D . ,

and Frey, K . J . 19 62 . Potentia lva lue of syn the tic to lerant or mu l ti l ine var ie ties f or contro l of

cerea l rusts in Nor th Amer ica . Phytopatho logy, p . 726 .

Cof fman,F . A . , Herber t , T . T . , Gore , U . R .

,and Byrd, W . P . 19 62 .

Reaction o f winter oats to so i l- borne mosaic . Pl . Dis . Reptr . , 46

pp . 438 - 440 .

Endo , R . M . ,and Brown

,C . M . 19 62 . Surv iva l and yie ld of w inter

cerea ls a f f e cted by ye l low dwarf . Phytopatho l ogy, pp . 624

Jedlinski , H . 19 62 . In i tia l inf e c tion proce sse s o f cer tain me chanically transmi tted p lant viruses and the ir hosts . Phytopatho logy,52 ( l) , p . 15 .

Murphy, H . C . ,and Gr iggs , Ger trude . 19 62 . Reaction o f the 130

entries in the 19 60 International Oat Rust Nur sery to stem rust,

crown rust , m i ldew, He lminthO Sporium ,

ha lo b l ight, and Septoria .

USDA, ARS , CR

,CR - 52- 62 .

Murphy, H . C . ,Simons , M . D . ,

Rober ts,B . J . ,

and Stewar t,D . M .

19 62 . Repor t o f cooperative cereal rust observation nurser ies f or

the year 19 62 . No . 42 :0ats . USDA,ARS

,CR

,CR - 66 - 62 .

S imons , M . D . ,Ca lde cott

,R . S . ,

and Frey, K . J . 19 62 . On the

attemp ted induction of resistance in oats to crown rust race 264

by ar ti f icial irradiation . P1. Dis . Rep tr . ,pp . 88 - 9 1 .

Simons , M . D . ,Wah l

,I . ,

and da S i lva,Ady Rau l . 19 62 . Strains o f

noncultivated. Avena Spp . res istant to impor tant race s o f the crownrust f ungus . Phytopatho logy, pp . 585 - 586 .

Wood,Le on S . 19 62 . Re lation of var iation o f He lminthospor ium

sativum to seedl ing b l ight o f smal l grains . Phytopatho logy,pp . 49 3 - 498 .

Cu l ture

Frey, K . J . 19 62 . In f luence of leaf b lade remova l on seed we ight o f

oats . Iowa S tate Jour . Sci . , 37 , pp . 17 - 22 .

Jus tin,James R . ,

and A tkins,I . M . 19 62 . Re lationship o f seed s ize

and shape to te st we ight in oats . Agron . Abstracts , p . 70 .

Kinbacher ,E . J . 19 62 . E f f e ct of re lative humidity on the h igh

temperature re sistance of winter oats . Cr 0p Sci . , pp . 437

441 .

Kinbacher ,E . J . 19 62 . E f f e ct of seed sour ce on the co ld resistance

of pre- emerged Dubo is winter oat seedl ings . Crop Sci pp .

9 1- 9 3 0

Lacy, L . W . ,and Fu tre l l , M . C . 19 62 . E f f e ct of nicke l ch lor ide on

the niacin content of wheat and oat p lants . Phytopatho logy, 52 ( l) ,p . 17 .

Luke,H . H .

,and Freeman , T . E . 19 62 . Changes in the ni trogen me

tabolism o f vi ctor in- treated oat var ie ties . Phytopathology,p . 740 .

Luke,H . H . ,

and Freeman , T . E . 19 62 . E f f e ct of v ictor in on the Krebs

cyc le acids o f oat var ie tie s expressing variab le reactions to He l

minthO Spor ium vic toriae . Phytopatho logy, p . 19 .

Luke,H . H .

,and Pf ah ler , P . L . 19 62 . Quanti tative measurement of

host- pathogen interaction . Phytopatho logy, pp . 340- 343 .

Porter ,G . A . ,

and Mar shal l , H . G . 19 62 . The e f f ec t of var ious har

dening treatments on the co ld res istance of w inter oats . Agron .

Abstracts, p . 86 .

Genera l

Co f fman,F . A . 19 62 . Increased winter hardiness in oats now avai ls

ble . Agr on . Jour . , pp . 489 - 49 1 .

Co f fman,F . A . 1962 . F orage yie lds o f winter oats at Be l tsv i l le

,

Maryland . Agron . Jour pp . 546 - 547 .

Co f fman,F . A . ,

Be Spalov , I . K . 19 62 . Hu l led oats can re su l t in

incorre ct de cisions . Cr 0p Sc i . , pp . 172- 173 .

Craddock, J . C . ,and Murphy, H . C . 19 62 . Abbreviation of oat var ie

tal names . USDA , ARS , CR, CR - 85- 62 .

Marsha l l , H . G . 19 62 . E f f e ct of we tting and shading bags on seed se t

of oat crosse s . Cr O p Sci pp . 3 65 - 366 .

RICE BREEDING- AND GENETICS , DISEASE ,

Crops Research Division , ARS

Prob lem . Rice in the United States is grown on about l , 747 ,000

acres with a tota l annua l produ ction of over three mi l lion tons .

Ri ce is the pr incipa l crop in certain areas in Arkansas , Cal i f ornia ,Louisiana , Mississippi , and Tex s where it is produced under a widerange of soi l and c limatic conditions . The demands of proce ssorsand consumers are diverse be cause of the many f ood products made

with r ice . Adapted var ieties that meet the requirements of produc

ers and consumers are needed f or each e co l og i ca l area . Basi c kno w

ledge is needed on the genetics of important p lant characteristi csand the reaction to di sease causing organi sms in order to deve lopadapted disease resistant varieties . Basi c studies need to be con

ducted on host-

parasite re lations , physiologica l races of f ungicausing ri ce diseases , and the nature of disease resistan ce in order

to estab l ish contro l measures f or important r i ce di seases . Inf ormation on the f actors associated with the mi l l ing , cooking , and

processing characteristi cs of ri ce is required so that the breedingl ine s can be te sted to determine su itabi l ity f or re lease . In order

to produce r i ce e conomi ca l ly , know ledge o f the re sponse of ri ce to

such env ironmental and cultura l f actors as submerged soi l conditions ,f erti l ity leve l , seeding date , spacing of p lants , l ight , and

temperature of the air and water is needed .

PROGRAM

The Department has a continuing long - term program invo lving geneti

ci sts , patho logi sts , chemists , and physiologists engaged in basi cand app l ied research to solve growers

'prob lems and to deve lop

varieties to meet demands of industry and consumers . Ri ce breedingresearch is conducted at Stuttgart , Arkansas , in cooperation withthe Arkansas Agr i cultura l Experiment Station; at Biggs , Ca lif ornia ,

in cooperation w ith the Ca l i f orn ia ABS and the Ca li f ornia Coopera

tive Ri ce Research Foundat ion , Inc . ; at Baton Rouge and Crow ley ,Louisiana , in cooperation with the Louisiana AES; at Beaumont , Texas ,in cooperation with the Taxas ABS and the TSa Ri ce ImprovementAssociation; and at Be ltsvi l le , Maryland . Cooperative ri ce diseaseinve stigati ons are conducted at Stuttgart , Arkansas; Baton Rouge

and Crowley , Louisiana ; and Beaumont , Texas . Cooperative qual ityevaluati on studies are conducted at Beaumont , Texas . Cooperativeculture and physiology investigati ons are conducted at Biggs , Calif ornia; Stuttgart , Arkansas; Cro wley, Louisiana; and Beaumont , Texas .

Breeding and disease investigations a lso include in f orma l cooperation with severa l f oreign governments and pr ivate f oundati ons in

Centra l and South Ameri ca , and with the Internati ona l Rice Re searchInstitute in the Phi lippines .

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Obtain satisf actory p lant types . Care ful qua l ity evaluation tests‘

wi l l be required to make certain that the Jojutla cooking behavior

is reta ined in backcross hybr ids .

3 . New varieties re leased . T wo new varieties that were deve lopedin the cooperative r ice breeding program in Arkansas were increasedin 1962 and re leased f or production in 1963 . These varieties are

Nova and Vegold .

Nova , an ear ly matur ing , medium -

grain variety was se le cted f rom. the

cross Lacrosse x Z enith - Nira . It has s l ightly higher l odgingresistance , matures about f our days ear l ier ,

and pr oduces somewhat

h igher grain yie lds than Nato , the leading var iety in th is c lass .

Nova kerne ls are s l ightly larger and le ss cha lky than those of Nato .

However , the mi l ling yie lds of Nova , in percent , are less than f or

Nato so that the yie lds of head r i ce in pounds per acre are about

equa l f or the two varieties . The processing and cooking characteristics of Nova and Nato are simi lar . Nova is re sistant to hojab lanca disease ; whereas Nato is susceptib le . Under Arkansas

conditions Nova has shown a much higher degree of resistance to

b last than Nato and the two varieties react simi lar ly to

straighthead .

Vegold is a very short - season ,long -

grain variety der ived f rom a

multip le hybr id . The or iginal cross was made at the Beaumont , Texas

station and the F2 and subsequent generations were grown at Stutt

gart , .Arkansas . Parent varietie s in c luded Hi l l se le ction , Texas

Patna , Rexoro , and Supreme Blue Rose . Vegold is considered a

spe cial -

purpose variety f or seeding in June . It is re commended f or

seeding June 1 to 10 in northern Arkansas , June I to 20 in centralArkansas , and June 1 to 25 in the southern part of the state .

Vegold matures about 4 days later , but is more lodg ing resistant ,

yie lds about the same amount of grain per acre ,and produce s

h igher head rice yie lds than Be l le Patna . Be cause of its short

growing season , Vegold, like Be l le Patna , require s care ful manage

ment of irr igation water . A lso the proper timing of n itrogenf erti lization is very important .

4 . Inheritance of b last re sistance . The mode of inher itance o f

tib le to race 1 and re sistant to race 6 . Nato is resistant to racel and susceptib le to race 6 . The se two varietie s were crossed and

it was f ound that Fl p lants were re sistant to both race 1 and race

6 and that segregati on occurred in. Féso that n ine phenotypic

c lasses were Observed in F Althou g h further tests wi l l be needed

to con f irm the se re sults , fhe se pre l iminary tria l s indicate that

reaction to each race is conditioned by independent genes , with

resistance dominant . When simi lar inf ormation is avai lab le on the

mode of inheritance o f reaction to all race s of the b last f ungus ,

the possib i l ity of breeding varieties re sistant to all race s wi l lbe greatly enhanced .

5 . Low temperature tolerance . Low temperatures are not un common

at seeding time and in late f al l , so cold to lerant varieties are

needed f or all areas where rice is grown in the United States .

This situat ion is amp l if ied by the‘

low temperature o f the irr igati on

water in large areas in Cali f ornia and local ly in other areas . The

reaction of varietie s to cold water is di f f icult to study in the

f ie ld be cause of the var iab i l ity of the water temperature withinrather sma l l areas . Pre l iminary tria l s conducted under control ledconditions at Be ltsvi l le , Maryland have demonstrated signi f i cantvar ietal di f f erences in germination and seedl ing deve lopment in

cold (60°

F? water . This method wi l l be used to te st breeding line s .

6 . New introductions . A total of 438 new introduct i ons were

re ce ived in 1962 , grown in the greenhouse at Be ltsvi l le , Marylandand sent to one of the ri ce experiment stations f or ob servation and

testing in l963 . This mater ial inc luded entr ies f rom countrie s

that are cooperating in the F . A . 0 . Uni f orm Blast Nur sery , a group

of varietie s f rom. Taiwan that are reported to be re sistant to b lastin that country , the varieties used to dif f erentiate races o f b lastin* Japan and Taiwan ,

a group of varietie s and hybrids f rom. Italy ,a group of long -

grain bulk hybrid populat ions f rom Surinam , and

misce l laneous varietie s zfi mmmother sour ces . Introductions re ce ivedbef ore 1962 were grown at the r i ce experiment stations in Arkansas ,

Cali f orn ia , Loui siana , and Texas in 1962 .

T. Breeders 'seed . Breeders

'seed of re commended varietie s was

produced in Arkansas , Cal i f ornia , Louisiana , and Texas .

B . Diseases

1 . Blast . The Internationa l Blast Nur sery , Western Hemisphere , o f

116 entries was grown by cooperators in El Sa lvador , Guatemala ,

Nicaragua , Costa Rica , Colomb ia ,and Argentina in Latin America ,

in

The Phi lippines and India in Asia and in Arkansas , Louisiana ,and

Texas in U . S .A . Mb st of the varieties used to dif f erentiate races

o f the b last f ungus along with many exper i mental varietie s were

inc luded . Th is test gives an indi cation of the race s preva lent in

each area and sh ows the reaction to b last of the experimenta l varieties under these di f f erent situations . Di f f erential var ietalreaction was Ob served in some of the nurser ies .

Blast specimens are co l le cted in f arm f ie lds in the Southern r i cearea each year in order to determine the races of the causal f ungus .

In 1961 a f air ly large number of spe cimens were col le cted . Thesewere isolated and identi f ied in 1962 . Of the 54 spe cimens that

were col lected and identi f ied as to race of the f ungus , six were

race 1 , twenty- f our were race 3 , twenty

- one were race 6 , one was

race 7 , one was race 10 , and one was race 16 . The predominant races3 and 6 are close ly re lated and are separated with di f f i culty by

Lacrosse .

Many breeding l ines are tested f or b last reacti on in the greenhouse .

Races l and 6 are the key races used in this program . Race 1 was

f ormer ly quite prevalent . Zenith and many line s f rom Zenith crossesare susceptib le . Race 6 has been prevalent in re cent years . Nato

and many l ines f rom Nato crosses are susceptib le to this race .

B last is being studied under PL 480 pro j ect number A7- CR- 2 at the

Centra l Rice Re search Institute , Cuttack , India . Most of the .U . S .

var ietie s in the Wor ld Co l le ction , and the var ietie s in the

International B last Nursery were tested . The resu lts indicate that

the preva lent race or races at this locati on are di f f erent than

those occurring commonly in the United States .

2 . Seed treatment . Studie s designed to develop treatments to

contro l seedlingfi

blight and root maggots were conducted at Beaumont ,

Texas in cooperati on with the station entomolog ist . Many of the

comb inati ons of f ungicides and insecti cides were e f f e ctive in

improving plant stands and reducing the number of maggots . In

general , the chemical s appl ied to the seed as a s lurry were more

e f f e ctive than the chemical s in liquid f orm .

3 . Hoja b lanca . The hoja b lanca vector was f ound in rice f ie ldsin seven parishes in Louisiana , in 1962 . Repeated surveys o f

inf ested f ie lds f ai led to reveal any plants with ho ja b lancasymptoms . t was assu med that this inf estation was a reintrodu ction

of the insect and the inse cts introduced were non - virul i f erous .

Host range studies of hoja b lanca were conducted in Louisiana . The

commonly grown cereal s , sugar cane ,and pasture grasse s were te sted .

Typical hoja b lanca symptoms were ob served only on wheat , rye ,

bar ley , and oats of the 25 species that were inoculated . Barnyard

grass (Echinoch loa col onum)has been reported to b e susceptib le to

hoja b lanca but it was not inf ected in these studie s .

Reaction to the hoja blanca virus of breeding lines was studied in

the f ie ld in Latin America and in the greenhouse at Baton Rouge ,

Louisiana . The avai lab i l ity no w of a strain of the ve ctor that has

a high percentage of transmitter s makes possib le the more e f f i cienttesting of breeding l ines in the greenhouse .

4 . Straighthead . .A test to deter mine the reaction of breeding linesand new introductions was conducted near Eag le Lake , Texas . Many

breeding l ines were re sistant , althou g h most of the new introduct i ons

were susceptible . Known sour ces of re sistance to this disease havebeen avai lab le f or some t ime so that resi stance has been incorpor

ated into most of the breeding stocks be ing used .

C . Variety evaluation

1 . Qua l ity of breeding lines . Eva luation of the cooking and proc

ating breeding programs in Texas , Arkansas , Louisiana , Mississippi ,and Ca li f ornia was conducted in the r i ce qual ity laboratory at

Beaumont , Texas . Large numbers of breeding l ines are evaluatedwith the iodine -b lue test , the alkal i test ,

and the prote in b iurette st . On the basis of re sults f rom. the se pre liminary tests , the

be tter l ines are evaluated with the quantitative amylose test , the

water uptake te st , the amylograph , and the Kje ldah l prote in test .

In addition to these chemical and physi cal te sts , many samples were

parboi led and tested f or mi l ling qual ity and water uptake and the

percent dry matter loss dur ing pressure canning was determined .

Results f rom. these tests makes it possib le to e l iminate unde sirab letypes and to continue on ly those breeding l ines that have the

desired characteristics .

2 . Protein content . ,A rather wide range in prote in content among

r ice varieties was observed so research was conducted at Beaumont ,

Texas to deve lop a meth od to rapidly estimate this importantcharacteristi c . .A rapid screening te st was deve loped that providesan empir ica l estimate of the prote in content of mi l led and brown

rice . The te st is based on the we l l known b iuret reaction of

prote in . A high corre lation between prote in b iuret values and

Kj e ldah l prote in va lues was f ound .

aids in evaluating the pre ssure canning stab i l ity of parboi led ricevar iet ies and se le ctions was deve l oped at Beaumont , Texas . The

method is based on the percentage of dry matter l ost during

pressur e canning of parb oi led rice . In general , l owest dry matter

losses were associated with c larity o f broth , a minimum. amount of

spl itting and f raying of edge s and ends , and f irmness in textur e‘

when rated sub j e ctive ly . The per centage dry matter loss te st is

simp le , rapid , and requires a re lative ly sma l l samp le size . The

te st is particular ly we l l suited as an aid in re cognizing the

superior canning chara cteristics of varieties such as Jojut la which ,heretof ore have been re cognized by the more time - consuming amylograph

procedure . It is re cognized that dry matter loss a lone cannot be

used to f u l ly evaluate a samp le of rice as to its suitab i l ity f or

pressure canning so this te st is used in conjunction with sub j e ctivemethods to evaluate breeding l ine s .

4. Modi f i cation o f amylograph . The amylograph is a va luab leinstrument in the variety evaluation program, but its use is limitedbe cause 100 minute s is required to run a single determination . In

view of the important re sults obtained f rom. the amylograph , a rapidmethod , whi ch is a modif ication of the regular procedure was deve loped at Beaumont , Texas . The modif i cati on consists of starting the

amylograph at a temperature of 60°

C, rather than at 30°

C, a f ter

which the amylograph curve is terminated without the comp letion of

the coo ling cyc le . The rapid short - f orm amylograph procedure

requires only 25 to 30 minutes f or each determination . It is

parti cu lar ly usef ul f or eva luating the pasting characteri stics of

the advanced se le ct ions grown in the unif orm yie ld nurserie s .

Simi lar re sults with respe ct to peak viscosity and re sistance of

the paste to thinning on heating at 95°

C are Obtained by both

procedures .

PUBLICATIONS

Breeding and Geneti cs

Anonymous . 1963 . Rice gene symbo l ization and linkage groups .

ARS- 34- 28 . (Ne lson E . Jodon ) .

Atkins , J . G . , Jodon , N . E .,and Bo llich , c. N . 1962 . Te sting and

breeding ri ce var ieties f or b last re sistant r i ce . LouisianaAg fimd mw e W fl . 500 .

Beache l l , H . M; and Scott , J . E . 1962 . (Abstr . ) Breeding rice f or

de sired plant type . Presented Ri ce Te ch . Working Group , Houston ,

Texas . Feb . 21 223 . Pub . in Pro ceedings . p . l5 .

Beache l l , H . M ., Scott , J . E . ,

and Webb , B . D . 1962 . Ri ce un i f ormnur serie s yie ld and mi ll ing qual ity report , 1961 . OH- 60 - 62 .

Bol l ich , C . N . 1962 . Ho ja b lanca , lodg ing , and c lassi f i cation of

USDA wor ld r i ce col l ection . Louisiana Ri ce Exp . Sta . 53rd

Ann . Prog . Rpt . pp . 27- 29 .

Bo l l i ch , C. N . 1962 . Interre lation of rice characteristics of

poss ib le importance in lodging . (Ab str . ) Presented Rice Te ch .

Working Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 21 - 23 . Pub . in Proceedings . p . 14.

odon , N . E . 1962 . Ef f e cts of ma j or genes f or maturity .

Pre sented Ri ce Te ch . Working Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 21 - 23 .

Pub . in Proceeding s . p . 17 .

odon , N . E . and Bol l i ch , C. N . l962 . Ri ce var iety improvement3oth Annua l report , 1962 . Inc lusion in the 53rd Ann . Sta .

Rpt . , Rice Exp . Sta ., Crowley , La .

ohnston , T . H . 1962 . Breeding and te sting of r i ce varietie s in

Arkansas - a cooperative e f f ort . Arkansas AES Rpt . , June 1962 .

Annual issue of Rice J . 36 - 41 .

ohnston , T . H ., Temp leton , G . E . , We l l s , J . P .

,and Henry , S . E .

1962 . Northrose a new spe cia l -purpose r i ce variety f or

Arkansas . Rice J . (Ab str . ) 30 .

ohnston , T . H . , Temp leton , G . E . , Wel ls , J . P . , and Henry , S . E .

1962 . Northrose a new spe cia l purpose ri ce var iety f or

Arkansas . Ark . Farm Res . Ri ce J . 10 - 19 .

se l l , J . R . and Adair , C. R . 1962 . Breeding rice f or co ldwater Presented Ri ce Te ch . Working

Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 21 - 23 . Pub . in Proceedings . p . 15 .

kins , J . G . 1962 . Control of rice diseases by varieta l resistance .

Presented Rice Te ch . Working Group , Houston , Texas .

Feb . 21 - 23 . Pub . in Proceedings . p . 18 .

Atkins , J . G . 1962 . Sour ces of re sistance to b last .

Pre sented Rice Te ch . Working Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 2l - 23 .

Pub . in Proceedings . p . 18 .

Lamey, H . A . , Jennings , P . R .,and Adair , C. R . 1962 . Results of

1961 hoja b lanca nur ser ies . Presented Rice Tech .

Working Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 2l - 23 . Pub . in Proceedings .

p . 19 .

Atkins , J . G ., Bol lich , C. N . ,

and Jodon , N . E . 1962 . Ri ce b lastnur sery . Loui siana Ri ce Exp . Sta . 53rd Ann . Prog . Rpt . pp .

151- 155 .

Bo l l i ch , C . N . and Miears , R . J . 1962 . Light intensity - nitrogen

f erti l ity exper iment . Louisiana Ri ce Exp . Sta . 53rd Ann .

Frog . Rpt . pp . 30 - 48 .

Hal l , V . L . and Tackett , D . L . 1962 . Growth and nutr itiona l ba lanceof Nato ri ce as inf luen ced by the time of nitrogen f erti lization and

'

water management . kansas Bul l . 662 .

Johnston ,T . H . 1962 . The importance of nitrogen f erti lization in

r i ce varieta l deve lopment . Presented at Rice Tech .

‘

Working Group , Houston , Texas . Feb . 21 - 23 . Pub . in Proceed

ings . p . 16 .

General

Adair , 0 . Roy , Mi ller , M. D .,and Beache l l , H . M . 1962 . Rice

improvement and culture in the United States . Advances in

Agronomy Vol . l4, .Academi c Pre ss Inc ., N . Y . pp . 6l - lo4.

Evatt , N . S . and Beache l l , H . M . 1962 . Se cond- crop ri ce productionin Texas . Texas Agr i cultural Progre ss . 25- 28 . TAP 306 .

McMillian , W . W . , McGuire , J . U . ,and Lamey , H . A . 1962 . Hoja

b lanca transmi ssion studies on ri ce . J . o f Econ . Ent .

706 - 707 .

Schroeder , H . W . and Hal ick, J . V . 1963 . Ef f e cts of moisturecontent , humidity, and length of storage on maintenan ce of

qual ity in rough rice . AMS and ARS . Marketing Res .

Rpt . No . 598 .

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The Federa l sc ient i f ic e f f ort devoted to re sear ch in thi s area tota lspr of essiona l man -

year s . Of th is number ,ar e devoted to

breeding and gene tics , to disease s , to cu lture -

physio logy ,

and to pr ogram leader sh ip .

A contract with the Un iver s ity o f Perug ia , Perugia , Ita ly, pr ovide sf or deve loping l ine s o f a l fa lf a resistant to Ver tic i l lium wi lt . Its

du r en: ion is f on. 5 year s ,1962 1967 , and invo lve s P .L. 480 f unds .

PROGRESS

A . Breeding and Gene tics

1 . Impr oved Ladak readied f or te st ing . Kansas te sts indicated that

Ladak a lf a lf a yie lded and survived better than Bu f f a lo in some par ts

o f the State . Be cause o f its des irab le character istics ,a breeding

program was init iated in 1958 in Kansas to breed into Ladak re si stanceto the spotted a l fa l fa aphid , pea aphid ,

and bacteria l wi lt . Te stso f the impr oved Ladak showed that seedl ing surviva l a f ter spotted

a lfa l fa aphid inf e stat ion increased f rom 3 percent f or the or igina lunse lected Ladak to 35 per cent f or one cyc le of se lection and 77

percent f or two cyc les o f se lection . Decreases in injury scor eswere as str iking as those f or surviva l . Seedl ing surviva l a f ter pea

aphid inf estat ion increased f rom 9 percent f or Ladak to 20 percentf or one cyc le o f se le cti on and 53 percent f or two cyc le s . Syn . 1

seed o f a synthet ic der ived f rom 95 se cond- cyc le se le ct ions was pro

duced dur ing 196 2 f or f urther te st ing . Each of the se lecti ons was

r es istant to pea and spotted a l f a lf a - aphids and bacter ia l wi lt .

2 . New a l f a l f a breeding mater ia l re leased . Clone 089 , one o f the

f ive parents o f Lahontan ,was re leased f or use in breeding programs

conducted by pub l ic and pr ivate agenc ies . This is the f irst timethat USDA has made a lf a lf a c lones avai lab le to industry f or the irbreeding pr ograms . C89 is high ly res istant to the stem nematode and

both known b iotypes of the spotted a l fa lf a aphid . It is .moderate 1y

resistant to bacter ia l wi lt , the pea aphid and possib ly the a lf a lf aseed cha lc id . But , like Nemastan and other Turkistan a l f a lf as , C89

is suscept ib le to leaf and S tem diseases . The insect phase of thiswork was in cooperation with the Entomo logy Re search Division .

3 . Sonora a l fa l fa re leased f or Southwest . Sonora was deve loped in

cooperat ion with the Ar izona , Ca li f ornia ,and Nevada Agr icu ltura l

Experiment Stat ions and the Entomo logy Re sear ch D ivis ion . Sonora is

a winter - tender , Spotted a lf a l f a aphid- re s istant var iety that pr oducesmor e winter growth than Moapa . It has yie lded as much as 10 percentmore than Moapa in Ar i zona and southern Ca li f ornia . Sonora has

exce l lent seedling vigor and is less suscept ible to downy mi ldew than

Moapa or A fr ican .

4 . Stem- nematode re sistance f ound in Cher okee . In 196 1, 7 1 p lantsin Cher okee were f ound to have seedling re sistance to the stem nema

tode at Ra le igh , N .O . Subsequent tests o f the ir 81 pr ogen ies showed

that 22 o f the 7 1 had a h igh degree of re sistance . Seed o f a syn

thetic consisting o f res istant c lones is now be ing produced f or

te st ing . F inding stem - nematode - r esistant p lants in Cherokee wi l lr educe the t ime needed to deve lop adapted stem - nematode - re s istantvar ieties f or the Southeast . Re s istant p lants were ident i f ied witha f i lter paper do l l seedl ing inocu lation test . The same genera lpr ocedure has a lso been used success f u l ly at Logan , Utah .

5 . Northern ro ot - knot rematode r esistance retained in backcr osses .

In a breeding program at Reno , Nev . ,designed to combine re sistance

to bacter ia l wi lt , S tem nematode s , Spotted a lf a lf a aphids , pea aphids ,

and nor thern root - knot nematode s , r es istance to root - knot nematodes

was retained in appr oximate ly 35 per cent o f the f ir st backcross to

the suscept ib le parent . Additiona l p lants with re sistance were

ident i f ied in Verna l - like se lections with re sistance to lea f and stem

diseases .

6 . Sour ces of resistance to f o l iar diseases . A t . St . Pau l , Minn

‘M . glut inosa ,and M . mar ina were high ly resistant to common lea f spot .

Re s istant p lants were a lso f ound in the Teton , Ramb ler ,and Verna l ,

.ih F lem ish strains ,and occasiona l ly in Ranger , Ladak ,

and Narragansett .

Some a lf a l fa p lant s had to lerance to spr ing blackstem in the f ie ld ,

but r esistance like that f or common lea f spot was not f ound . Di f f erence s in re s istance appeared to be a matter o f les ion s i ze . More

res istance was f ound in M . fa lcata than in M . sat iva . The spec ie s

res istance in f ie ld and greenhouse tests . M . tunetana and a hybr idbe tween M . sativa and M . dzhawakhetica appeared res istant in gr een

house tests .

Resistance to Pseudoplea leaf spot was s imi lar to that f or Spr ingb lackstem with regard to le sion si ze . In the mor e resistant types ,

the lesions remained sma l l and leaves green much longer than in

susceptib le types . In gr eenhouse screening , some p lants from com

merc ia l var iet ies were res istant a f ter repeated inocu lat ions ,but

none o f them has been pr ogeny tested . Some p lants of M . tunetana

had considerab le re sistance to PseudOplea lea f Spot .

M . sat iva appear s success f u l . A cyto log ica l study o f a dip lo id F 1hybr id between M . sat iva and M . dzhawakhet ica at St . Pau l , Minn . ,

indicated cons iderab le homo logy between the genome s o f the two

spec ies . A lso ,about 4 to 8 seeds per 100 po l linations were obta ined

when the hybr id was backcrossed to dip lo id M . sat iva . The backcrosspr ogeny was norma l in vigor and appearance and segregated f or

re s istance to Phoma .

8 . Se le ct ion f or re s istance to Ver t ic i l l ium wi lt ._

Work was

in it iated at Perugia ,Ita ly,

with P .L. 480 f unds to deve lop a l fa lf al ines re sistant to Ver tic i l l ium wi lt f or use in breeding UnitedStates a lf a l f as . Deve lopment o f inocu lati on methods and te st ing o f

Medicago Spp . f urn ished invest igator have re ceived pr inc ipa l attent ionto date . Vert ic i l lium wi lt is a de structive disease of a l fa l f a in

Eur ope wh ich has not yet been observed in the Un ited States .

9 . Breeding f or res istance to the potato lea f hopper damage . At

Un iver sity Park , Pa .,te sts of nympha l deve lopment rates and nympha l

viabi lity o f potato lea f hopper indicated that sma l l di f f erence sexisted among p lants f or ant ibios is react ions and that these di f f erence s were di f f icu lt to measure . A combined f ie ld and greenhouse

test was deve loped wh ich seemed to e f f e ct ive ly and e f f icient ly measure

adu lt oviposit ion pre f erences , var iat ion in hatchabi lity and nympha lviabi lity . Th is method con sisted of p lacing a l fa l f a p lants in ear lybud Stage into an in f ested f ie ld o f lea f hopper s f or 48 hour s and then

br inging the p lants into a contr o l chamber or coo l greenhouse . A f ter

20 days , individua l p lants were f umigated and the number o f nymphs

counted . Number o f nymphs were adjusted f or p lant weight so as to

give number s in unit dry we ight o f top gr owth . This test appeared

pract ica l and e conomica l f or breeding pr ograms . At Be ltsvi l le ,

Maryland , remnant seed lots repre sent ing 11 cyc les o f re currentphenotypic se le ct i on were used to e stab lish a f ie ld te st to de terminethe e f f ect o f se le ction f or re sistance to lea f hopper ye l lowing on

popu lation means and var iances . Work at both locat ions is in

cooperat ion with the Entomo logy Re search Division .

10 . Deve lopment o f weevi l - res istant a lf a l fa di f f icu lt . A lf a l f abreeding work on r es istance to the a l f a lf a weevi l at Be ltsvi l le , Md .

,

and Ra le igh , N .O . , supports the f o l lowing conc lus ions(a ) Var ie tie s do not di f f er apprec iab ly in suscept ibi lity to damage

f r om the a lf a lf a weevi l larvae .

(b ) Su itab le re sistance to larva l f eeding has not been f ound .

( c ) A lf a l f a lines Spaced in r ows 3 to 4 f eet apar t di f f ered in larva ldamage ,

but this appeared to be re lated most ly to di f f erent ia l ovi

position .

(d ) Severa l p lants f r om M . sat iva var . gae tu la and some f rom the

cross M . sat iva x'

M . f a lcata have been iso lated which have re s istanceto oviposition . A lso , line s with considerab le M . f a lcata par entage

were more re sistant than those pr imar i ly of M . sativa parentage .

(e ) Clones se lected f or re s istance to ovipo sition di f f er morpho logi

ca l ly but most are sma l l , procumbent p lants with f ine stems . Cr osses

have been made between the divergent c lones to attempt trans f er o f

re s istance to' desirable p lant type s and to character i ze the mechanismo f re s istance . The se studies are in cooperat ion with ARS entomo logistsat Be ltsvi l le and State entomo logists at Ra le igh .

regiona l study . Po lycross seed o f 98 a l fa lf a c lones was pr oduced at

Logan , Utah , in 196 1 and 1962 f or studies designed to ( 1) determinesome o f the re lationships between f orage yie ld , seed yie ld and location o f te st , and ( 2 ) eva luate genera l combining abi lity . The c loneswere se le cted f or re sistance to common lea f spot ,

b lackstem caused by

Ascochyta ,and bacter ia l wi lt dur ing the la st 12 year s at Univer s ity

Park , Pa . Severa l cyc les o f backcr ossing , se l f ing ,and intermat ing

were used . Po lycr oss seed produced at Logan ,Utah , is be ing used to

e stab l ish per f ormance tests at Un iver sity Park, Pa . , St . Pau l , M inn . ,

and Logan ,Utah ,

and observat iona l te sts at severa l other locations .

12 . Se lecti on f or low sapon in . The saponin contents o f 242 var iet ies , stra ins ,

and p lant introductions were de term ined in the last 2

years at Logan , Utah . F lemish and Nemastan der ivatives were c on

sistent ly high and low , re spect ive ly , in saponin content . Two low

saponin lines , P . I . and P . I . and f our high saponin

were se lected f or f urther study . The se lines ranged f rom to

per cent sapon in .

In another study, 6 tons each o f Lahontan and Du Puits a l f a l f a haywere harve sted and cured f or a f eeding tr ia l in cooperat ion withAn ima l Disease and Parasite Resear ch Divis ion . The sapon in contentso f the Du Puits and Lahontan hays were and per cent , r espec

tive ly .

In 1959 a study of mea ls f rom f orage grown at diver se locations ,and

f r om di f f erent cuttings and var iet ies , indicated the f easibi lity o f

a lter ing sapon in content of a lf a l f a by breeding .

Utah te sts . A 3 -

year test was comp le ted in Utah compar ing rec ipr oca lso f sing le and doub le - cr oss comb inations o f the f ive parent c lones o f

Uinta . Rec iproca l di f f erences f or seed and hay yie lds were large .

In one cross , the seed yie ld o f re c iproca ls di f f ered by more than 500

pounds per acre . Reciproca l di f f erences f or seed yie ld were c lose lyre lated to se lf - f erti lity ,

but thi s re lationship was not appar ent f or

hay yie ld . More research on the signi f icance o f rec iproca l di f f erences in a lfa l f a is needed . A year ago an unantic ipated se lf ingpr ob lem was reported in an interregiona l study de signed to eva luatethe 9 1 two - c lone combinat ions among 14 e lite c lones .

abi lity . The ma j or e f f ect o f acc identa l se lf ing on e st imate s o f

genera l and spec i f ic comb in ing abi lity f rom dia l le l crosses was f ound

to be an overe st imate o f the genera l combining abi lity component ,

according to resear ch at Ra le igh , N .C . Actua l data f rom three 6 - c lonedia l le l cro sse s pr oduced by hand po l lination without emascu lat ionr evea led that overe stimates f r om acc identa l se lf ing ranged f r om 40 to

218 percent . The degree of overest imat ion depended on the charactermeasured . Se l f ing was repor ted a year ago to be a lso a prob lem in

cr osses pr oduced by honeybee s . The se studie s demonstrate the

importance o f taking pre cautions aga inst se lf ing in a l fa l f a when

genetic var iances are to be e st imated .

gene t ic var iance . An opt imum pr ocedure f or e stimat ing autotetrap lo idcomponents o f genet ic var iance was deve loped at Rale igh , N .C . Thispr ocedure uses the par t ia l dia l le l cross in conj unction wi th a parent

o f f spr ing r egre ssi on and an e st imate o f tota l genetic variance f rom

rep licated c lona l ly pr opagated parents . At Ithaca , New York , the

e st imation of gene tic components f r om doub le cr o sse s is being invest igated . The deve lopment of pr ocedur es f or estimating genetic var ianceswh ich are app licab le to a l f a l fa shou ld lead to a better under standingo f the type s of gene acti on important in a l fa l f a popu lations and aid

in the deve lopment o f more e f f icient breeding me thods .

16 . Methods o f Syn- l seed pr oduction compared . The Syn

- 1 generationo f AZ Z4 and o f A23 9 was produced by each o f f our methods : 8 1, s ing lecr oss ,

doub lecr oss ,and mu lticross . Each Syn

- l was"advanced to the

Syn- 2 . Two-

year data were obtained and ana lyzed with the f o l lowingr esu lts : D i f f erence s due to method o f Syn

- 1 seed producti on were

sign i f icant ( 3 ) in the Syn- 1 per f ormances o f AZ Z4 and A239 f or f orage

yie ld , spr ing gr owth habit , f a l l growth habit ,and rate o f re covery;

(b ) in the Syn- 2 per f ormance o f A Z Z4 f or f orage yie ld , spr ing growth

habit , f a l l gr owth habit ,and rate o f recovery , and o f

' A 239 f or fa l lgr owth habit ; and (c ) in the Syn

- l ver sus Syn- 2 per f ormance o f AZZ4

f or f orage yie ld , spr ing gr owth habit , f a l l gr owth habit ,and rate o f

re covery ,and o f A 239 f or f a l l growth habit and rate o f recovery .

Cost was a maj or considerat ion in determining the be st method of

Syn- 1 seed product ion . This work was done at Linco ln , Nebr .

17 . Genet ic character istics o f root - creeping character . Data from

a six - c lone dia l le l cross among root - spreading c lone s at Un iver s ityPark , Pa were ana lyzed f or genera l and Spec i f ic combining abi litye f f ects on percent r oot - creeper s and r oot - creep score at 1 year o f

age . Estimated components o f variance f or overa l l r oot- spread scoreand percent o f r oot - Spreader s were and t ime s as large f or

genera l combin ing abi lity as f or Spec i f ic combining abi lity . The

e stimated component o f var iance f or spec i f ic combining abi l ity f or

scor e o f the root - Spreading f racti on o f the popu lation , however ,was

times that f or genera l combining abi lity . Per centage o f r oot

Spreaders in the 15 crosses a f ter 3 years averaged as compar edto f or Ramb ler . Percentage o f Spreader s in the 15 crosse s a f ter

1 year was high ly corre lated with per centage of spreader s a f ter

3 year s (r

At Reno , Nev . , 1962 open-

po l linat ion seed yie lds o f 113 c lone s p lantedon 4- f o ot centers in 196 1 were corre lated with 196 1 seed yie lds(r p lant vigor at seed harvest open

-

po l linatedpercent pod S et percent pod set upon se l f ing number

o f seeds per pod set upon se lf ing estimated po l len pr oductionand number of se lf ed seeds per 100 f lorets tr ipped

The corre lat ion between po l len product ion and number o f se l f ed seeds

per 100 f lorets was and that be tween per cent pod se t upon se lfing and number o f seeds per pod f r om se l f ing was The 19 62

Seed yie lds o f individua l genotypes ranged f rom 194 to pounds

per acre and averaged 765 . Seed yie lds on c lones in 19 6 1, the year

of establ ishment , ranged f r om 12 to 194 pounds per acr e and averaged83 .

Cyto logica l observat ions on the behavior o f the large sate l litechromosome at St . Pau l , Minn suppor ted genet ic data indicat ing that

the sate l lite chr omosome was not transmitted through the ma le game te .

On the other hand , the rate o f transmiss ion through the f ema le gamete

was abnorma l ly hi gh . The contro l ling mechanism has not been estab

lished .

Progress has been made in the use o f ce l l cu lture techniques in a lf

a lf a genet ic studie s at St . Pau l , Minn . Ca l lus was gr own f rom the

stem , root, germinat ing seed , cotyledon , hypocotyl ,

and f lower peta lof a lf a l fa . Ca l lus der ived f r om seedlings was mor e f riab le and

f aster gr owing than ca l lus f r om stems . Intensive pigmentat ion was

not obtained in ca l lus f r om f lower pe ta ls , but ca l lus t issu es f r om

purp le , ye l low ,and white f lower s were di f f erent . A comp lete ly syn

thet ic medium was adapted to rep lace the coconut mi lk supp lementor igina l ly used , re su lting in greater chr omosome stabi lity . Limiteddi f f erentiat ion o f Shoots and r o ots f rom ca l lus mater ia l was obtainedthr ough manipu lation o f the nutr ients and aux ins in the media . Onceca l lus mater ia l was f ormed , gr owth rate increased if transf erred to

media without 2- 4- D .

B . Diseases

A t Be ltsvi l le , Md . , the coty ledon inocu lat ion te chnique f or in f ecting7 - day

- old seedlings with bacter ia l wi lt reported in 196 1 was re f inedand adapted f or large - sca le eva luation o f seedl ings . In the modi f iedte chn ique ,

cotyledons o f 7 - day- o ld seedlings ar e Sprayed with a

bacter ia l suspension . The t ips o f the wet cotyledons are c lippedwith a scissor s and then sprayed aga in with bacter ia l inocu lum . Saedl

ings are incubated 24 hour s at high humidity and a l lowed to grow fr om

30 to 36 days . Then they are dug and each taproot is examined f or

interna l disco loration .

disrupting en zymes . Strains of Rhi zocton ia so lani tested at Ra le igh ,

N .C . , on a given cu lture medium di f f ered in the proper ties of po lyga lacturonate chain - sp litting enzymes produced . There was a lsovar iation when a sing le iso late was cu ltured on di f f erent media . A

pe ct in - trans - e l iminase (PTE ) was produced by one strain af ter pro longedcu lture ( 11 to 16 days ) on media containing both pectin and sugar .

The Rh izoctonia PTE degraded pect in mor e rap idly than po lypectate .

PTE was not produced on media containing pectin as so le carbon sour ce .

f ie ld . In Minnesota tests , two virus sour ces reduced seed yie ld o f

an a l fa lf a c lone in the f ie ld by 15 and 23 percent in seven tests

during three seasons . The same two viruses reduced f orage yie ld o f

the f irst cutt ing by 26 and 31 per cent in thr ee te sts dur ing two

seasons 0

Perennia l legumes like a l fa l fa become inf ected and weakened by p lantviruses . Twenty- three a l fa lf a f ie lds in Minnesota and Iowa were

samp led by co l lecting at random f o l iage o f 100 p lants f rom each f ie ld .

Each samp le was indexed on tester hosts at St . Pau l , Minn . The per

centage h f ection ranged f rom 0 to 64 . Fi f teen percent of the p lants ,

on the average , were virus - inf ected . Fur ther studies are underway to

determine the re lationsh ip o f var iety ,age o f stand and locat ion on

incidence o f virus inf ection in a lfa lfa .

5 . A lf a l f a root rot f ungi compar ed . Like other f orage legumes ,

a lfa lf a is f requent ly attacked by r oot rott ing pathogens which weaken

p lants , reduc ing productivity and longevity o f stands . Diseasedp lants of ten deve lop a brown to b lack interna l necrosis o f the taproot .

Fungi iso lated f rom diseased roots at Un iversity Park , Pa . ,inc luded

Spe c ies of Fusarium , Pyghium ,and Rhi zoctonia . On ly E, oxysporum was

moderate ly pathogen ic to 2e to 3 - month - o ld p lants . Pythium and

inf e ct ion occurred when p lants were c lipped frequent ly and were he ld

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PUBLICATIONS

Breeding and Genet ics

Boren , R . B Parker , R . L. ,and Sorensen , E . L . 1962 . Foraging

behavior o f honeybees on se lected a lf a l fa c lone s . Cr op Sciencepp . 185- 188 .

Carnahan , H . L. , Graham ,J . H and Newton , R . C . 1962 . Quant ita

t ive ana lyses of inher itance o f re s istance to common lea f spot in

a l f a lf a . Cr Op Science pp . 23 7- 240 .

Carnahan , H . L. ,and Peaden , R . N . 19 62 . A lf a l f a yie ld tr ia ls at

Loganda le . Research in Agronomy and Horticu lture - Progress Rept .

Univ . o f Nevada Co l l . o f Agr . Cir c . 35 , pp . 2- 3 .

Carnahan , H . L. ,and Peaden , R . N . 1962 . A lfa l f a yie ld tr ia ls at

Reno . Resear ch in Agronomy and Hor ticu lture - Pr ogress Rept . Univ .

o f Nevada Co l l . of Agr . Cir c . 35 , pp . 3 - 4 .

Carnahan , H . L. , Peaden , R . N .,Lieberman , F . V . ,

and Petersen , R . K .

1962 . Di f f erent ia l r eact i ons of a lf a l f a var iet ie s and se le ct ionsto the pea aphid . 18th A lf a lfa Impr . Con f . Rept . , pp . 12- 16 .

Carnahan , H . L . 196 3 . An eva luation o f reciproca l e f f ects and the irbasis in a lf a lf a c lone - crosses . Cr op Science pp . 19 - 22 .

Clement ,W . M . 1962 . Evidence on chr omosome re lationships in the

Impr . Conf . Rept . , pp . 20- 21 .

Clement , W . M . ,and Lehman , W . F . 196 2 . Cyto logica l studies of a

dihaploid p lant of a lf a l f a, Medicago sat iva L . Crop Science

pp . 451- 453 .

Dudley, J . W Hanson , C . H Chamb lee , D . S . ,and -Woodhouse , W . W

Jr . 1962 . A summary of a lf a lf a var iety te sts in Nor th Caro lina .

North Car o lina Agr . Expt . Sta . Bu l . 421, 15 pp .

Dudley , J . W . ,and Hi l l , R . R . ,

Jr . 1962 . E f f ects o f seven cyc lesof re current phenotypic se lection within two pools o f a lfa l fa germ

p lasm . Agron . Abstracts , p . 6 6 .

Dudley , J . W . 1962 . A pre sumed se lf ing prob lem in dia l le l cr osses o f

creeping - r ooted a l fa l f a . 18th A lf a l fa Impr . Conf . Rept . , pp . 38 - 40 .

E l ling , L . J . ,and Fr oshe iser , F . I . 1962 . Se lf -

po l l ination in two

c lone a l fa l f a cr osses pr oduced under cages . 18th A lfa lfa Impr .

Con f . Rept . , pp . 40- 45 .

Hanson , C . H Hi l l , R . R . ,and Dud ley , J . W . 196 1 . Gene poo ls and

recurrent phenotypic se lect ion in a lf a lfa . Sympos ium on Stat ist .

Genet . and Plant Breeding , Ra le igh , North Caro l ina , p . 6 6 .

Howe , W . L. ,Kehr , W . R . , McKnight , M . E .

,and Manglit z , G . R . 196 3 .

Studie s o f the me chanisms and sour ce s o f spotted a l f a lf a aphidr e sistance in Ranger a lfa lf a . Nebraska A gr . Expt . Sta . Res . Bu l .

210 , 22 pp .

Isaak ,A . , Sorensen , E . L. ,

and Or tman , E . E . 196 3 . In f luence o f

temperature and humidity on res istance in a lf a l f a to the spotted

a l fa l f a aphid and pea aphid . Jour . Econ . Ent . 56 ( l) , pp . 53 - 57 .

Kehr ,W. R . 1962 . Method o f Syn

- l seed product ion of two 4- c lonesynthetics in re lation to their Syn

- l and Syn- 2 per f ormance . 18th

A lfa l fa Impr . Con f . Rept . , pp . 22- 28 .

Manglitz , G . R . , Kehr , W . R . ,and Ca lkins , C . 0 . 1962 . Pea aphid

resistant a lfa lfa now in sight . Nebraska Agr . Expt . Sta . Quarter ly ,

Spr ing , pp . 5- 6 , 24 .

Nie lson , M . W and C lement , W . M . 1962 . Pre liminary studies o f

a lf a lf a seed cha lc id resistance in Medicago of diver se or igin . 18th

A lfa l fa Impr . Conf . Rept . , p . 3 .

Rotar , P . P . ,and Kehr , W . R . 196 3 . Re lationship of se lf - f ert i l ity,

po l len abort ion ,and micronuc le i number to agronom ic per f ormance in

a lf a lf a . Nebraska Agr . Expt . Sta . Res . Bu l . 209 , 24 pp .

Diseases

Graham ,J . H . ,

and Carnahan , H . L . 1962 . Patho logica l techniquesused in deve loping disease r esistance in a lf a lfa . 18th A lf a l f aImpr . Conf . Rept . , pp . 71- 72 .

Kre it low , K . W . 1962 . P lant diseases . In Pasture and Range ResearchTe chnique s , pp . 183 - 185 . Corne l l Univ . Press , Ithaca .

McGlohon , N . E . ,Sasser , J . N . ,

and Sherwood , R . T . 1962 . Ef f ect o f

f a l lowing , desiccat ion ,and soi l temperature on certa in p lant

paras it ic nematodes (Abstract ) . Phytopath , 52 , pp . 20- 21.

Sherwood , R . T and Lindberg , C . G . 1962 . Pr oduction o f a

phytotoxin by Rhi zoctonia so lani . Phytopath , 52 , pp . 586 - 587 .

Cu lture - Physio logy

Hanson , C . H . , Koh ler , G . Dudley , J . W Sorensen , E . L. , Van Atta ,

G . R Taylor , K . W . , Pedersen , M . W . ,Wi lsie , C . P . , Carnahan ,

H . L. ,Kehr , W . R Lowe , C . C Stan f ord , E . H . ,

and Youngen , J . A .

19 62 . Pre lininary report on the e f f ect o f locat ion , cutt ing and

var ie ty on tota l saponin content of a lf a l f a and the interre lat i onships o f saponin content to yie ld , de f o l iation ,

and other chemica lconst ituents . 18th A l f a l f a Impr . Con f . Rept . , pp . 53 - 54 .

Peaden , R . N and Smith , 0 . F . 196 2 . E f f ects of r ow spacing and

cutt ing f requency on f orage yie lds of a lf a l f a . Western Soc iety of

Crop Sc ience Abstracts , pp . 24- 25 .

Genera l

Centra l A l fa l f a Impr ovement Con f erence Repor t . 1962 . A ssemb led by

W . R . Kehr . Mimeographed data f r om 12 North Centra l States , 9 1 pp .

Eighteenth A lf a lf a Impr ovement Con f erence Repor t (CR - 71 1962 .

Reported by C . H . Hanson . M ime ographed ,107 pp .

Report of 1960 and 196 1 A lf a l fa Nurser ies , Eastern A l f a lfa ImprovementConf erence (CR -49 1962 . Assemb led by C . H . Hanson .

Mimeographed data from 16 Eastern States ,125 pp .

CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES , CULTURE ,BREEDING AND GENETICS , DISEASE AND VARIETY EVALUATION

Crops Research Division, ARS

Probl em . A to tal o f 45 Spec ies o f c lover , tref o i l , l espedeza ,vetch ,

lup ines and o ther l egumes are o f reg ional or national im

portance in the United States . A great many o ther Spec ies o f legumesar e po tential ly valuable f or pasture and land cover , provided adapted

varieties can be deve loped . One or more kinds o f these legumes are

grown on 95 percent o f the f arms or ranches e ither f or hay, pasture ,

s i lage , so il improvement , conservation , or f or mu l t ip l e uses . Lo ssesdu e to diseases , insects , unf avorabl e c l imatic conditions , and un

desirabl e plant charac ter is tics , all assoc iated with de f ic iencies in

the present varie ties , reduce f arm values o f these legumes by 50 per

cent . Improvement by breeding f or winterhardiness and heat to l erance ,

drought resistance , disease and insec t resistance ,h igh yie lding

capac i ty , improved qual ity and palatabi l ity , f reedom f rom toxic p lantcons ti tu ents ,

ease o f e stabl ishment , stronger perenn ial ity , to l eranceo f grass compe tition and o f unf avorabl e so i l conditions can be realized through basic and appl ied research . Long- l ived , productivel egumes are needed f or the less f erti l e , poorly drained so i l s and f or

lands di f f icu l t to cu lt ivate becau se o f the rough terrain and assoc iated ero sion probl ems . Studies o f cytogenetics , interspecif ic hybridization and methods o f breeding ; o f diseases , inc luding cau salorgan isms and methods o f contro l ; and o f physio logical responses o f

plants to env ironmental f ac tors and composition are essential to

so lving improvement probl ems . Domestic and f ore ign Spec ies and

var ieties f or di f f erent uses throughout the Un ited States must be

evaluated .

PROGRAM

The Depar tment has a continu ing long - term program invo lving agrono

m ists and plant breeders, geneticists , patho logists , and physiolo

g ists engaged in bo th basic studies and the appl ication o f known

princ iples to the so lu tion o f f armer s'

probl ems . Basic and app l ied

plant breeding research is conducted with red c lover at Madison ,

Wisconsin ,and Be ltsv i l l e , Maryland; with swee tc lover at Linco ln ,

Nebraska ,and Madison ,

Wiscons in ; with crimson c lover at State

Co l l ege ,Mississippi ; wi th white c lover at Cl emson , Sou th Caro l ina;

w ith perenn ial c lovers f or irrigated h igh mountain va l leys o f the

West at Fort Co l l ins , Co lorado ; and with winter annual c lovers at

Beaumont , Texas . Bas ic genetic and cytogenet ic investigations are

conduc ted with red c lover at Madison , Wisconsin ; w ith sweetc loverat L inco ln ,

Nebraska ; with wh ite c lover at Clemson , Sou th Caro l ina;and with perenn ial and native c lovers at Fort Co l l ins , Co lorado .

Bas ic and app l ied re search on the patho logy o f perenn ial c lovers is

in p rogre ss at Univers i ty Park , Pennsylvan ia ; Durham ,New Hampsh ire ;

and Be l tsvi l l e , Maryland . Bas ic phys io log ica l research is conductedon red c lover at Lexington ,

Kentucky , and on whi te c lover at Cl emson ,

Sou th Caro l ina . Cu l tu ral and app l ied phys io logical investigations o f

cr imson c lover are in progress at State Co l lege ,M ississippi .

State Exper iment Station programs cooperative w ith the Department in

e lude breeding , gene tic s , and cytogenetics o f red c lover at Lexington,Kentucky; breeding o f wh ite c lover at Durham , New Hampsh ire ; biochem istry o f sweetc lovers at Linco ln , Nebraska ; and patho logy o f

white c lover at Cl emson , Sou th Caro l ina and o f p erenn ia l c lovers at

Madison , W iscons in . C0 0 perative work i s al so conduc ted w ith the

Entomo logy Research D iv is ion o f the Department in swee tc lover im

provemen t at Linco ln , Nebraska and Madi son , W iscons in .

Annual and perennial l espedeza bre eding , disease and var iety eva luetion research is be ing conduc ted at Ral e igh , Nor th Caro l ina

, in

cooperat ion w ith the Nor th Caro l ina Agr icu l tural Experimen t Stationand at Be l tsvil l e ,

Maryland . Tre f o il breeding and cytogenetic re

search is conduc ted at Ithaca , New York; breeding and diseaseresearch at Co lumbia ,

Missouri and Blacksburg , V irgin ia , in cooperation w ith the respec tive exper imen t stat ions and at Be l tsvi l l e ,

Maryland . Tre f o i l disease research is a l so underway at Stonevi l l e ,

Miss issipp i , in cooperation with the M iss iss ipp i Agr icu l tu ral Experi

ment Station . Cu l tural (physio logica l ) research w i th tref o i l ,l espedeza , crownvetch and tickc lover is underway at Experiment ,

Geo rg ia ,in cooperation w i th the Georgia Agr icu l tural Exper iment

Station . Lup ine and tickc lover breeding and disease and evaluat ionresearch is be ing conducted at Ti f ton , Georg ia , in cooperat ion w iththe Georg ia Agr icu l tura l Experiment Stat ion . Crownve tch breedingresearch is conduc ted at Bel tsvi l l e , Maryland .

The Federal sc ient if ic e f f ort devo ted to research in th is area

to tal s pro f ess ional man -

years . Of th is number is devo tedto bre eding and genet ic s , to disease s , to varie ty evaluat ion,

to cu l ture and phys io logy , to plant introduction and evaluation,and to program. leadership .

A contrac t with the Min istry o f Agr icu l ture , Fin land , provide s f or

the intens i f ication o f po lyplo idy breeding in c lover spec ies . Its

du ration is f or 5 years , 1961- 66 , and invo lves P .L. 480 f unds witha equ iva l ent in F inmarks . The bas ic part o f th is work

concerns the po ssible improvement o f seed se tting abi l it ies o f

tetrap lo id c lovers ; the tetraplo id red and al s ike c lovers deve lopedin su ch a program may be o f value to A laskan agr icu l ture .

A contrac t w ith the Depar tmen t o f Plan t Phys io logy , Warsaw , Po land ,

provides f o r a study o f the me tabo l ism o f a lka lo ids in lup ines and

he phys io log ica l ro l e o f the se compounds . Its du rat ion is f or 5

year s , 19 6 1- 66 ,and i nvo lve s P .L. 480 f unds wi th a

equ ival ent in Po l ish Z lo tys .

A con trac t w i th the Depar tmen t o f Gene tic s and Bio chem ical Labo ratory,Po znan , Po land , provides f or a study o f the f o rms o f n i trogen in

Spec ies and var ie t ie s o f l egumes . Its dura tion is f o r 5 years , 1961

66 , and invo lves P .L. 480 f unds with a equ ival en t in

Po l ish Z lo tys .

A con trac t w i th the IBEC Research Institu te , Sao Pau lo , Braz i l ,prov ides f or the co l l ec tion and evaluation o f trop ical and sub

tro p ical l egumes o f indigenou s and wor ld or ig in . Its durat ion is

f or 5 years , November 1961- 6 6 ,and invo lves P .L. 480 funds w i th a

equ ival ent in Braz i l ian Cru ze iro s .

A con trac t w i th the Institu te" Jaime Ferron

" de M icrobio log ia ,

Madr id , Spa in , provide s f or a study o f the viru s diseases o f l egum inous plants . Its duratio n is f or 3 year s , 19 61- 64 , and invo lvesP .L. 480 funds w i th a equ iva l en t in Span ish Pese tas .

PROGRESS

A . Bre eding and Gene tic s

1 . Red c lover . Syn the t i c var ie ties , f ormu lated on the basis o f pre

viou sly accumu lated p er s istenc e and disease re s istance data , were

Supe r io r in W iscons in in 19 62 to be st re l eased var ietie s f o r plan tstands in the third harves t year and f o rage yie lds in the secondharvest year ,

and were super io r to Do l lard and equal to Lake land in

seed yie lds in the f irst harve st year . Re search in Maryland in

dicated that re lat ive ly high temp erature ( 9OOF ) i ncreased pseudo

se l f - compatibi l i t ie s o f c lone s previou sly se l ec ted f o r e i ther low or

h i gh pseu do- se l f - compatibi l ity under greenhou se condi tions , thu s

sugg es t ing that se l f - incompatib i l ity o f red c lover m ight be c ircumven ted by temperature tr eatments du r ing and subsequ ent to po l l ination .

In the P .L. 480 pro j ec t on intensif ication o f po lyplo idy breeding o f

c lover Sp ec ie s in F inland , plants o f establ ished te traplo id JoTPA l

and Ulva red c lovers and JoTAA4 al s ike c lover were se l ec ted on the

bas i s o f previou s seed se tting abi l ities and agronom ic mer i t as a

pre requ is i te to synthesis o f new tetraplo id var ie t ies . Newly de

r ived te traplo ids f rom the dip lo id Hakanen and Jokio inen red c loverswere s im i lar ly scre ened pr ior to propo sed syn the s is o f new tetraplo idvar ietie s .

2 . Swe etc lover . The breeding program in Nebraska inc luded se l ect ion

f or low - coumar in ,aph id- re s istant , large - seeded swee tc lovers . In

c0 0 perative biochemical studies , an improvement was made in a rap id ,

qua l itative paper te st f or coumar in ,thus g iving a be tter tes t f o r

geno type s concerned with coumarin produc t ion . Var ia t ion i n me l ilo tic , o - coumar ic ,

and coumar in ic ac ids was a ttr i bu ted to years o f

growth , seasonal changes , p lant par ts ( l eaves , stems , roo ts ) , and

geno types (Cu B lo c i ) . No new mu tations f or low coumar in were dis

covered among a smal l number o f p lan ts surviv ing a p reviou s seed

X - ray treatment o f r . A discrepancy in pr eviou s segregat ionratios f or an albin istic charac ter in M . o f f ic inal is contro l l ed by a

singl e gene was explained by shatter ing o f shr ive l ed se ed , conta in inga dispropor tion o f albino s , be f ore harve st . Cooperat ive studies w i thEntomo logy Research Branch disc lo sed no re S i s tanc e to sweetc loverweevi l wi th in Me l ilo tu s Spec ies , bu t two Spec ies o f a c lo se ly re

lated genu s ,Trigone l la f o enum -

graecum and I . gladiata , were repu l

sive (bu t non- toxic ) to the insect . Seed produc t ion o f Denta sweet

c lover with in plastic mesh cage s in Wiscons in dec l ined sharply wi thredu ction in l ight due to increased dens ity o f mesh .

3 . Crimson c lover . Front ier , a new var ie ty o f cr imson c lover ex

hibiting greater seedl ing vigor and f al l and w inter growth , was re

l eased in Miss issipp i . Inbred l ines o f the Spec ies var ied great lyf or seed yie ld and qual ity , p lan t matur i ty, mo rpho logy , and vigor ,

and combin ing abi l ity . Inbred l ines perf ormed s im i lar ly in seeded

rows ,broadcast p lo ts , or Spaced-

plan t rows . Se l f ing has iso latedl ines exh ib it ing var iou s f lower co lors and al so a se l f —ster i l itycharac ter . Res istance to soo ty blo tch , Cymadothea trif o lii , was

f ound .

4 . Wh ite c lover . Frequent branch ing o f S to lons was Shown to be a

de sirabl e se l ection cr iter ion in work at Cl emson ,Sou th Caro l ina

f or breeding programs . Var iation among c lone s was f ound f or reac tionto sto lon ro t cau sed by Fu sar ium ro seum and f or react ion to roo t kno t

nematode ,Melo idogyne incogn ita . Syn 2 seed o f a 6 - c lone synthe tic

was produced and u sed throughou t the Sou thern State s in establ ishmento f evaluation tr ial s .

5 . Winter annual c love rs . Se lec tions o f Persian (2 . re supinatum ) ,Berseem (1 . alexandr i num ) , and bal l (T , n igr e sc ens ) c lovers were

super ior f or re s i stance to damage by f ree z ing and f or f orage production at low temp era tu res at Beaumont , Texas . A se l ect ion o f Per sian

,

f or wh ich re lease is contemplated , was super ior to common Pers ian in

f orage and seed yie lds ,resistance to plant lodging and seed shatter

ing , and ear ly f al l and late Spring graz ing . Eight generat ions o f

se l ection increased hard seed f rom to 63 percent f or this se l ection o f Pers ian c lover .

6 . Perennial c lovers . Di f f erence s in se l f - compatibi l i ty existed

between diplo id and tetraplo id strains o f al sike c lover at Fort

Co l l ins , Co lorado but not among strains within each leve l o f

plo idy . The f requenc ies o f high ly se l f - incompat ible dip lo id and

tetrap loid plants were 63 and 31 percent . Cross- compatibil ity re

lationships among 9 zigzag (2 , medium ) plants indicated some intrasterile , inter- f ertil e groupings , suggestive o f Oppositional al le les .

7 . Annual lespedeza . Four F5l ines o f Korean lespedeza developed in

the cooperative program at Ral eigh , North Caro l ina , are being in

creased f or further testing . These repre sent the best o f a largenumber o f l ines se lected f or superior yie ld and resistant to tar Spo t

and roo t kno t nematodes . The 4 l ines have l ight p ink f lowers in con

trast to the usual darker purpl ish co lor , which provides a simplemeans o f identi f ication . Forage and seed yie lds o f these (4 l ines )are at least greater than varie ties in current u se . Approximate ly

pounds o f f oundation seed o f Summit l espedeza , deve loped in

the cooperative program at Missouri and A rkansas , are avai labl e f or

planting in 19 63 . In the western part o f the l espedeza region ,

Summit is 8 days later and produces 30 percent more f orage and seed

and is more resistant to tar Spo t and w i l t than Korean l espedeza .

8 . Tref o i l . Birdsf oo t tre f o i l is a long- l ived, non - bloatingperenn ial l egume adapted to poorly drained so i l s as a permanent

pasture legume . The present varie ties are long - l ived only in the

more nor thern latitudes and in the Appalach ian High lands o f

Virg inia , West Virg in ia , No rth Caro l ina , and Tennessee . In the

cooperative bre eding program at Ithaca ,New York , and at Blacksburg ,

Virginia , the po lycro ss me thod o f breeding is be ing explored as a

means o f deve lop ing superior varie ties . In the New Yo rk program , 4

years o f progeny testing has re su lted in the se lec tion and establ ishment o f superior c lones fo r the product ion o f synthetic varie ties .

Fourteen c lones have been se lec ted and recombined in the 9 synthet

ic s f or cage produc tion o f Syn 1 seed . These c lones were combinedon the basis o f super ior progeny per f o rmance f or yield , establ ishment , seed se t , persistence , w in terhardiness , and to lerance to root

ro ts . All po ssible S ingle cro sses between c lones w ith in each syn

thet ic have been produced in order to evaluate the speci f ic combiningabi l ity o f each c lone and methods f or produc ing syn thetics . In the

Virgin ia program , as a resu l t o f progeny test ing p lants in a po lycro ss , 10 clones superior in all respec ts have been se l ected f or the

product ion o f a new synthe tic . Syn 2 seed o f this synthet ic was

produced in 1962 and is be ing eva luated in a number o f yie ld tests .

The u se o f inbreeding , f o l lowed by se l ection o f hybr idization is

be ing explored as a method o f deve loping super io r varie ties o f tre

f o i l in the New York program . S4

and SS progen ies are being evalu

ated f o r pe rs istence ,roo t ro t to l erance and other characters .

Persistent plants w i l l be evaluated f or general and spec if ic combin

ing abi l ity . A 25 percent reduc tion in yie ld occurred in progenies

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appear to be very good .

10 . Ser icea le spede za . Ser icea is a we l l adapted perennial legumef or sou theastern so i l s where it is used f or hay and -so i l improvement .

Whi l e good qual i ty sericea hay is reasonably sat is f ac tory f o r anima lmaintenance , its diges tibi l ity is low . Digestibi l i ty trials indicatethat the low dige st ibi l ity is du e to the h igh tann in and l ignin con

tent in sericea f orage . In general , an imal gains on sericea pasture

have no t be en satisf ac tory ,du e al so to the high amounts o f tann in

and po ss ibly l ign in in the green plant . Progress is be ing made in

the cooperative program a t Ra l e igh , N . C . , in the breeding and de

ve10 pment o f new strains o f sericea contain ing signi f icantly lesstann in and l ign in . Analyses o f high and low tann in plants Show low

tann in p lants to al so be lower in l ign in . A compo s ite s train o f low

to moderate ly low tann in plan ts w i l l be evaluated f or intake and

dige stibil ity in the No rth Caro l ina program .

the tick c lover Spec ie s is to deve lop a perenn ial legume f or f orage

product ion and compatible in assoc iat ion w i th summer -

growing grasses

su ch as bahia and bermudagrass . Nineteen o f 75 such access ionswere f ound to be perenn ial . These 19 were p lan ted toge ther in an

area for palatabi l ity studie s . Desmodium heterocarpum was mo st

pa latabl e and appears to have prom ise f or pas tu re . The work is con

tinu ing . Limited studies are be ing continu ed on perenn ial peanu ts

and crownve tch in an e f f ort to deve lop better perenn ia l f orage

legume s .

B . Diseases

heads . F lower heads f rom phyl lody- diseased Ladino and a l s ike c loversroo ted when they were placed on so i l at Be l tsvill e , Md . The resu l ting plantl e ts did no t originate f rom seed in the f lower head bu t were

vege tative propagu l es o f the mo ther plan t . F lower heads f rom heal thyc lover p lants f a i l to roo t when s im ilarly treated . Transf ormation o f

f loral parts in to vege tative struc tures in phyl lody- diseased p lantsis probably accompl ished by viru s interf erence with normal growth

regu lator response . The drastic e f f ec t permi ts vege tat ive prO paga

tion and mu l tip l icat ion o f phyl lo id plants wh ich o therwise wou ld be

dif f icu l t or impo ss ibl e .

combinat ion . C0 0 perative entomo logy-

p lant patho logy investigat ionsat Un ivers i ty Park , Pa showed that Calomyc terus se tar iu s larvaef eed on smal l roo tl e ts o f red c lover and when fu l l -

grown , gouge tap

and lateral roo ts . When so i l was in f ested with C . se tar iu s alone ,

wi th Fu sar ium Spp . alone and a combination o f the insec t and

Fu sarium S pp . , mo st roo t ro t developed in red c lover exposed to the

combination treatmen t .

l eaves to f o l iar di seases . Wh en di f f erent aged leaves o f whi tec lover were inocu lated with cu l tures o f the pepper spo t fungus

( PseudO Sphaeru lina trif o lii ) and leaves o f red c lover were ino cu

mature leaves were mor e susceptibl e than younger l eaves . The re

search , condu cted in New Hampshire ,de termined that var ieta l dif f er

ences o ccurred in reSponse o f red c lover to target Spo t inf ection .

This suggests that se l ection f o r resistance is poss ibl e .

4 . Viru s - f ree seed o f swee t ye l low lupine produ ced . Cooperativeresearch w ith ARS entomo log ists at Ti f ton , Ga . ,

has resu l ted in pro

duc tion of approximate ly 1600 pounds o f bean ye l low mo saic viru s( BYMV) - f ree seed o f Weiko I II ye l low lupine . This seed- borne v iruswas large ly respons ibl e f or reduc ing the acreage o f swee t ye l lowlupine in the sou theastern Un ited States f rom a peak o f acresin the late l940

's to l ess than acres in 19 62 . The recommended

procedure inc ludes de laying planting until af ter a hard f reeze . A

system ic insec tic ide (pho rate ) is then appl ied at two pounds o f the

ac tive ingredient per acre in an 8- inch band over lupine rows 3 6

inche s apart . Three insec tic ide appl ications are made during the

per iod January 1 to March 15 . Du ring th is per iod any v iru s- inf ec tedplants observed are rogu ed and de stroyed . If the seed produ ct ionsystem proves economicaLa substant ial part o f the acreage f ormer lyplanted to sweet ye l low lupine may be restored .

5 . Soybean purple stain f ungu s cau ses disease o f guar . A Spec ieso f Cerco spo ra iso lated f rom le s i ons on guar stems and f rom purpl estained guar seeds a t Stonevi l l e ,

M i ss . , proved to be identical to

C . kikuchii wh ich indu c es purp l e sta in o f soybean seeds . Iso late so f the fungu s f rom guar caused purpl e disco lo ration o f soybean seed .

Converse ly , ino cu lation wi th iso lates f rom soybean produced f o l iarsymptoms on guar and disco lo rat ion o f guar seeds . The fungu s al soinduced l es ions on seedl ing l eaves and stems o f two Spec ies o f

Psoral ea .

6 . Scl ero t ium rolf sii destroys guar . Approx imate ly 80 percent o f

a acre test plant ing o f guar at Ti f ton , Ga . , was attacked and

des troyed by the f ungu s Sc l ero t ium rolf sii . The su sceptibi l ity o f

guar to this fungu s suggests that plant ings Shou ld no t be made where

S . rolf sii is preval ent .

A t Ral e igh , N . C a me thod was deve loped f or cu l tu r ing the tar Spo t

f ungu s , Phyl lachora l espedeza , on Lespedeza stipu lacea and obtain ingsucce ss ive l i f e cyc les on p lants indoors . Growth chamber studiessuggested that the l i f e cyc l e is compl eted only when temperatu re and

l ight are f avorable f or host growth bu t that there is probably al soa direct e f f ec t on the fungu s . The l if e cyc l e was com le ted in 15

days under a l6 - hour daylength at 75°F . daytime and 70 F . n ighttime

temperatures . Ou tdoors the l if e cyc l e is comp leted in 19 - 21 days .

Occurrence o f the stromat i c body appeared to be co rre lated wi thadvanced maturi ty o f ho st t issu e s rather than in reSponse to externalenvironment .

pheno l ic plant constitu ents . In experiments conducted in North

Caro l ina high tann in l ines o f L . cuneata resisted in f ect ion by the

so il and f o l iar bl ight fungus Rh izocton ia so lan i . Leucoanthocyanin

f rom Rhizocton ia- res istant leaves inhibited ce l lu lase and po lygalacturonase enzymes o f the fungu s in vitro , indicating that inactivation o f ce l l wal l macerating enzyme s may be a mechanism o f

resistance .

re lative ly low inc idence o f anthracno se carried in the seed o f

Desmodium Sp . may cause extensive seedl ing lo sses . In the greenhouse

test at Tif ton , Ga . ,on ly percent o f the seed was in f ected , yet

the f ungu s rapidly Spread f rom inf ec ted se edl ings to th ickly seeded

heal thy neighbor ing seedl ings , destroying a large proport ion o f the

stand. The observation has f ac i l itated testing se edl ings f or anthracno se resistance under contro l led conditions . Lines that appeared

res istant in 1961 were res istant in the f ie ld in 19 62 .

10 . Diseases o f tre f o i l . Pre l im inary studies conduc ted in con tro l l edbio c l imatic chambers indicate that high temperatures and f requent

de f o l iat ion increase the susceptibi l ity o f tre f o i l plants to roo t ro t

in c0 0 perative studies at Co lumbia ,Mo . Comparative studies o f seed

l ing p lants vs . rooted cu tt ings indicated that the latter were more

suscept ible to roo t ro t . Rh izocton ia bl ight continues to be a majordisease on big tref o il at Ti f ton , Ga . No real evidence of res istancehas been f ound in this Species .

11 . Viru s diSeases o f Spec ial l egumes . Research under P .L. 480

pro j ec t BZS - CR- l6 seeks to iso late and iden ti f y v iruses occurr ing in

l egum inous ho s ts in Spain with particu lar re f erence to charac teriz ingce l l inc lu s ions f ormed by Spec if ic viru ses in dif f erent ho sts . Histopatho logy o f 8 viru ses ou t o f 66 samples co l l ected has shown that the

viruses can be separated into 3 ma in groups : (a ) v iru ses assoc iatedwith amorphou s and crystal l ine ce l l inc lu s ions which inf ect l eguminous and so lanaceou s p lants ; (b) v iruses w ith on ly amorphou s cel linc lu sions which inf ect l egumes but no t so lanaceou s p lants ,

and

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to be exc e l len t sourc e s o f c e l lu la se f or de termin ing ce l lu la se in

hibition in the le gume s . The se plant ce l lu lase s have the same

charac ter i st ic s a s f ree rumen c e l lu lase and appear to be be tter

su ited than commerc ia l c e l lu la se f or te s ting cellulase'

inhibition o f

potent ia l f orage legume s . Sc reen ing studie s o f the tick c lover s(De smodium spp . ) indicated the annua l spec ie s to be more pa latab lethan the pe renn ia l s .

5 . A lkalo ids in lupine s . A more rapid te st f or a lka lo ids has been

devi sed f or screen ing large popu lat ions in the search f or low a lkalo id p lan ts in the c ooperative program a t Exper imen t ,

Ga . The me thod

ha s been m imeo graphed and re l eased f or u se by plant breeder s .

The ac cumu lat ions and tran s f ormation s in the a lka lo ids in lupine s are

be ing inve stiga ted under the P .L. 480 Pro j ect E21- CR - l a t War saw ,

Po land . The re su l ts Show the grea te st amounts o f a lka lo ids to be in

the side branche s o f the p lan t . Seventy to 90 percen t o f the a lkalo ids f ormed are synthe sized in the side branche s in wh ite lupine s .

Onc e p lan ts are ma ture, synthe si s and the de c ompo si tion o f a lka lo ids

are inh ibi ted .

6 . Am ino ac ids in legume s . A new am ino atid,tingi tanine ,

ha s been

f ound in La thyru s t ingitanu s in the re search program a t Poznan,

Po land,

under P .L. 480 Pro j ec t E21- CR - 10 . Re lat ive ly large amounts

o f tingitanine are stored in the seed o f th is specie s . The studie s

indica te that th i s f re e amino ac id plays an impor tant ro le in the

n i trogen me tabo l i sm o f tangie r peas . Growth studie s Show that

tingitanine serve s as a readi ly ava i lab le sourc e o f n i trogen used in

the germ inat ion and ear ly grow th o f seedl ing plants . The studie s on

the f ree am ino ac ids o f f orage Le gume s and gras se s are be ing c on

tinued .

7 . Braz i l ian legume s . Studie s are underway to eva lua te native and

in troduced legume s f or f orage in the Sta te o f Sao Pau lo,Braz i l

,

unde r P .L. 480 Pro j ec t S3 - CR - 7 . Dur ing the year , 500 spec ie s and

stra ins o f plants and seed were c o l le c ted and e stab l ished in f ie ldplan tings . The pr imary obj ec tive o f the se inve stigat ion s is to f inda legume that wou ld provide graz ing dur ing the dry w in te r mon ths .

Phase o lu s , Stylo santhe s ,and Vigna appear prom i sing in pre l iminary

studie s .

E . P lant Introduction and Evaluation

Among the legumes , c lovers inc luding white , red, crimson, Sweet ,

persian , a lsike , and zig- sag are the sub ject of much basic and

app l ied research . Introductions of red clover , Tr if ol ium repens ,

and white c lover , T . pretense , are rece iving most attention among

p lant breeders and—

agronomists throughout the northeastern and

central United States . The improvement of other c lover Species

through p lant introductions is given in e a f ew reports f rom widelyscattered areas throughout the country . Red and white c lovers are

being eva luated f or winter hardiness and disease resistance . Red

c lover introductions reported to lerant tur

powdery mildew and whichexhib it winter hardiness include : 228365 ( Iran ) , 234838 (Germany ) ,23h957 (France ) , 235855 (Sweden ) , and 260250 (Germany ) .

Concentration on plant type and root-knot nematode resistance in

white c lover improvement is reported. A new variety of’

persian

c lover ' Gulf Persian ' was re leased jointly by Texas A&M. Gollege and

USDA . Examples of zig- zag c lover , T . medium, introductions reported

as being particularly outstanding ifi'

vigor , production, and diseaseresistance inc lude P . I . 284621 (New Zealand ) , and P . I . 250989 and

253200 (Yugoslavia ) . Arrowleaf c lover , T . vesicu losum, introductionsare continuing to be evaluated in southeastern United States withvariable results . One introduction , P . I . 233816 ( Italy ) , is out

standing ih seedling vigor and yield . A. new variety of arrowleafc lover ‘Amclo '

, recently re leased in Georgia , was derived f rom

P . I . 234310 ( Italy ) . The new crimson clover ' Frontier 'recently

joint ly released by MissiS Sippi Experiment Station and USDA was

derived f rom. P . I . 233812 ( Italy ) . Soi l Conservation Service re orts

f rom adaptation studies that six c lover accessions survived -4Otemperature in Idaho tests; they include three white c lovers ;P . I . 224680 (England ) , 231786 (New Hampshire ) , 23h678 (France ) ; twored c lovers; P . I . 234941 (Switzerland ) , 239700 ( Switzerland ) ; and

one a lsike ; P . I . 257273 ( Sweden ) .

PUBLICATIONS

Breeding and Gene tic s

Ba ldridge , J . D . 19 62 . Summit le spedeza . Mo . Farm. News Service,

52 .

Ba ldr idge ,J . D . 19 62 . Progre ss repor t on screening in troductions

o f Lotus corn icu latus L . Rpt . o f 17th NC - 7 Tech . Comm. Mee ting ,

p . E - 23 .

Ba ldr idge ,J . D . 1962 . Breeding birds f oo t tre f oi l in the Nor th

Centra l Region . Rpt . o f F ir st NCR - 36 Forage Crop Tech . Comm .

Mee ting .

C0 pe ,Wi l l A . 19 62 . Inheritance o f giant str iata and dark ca lyx in

str ia ta le spede za ° Jour . Hered . 53 , pp . 25 - 27 .

Cope ,W i l l A . 1962 . Her itab i l ity e stimate s and corre lations o f

yie ld and ce r ta in morpho logica l and chemica l components o f f orage

qua l i ty in ser icea le spedeza . Crop Sc i . 2 , pp . 10 - 12 .

Dunn ,G . M . Ki lpatr ick , R . .A and Ca lder ,

F . M . 19 62 . Var iationin wh ite c lover in re lation to improvement . New Hampsh ire Agr .

Expt . Sta . Tech . Bul . 104 .

Gershon , D . 1961. Gene tic studie s o f e f f ec tive nodula t ion on Lotu sspp . Can . Jour . M icrobio l . ,

7 , pp . 9 61- 96 3 .

Ghosh,P . N . ,

Cooper ,D . C and Sm ith

,W . K . 1962 . Po l len f ert i l ity

in Me l i lo tu s . Phyton 18, pp . 105 - 107 .

Gibson ,P . B . ,

Be inhart,George ,

Ha lpin ,J . E and Ho l lowe l l

, E . A .

19 63 . Se lection and eva luation o f wh i te c lover c lone s . 1 . Ba si sf or se lection and a compar i son o f two methods o f propagation f or

advanced eva luations . Crop Sc i . 3 , pp . 83 - 8 6 .

Gor z,H . J and Haskins , F . A . 1962 . Translocation o f coumarin

acro ssla gra f t un ion in swee tc lover . Cr 0 p Sc i . 2

, pp . 255 - 257 .

Henson ,Pau l R . 19 62 . Breeding f or re s istance to crown and roo t ro ts

in birds f oo t tre f o i l,Lo tu s corn icu la tu s L . Crop Sc i . 2

, pp . 429

432 .

Hov in,A rne W . 19 62 . Inter spec i f ic hybr idization be tween Tr i f o l ium

repen s L . and T, nigre scens Viv and ana lysis o f hybrid me io s i s .

Crop Sc i . 2, pp . 251- 254 .

Hovin,Arne W. 19 62 . Spec ie s compatibi l ity in subsect ion Euamoria

o f Tr i f o l ium . Crop Sc i . 2, pp . 527 - 530 .

Manglitz ,G . R and Gorz ,

H. J . 19 62 . Inher i tance o f swee tc loveraphid re s is tance in two spec ie s o f

'

Melilotu s . Spec ia l Repor t

X - 162 o f the Entomo logy Re s . Div . 15 pp .

M i l ler ,John D . ,

and Koch, E . Jame s . 19 62 . .A plo t techn ique study

w i th birds f oot tre f o i l . A gron . Jour . 54 , pp . 95 - 97 .

Seaney ,R . R . 19 62 . Eva luation o f methods f or se l f and cros s

po l l ina ting birds f oo t tre f o i l , Lo tus corn icu latu s L . Crop Sc i .

2 , p . 81.

Taylor ,N . L Stroube

,W . H Kenda l l

,W. A . ,

and Fergus , E . N .

196 2 . Var iat ion and re lation o f c lona l per s is tence and seed pro

duction in red c lover . Cr 0 p Sc i . 2 , pp . 30 3 - 305 .

Townsend ,C . E . 19 62 . Seed se t in a l s ike c lover at h igh e levations .

Crop Sc i . 2, p . 535 .

We ib ing ,Ra lph M . 19 62 . Se lecting Persian c lover f or hard seed .

Crop Sci . 2, pp . 381- 382 .

Disea se s

Ba ldr idge ,J

. D . 19 62. Roo t rot and stand losses in Lotuscorn icu la tus L . .A gron . Abstr . , p . 91 .

Chandler ,W . A . and Ki lpatr ick ,

R . A . 19 62 . Detecti on o f seed

borne organisms . Amer . Phytopath . Soc . Sourcebook ,

Exerc ise 185 ,

pp . 423 - 424 .

Chen ,Tsch - an

,Ki lpatr ick ,

R . A . ,and R ich ,

A . E . 1962 . Style t

bear ing nematode s assoc iated with wh ite c lovers in New Hampsh ire ,

19 60 - 61. Plt . Dis . Reptr . 46 , pp . 346 - 347 .

Chen ,Tsch - an

,Ki lpatr ick ,

R . A . ,and R ich ,

A . E . 1962 . In f luence

o f die ldr in and methyl brom ide so i l treatments on subsequent pop

u lations o f style t - bear ing nematode s assoc iated w i th roo ts o f

Ladino c lover . (Abstr . ) Phytopath . 52 , p . 922.

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Kn igh t , W. E . 19 62 .

"Frontier a new variety o f cr imson c lover .

‘

M ississ ippi Agr i . Expt . Sta . Inf o . Shee t 770 .1

Kn igh t ,W . E . 19 62 . New crimson c lover named Frontier . Mississippi

Farm. Res . 25 , (Ju ly ,No . pp . 1 and 8 .

Townsend ,C . E . 19 62 . Red and a l sike c lover tria l s in the high

a ltitude irrigated meadows o f Co lorado . Co lorado Agr i . Expt .

Sta . Progress Report 55 .

Cu l ture Physio logy

Ake son ,W. R Ha skins ,

F . A and Gorz ,H . J . 19 62 . .A modi f ied

procedure f or assay o f me lilo tic ac id in swee tc lover . Crop Sc i .

2, pp . 525 - 526 .

Be inhart,George . 19 62 . Ef f ec ts o f tempera ture and l ight in tens i ty

on C02 uptake ,re spiration ,

and growth o f wh ite c lover . Plt .

Physio l . 3 7 , pp . 709 - 715 .

Be inhar t ,George ,

Gibson,P . B Ha lpin ,

J . E . ,and Ho l lowe l l

,E . A .

19 63 . Se lec tion and evaluation o f white c lover c lone s . III .

Clona l di f f erence s in branch ing in re lation to lea f area production and pers i stence . Crop Sc i . 3 , pp . 89 - 92 .

Burns,R . E and Forbe s

,Ian Jr . 19 62 . Tann ins in De smodium .

(Abstr . ) Proc . Amer . Soc . A gr ic . Workers 59 , p . 232 .

Burn s ,R . E . 1962 . Fie ld screening f or a lka loid content ( tentative ) .

M imeo . Distr ibution .

Burns,R . E . 19 62 . Some indicator s o f f orage qua l ity in Lotu s .

QAbstr . ) Bu l . Ga . A cad . Sc i . 20, p . 7 .

Burnside ,O . C and Gorz

,H . J . 19 62 . Con tro l o f weeds in f al l

sown swee tc lover seeded a lone and with winter wheat . North

Centra l Weed Contro l Con f . Re s . Rept . 19 , pp . 81- 82 .

Burns ide , O . C Gorz,H . J . ,

Wicks ,G . A and Fenster ,

C . R . 19 62 .

S ide e f f ects f rom amiben appl ications . North Centra l Weed Con

tro l Res . Rept . 19 , pp . 128 - 129 .

Forbes , Ian Jr . , and We l l s , Homer D . 19 62 . The iodine -

potassium

iodide test f or the determinat ion o f sweetness'

or,

bi tterness in

seeds o f blu e lup ine , Lupinus angu stif o l ius L . USDA , ARS , Crops

Res . Div . Leaf l et CR- 59 - 62 , 4 pp .

Henson , Pau l R Baldr idge , Joe D . , and He lm , Charl es A . 1962 . The

Lespedezas . In Forages , 2nd Ed . , Iowa State Un iv . Press , pp .

169 - 179 .

Ho l lowe l l , E . A and Beard , D . F . 1962 . Legume and grass seed

product ion . In Fo rages , 2nd Ed Chapter 8 , Iowa State Un iv .

Press , pp . 84- 9 2 .

Ho l lowe l l , E . A . , and Kn ight , W . E . 1962 . Cr imson c lover . In

Forages , 2nd Ed . , Chapter 17 , Iowa State Univ . Press , pp . 180

186 .

Ho l lowe l l , E . A . 19 62 . Ladino and o ther white c lovers . In Forages ,

zud Ed . , Chapter 15 , Iowa State Univ . Press , pp . 161- 168 .

Kendal l , W . A Stroube , W. H . , and Taylor , N . L . 1962 . Growth and

persistence o f several var ieties o f red c lover at var ious tempera

ture and mo isture l eve l s . Agron . Jour . 54 , pp . 345 - 347 .

McKee , Ro land , Ho l lowe l l , E . A and Henson , Pau l R . 1962 . Other

l egume s . In Forage s , 2nd Ed Chapter 20 , Iowa State Un iv . Pre ss ,

pp . 210 - 219 .

Przybylska ,J . 19 62 . Tingitanine in e t io lated plan ts o f Lathyru s

t ingi tanu s . A c ta . Soc . Bo t . Po lon . pp . 471- 488 .

Przybylska , J . 1961 . Pr imary research af ter var ious f orms o f

n itrogen in seeds o f certain l eguminou s p lants . Genet . Po lon .

pp . 65 - 73 .

Przybylska , J . ,and Hur ich , J . 1962 . Free amino ac ids in bitter and

non - bitter var ieties o f blu e lupine (L. angu stif oliu s) during the

growing per iod . Genet . Po lon . pp . 87- 109 .

Smith ,W . K. , and Gorz , H . J . 1962 . Swe etc lover . In Forages , 2nd

Ed . ,Chapter 14 , Iowa State Univ . Press , pp . 150- 160 .

FORAGE GRASS .AND TURF CUDTUBE ,

Cr0pS Research. Division , ARS

Prob lem : There are some 90 in troduced and nat ive grasses that are o f

agr icu l tural impor tance in the Un ited States f or f orage ,

tur f,and so i l con servat ion . Of the se , on ly 25 are inc luded in ac tive

r esearch programs . A large propor t ion o f new seedings , probab ly 50

percen t ,are f ai lure s or near f ai lures ,

and th is stagger ing lo ss cou ldbe reduced mater ial ly w ith var ie tie s character ized by improved seed

l ing vigor , seedl ing drought to lerance ,and di sease r es istance . Dis

eases reduce the yie ld and qual ity o f f orage and seed and con tr ibuteto the lo ss o f estab l ished plan tings grown f or e i ther f orage or tur f

purpo se s . Hybr idizat ion o f f er s much promise in improv ing diseasere s istance in dal l isgrass ,

drought and disease to lerance in orchardgrass ,

and nutr i tive value in r eed canarygrass and weeping lovegrass .

E f f ec tive breeding work on grasse s adapted to semiar id and ar id con

ditions demands the deve lopmen t o f seedl ing v igor ,temperature ex

tremes ,and roo ting character istics . In mo st grasses , progress in

deve loping improved var ie tie s depends on the accumu lat ion o f basicin f ormat ion in the f ie lds o f cyto logy , gene tics , patho logy and phys io logy . Homeowner s ,

bu siness e stab l ishmen ts ,and manager s o f parks ,

ceme ter ies ,and o ther tur f grass areas spend a m in imum o f three bi l l ion

do l lar s annual ly in e stab l ish ing and main tain ing tur f . Many managemen t

practice s in use today ar e waste f u l o f seed ,f er ti l izer ,

labor,and

water ,and f requen t ly r e su l t in f ai lur e to estab l ish or maintain

satis f actory tur f . Improved managemen t pr ac tices and improved grass

var ie t ie s are urgen t ly n eeded to mee t the di f f eren t requ iremen ts o f

use , c l imate,and so i l that charac ter ize the maj or tur f grass regions

o f the Un ited States .

PROGRAM

The Depar tmen t has a con tinu ing long - term . programf invo lving agronomists ,

gene tic ists and p lan t patho lo gists engaged in bo th bas ic and app l iedstudies . Breeding , gene tic and cytogenet ic studie s on the deve lopmen t o f improved grass breeding me thods and super ior grass var ie t ie sf or range r eseeding , pasture ,

hay ,and general purpo se tur f are in

progr ess at Tucson, Ar izona; Ti f ton

, Georg ia ; Manhattan , Kan sas ; Lex

ington , Ken tucky; Be l tsv i l le , Maryland; State Co l lege and Stonev i l le ,

M iss iss ippi ; Linco ln, Nebraska; Mandan , Nor th Dako ta; St i l lwater and

Woodward , Oklahoma; Un iver s ity Park , Penn sylvan ia ; Co l lege Station ,

Texas ; Logan ,Utah ; Madison , W iscons in ; and Laramie , Wyoming . Research

on grass diseases are underway at Ti f ton, Georg ia; Be ltsv i l le , Mary

land; and Ston ev i l le , M issi ss ippi . Var iety evaluation s tudies ar e

conducted at Lexington , Kentucky; Be l tsv i l le , Maryland; State Co l lege ,

M iss iss ippi ; Linco ln, Nebraska; Mandan , Nor th Dako ta; Woodward , Okla

homa; Logan ,Utah ; Madison , W iscon s in and Laram ie

, Wyom ing . Cu l tural

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character istics . I ts grow th hab it and f o l iage are s im i lar to southern

type var ie ties , such as,Achenbach and Lin co ln ,

whi le the seed is

heavy and s imi lar in appearance to that o f nor thern var ie tie s . Plantsare strong ly creeping and have moderate ly coar se leave s and stems .

A lthough the yie ld po ten tial o f Sac approximates that o f o ther improvedvar ie ties ,

f orage qual ity is super ior because o f its re si stance to

f o l iage diseases . In W iscon s in ,seedl ing v igor and e stab l ishmen t has

surpassed that o f o ther named var ie ties . The super ior e stab l ishmentand f or age qual ity o f Sac wi l l improve the value o f the smoo th brome

in al f al f a m ixtures in W iscon s in and o ther Nor th Cen tra l State s .

3 . Rapid advances in hybr idiz ing Paspalum . spp . A t State Co l lege ,

Paspalum spp .

have re su l ted in the production o f some 50 inter spec i f ic hybr ids and

three backcro sse s . These hybr ids were i so lated f o l low ing the emascu

lation and po l l inat ion o f f lor ets f rom 21 Paspa lum spp . I t

was ev ident in the se studies that the number o f emascu lation s and

po l l inations con tr ibuted more to succe ss f u l hybr idization than did

the car e f u l se lect ion o f paren ts on the bas is o f chromo some number

and morpho logy . Spec ie s hybr ids var ied w ide ly in morpho logy ,and no

two F1 hybr ids f rom the same parents appeared the same . Dal l isgrassand vaseygrass Fl

's w ere very sma l l w ith a re lative ly normal vasey

grass- type pan ic le . On the o ther hand

,the r ec iprocal hybr id exhib ited

cons iderab le he tero sis . In gen eral , the use o f P . no tatum as a po l l inator produced hybr ids w ith purp l e and ye l low leave s and a poor lydeve loped roo t system . The F2 progeny o f the cro ss be tween P . no tatum

x P . di latatum looked very promi s ing ,as 73 percen t o f the p lan ts had

a seed- se t o f 80 per cen t or mor e . F3se lections f rp m the h igher seed

se tting F2'S averaged 10 percen t h igher seed- set . The breeding behav

ior and po ten tial o f the se hybr ids w i l l be evaluated at State Co l lege ,

M iss issipp i ,and in cooperative studie s w ith the f ederal ly- superv ised

cyto log ist at Co l lege Station ,Texas .

4 . Improved qual ity and yie ld f rom . bermudagrass hybr ids . Severalprom is ing hybr ids have been deve loped at Ti f ton , Georgia ,

by cro ss ingthe improved Coastal var ie ty w ith two A f r ican introductions . In

196 1, ten o f the Coas tal x Kenya F1 hybr ids yie lded 64 per cent mor e

f orage than the mean s o f the ir two paren ts . The se hybr ids surv ivedthe w in ter and in 1962 , an unusual ly dry year , per f ormed we l l . The

Kenya par ent f ai led to surv ive the w in ter but Coastal and Coas talKenya hybr ids 9 ,

11 and 14, yie lded and tons

o f dry matter per acre in 19 62 . Respect ive leaf per cen tage s o f the

f orage harve sted were 6 7,62

,74 and 65 per cent . The in v ivo " digesti

b i l i f y" o f the August harve st was and percent ,

respect ive ly . Var iat ion s in yie ld ,lea f percen tage and dige stibi l ity ,

were interest ing as hybr ids 9 ,11 and 14 wer e s ister hybr ids that

were very s im i lar in morpho logical appearance . A t Watkin sv i l le ,

Georgia ,heav i ly f er ti l ized and irr igated p lo ts o f Coastal and hybr ids

5 , 11 and 14 produced and ton s o f dry matter

per acre . The se p lo ts were plan ted on May 14 and harvested on October 29 . A l though rapid e stab l ishmen t o f the hybr ids was re spons ib lef or par t o f the in creased product ion , it would appear that these

matings w i l l give hybr ids that po sse ss greater yie ld po tential than

Coastal bermudagrass .

5 . Bluestems f or conservation plan t ing Pawnee and Champ big bluestem have been re leased f or conservation and f orage use in the Cen tralGreat Plains . The var ie ties wer e deve loped at Linco ln , Nebraska .

Pawnee f rom . co llec tions made in Pawnee County , Nebraska ,and Champ

f rom . prair ie and sandhi l l source s ( Cherry and Pawnee Coun ties, Nebraska

and Ame s , Iowa ) . Pawnee is typical o f the big b lue stems o f the cen tralprair ies ,

hav ing long dark-

gr een leaves , tal l stems and f orked, green

to purpl i sh in f lor escences . I t w i l l be recommended in the south

cen tral and southeast dis tr ic ts f or seed product ion ,and f or f orage

plan tings in the nor theast , east- cen tral , so utheast , cen tral and south

cen tra l distr ic ts o f Nebraska . Champ is a moder ate ly late - matur ingvar iety but ordinar i ly a week to ten days ear l ier in seed matur itythan Pawnee . Plants are leafy and var iab le in awn length ,

culm . and

glume co lor and f o l iage co lor . Champ may be grown f or seed in cen traland eastern Nebraska as f ar nor th as the cen tral Platte and lowerLoup and E lkhorn val leys . For con servation and f orage use it may be

uti l ized in so l id s tands and m ixtures in the eastern two - thirds o f

Nebraska . Pawnee and Champ are super ior to ordinary b lue stem in seed

se t and seed qual ity . In addition ,bo th var ieties have per f ormed we l l

in a number o f f orage yie ld tests . Pawnee and Champ w i l l be increasedunder a l imi ted gen eration system ,

w ith f oundation seed being made

avai lab le to a l imi ted number o f seed growers in 196 3 .

abi l ity o f in termediate wheatgrass seed to germ inate at low tempera

tures appear s to be high ly her itab le,

on the bas is o f te sts conduc tedat Laramie , Wyoming . In 1960 open

-

po l l inated seed o f 20 c lonal se lections were germ inated at 8

°

C . in the laboratory . The bes t 5 per cen to f the seedl ings and the poor e st 5 percen t (based on germ ination ) were

se lected f rom . each o f the 20 l in es . Four o f the h igh seedl ings f rom

each l ine were e stab l ished in an iso lated cro ss ing b lo ck ( 80 plants ) ,whi le a second cro ss ing b lo ck con tained f our low seedl ings f rom eacho f the l ines . Seed f rom . the f our plan ts o f each l ine in each b lo ckwere bu lked f or subsequen t germination te sts at 8

°

C . Pre l im inaryte sts show that the germination percen tage o f progen ie s f rom the h ighblock are on the average 100 percen t h igher than tho se f rom the low

b lock . Progeny f rom h igh se lections are Show ing incr ease s as h ighas 800 per cen t over low se lect ions o f the same l ine s .

7 . Se l f - f er ti l ity o f cr e sted wheatgrass . I f the f u l l breeding and

cytogenetic po ten tial s o f the crested wheatgrasses are to be r eal ized ,

the natur e and re lat ive impor tance o f po l l ination modes and r eproduc

tive mechan isms mus t be c l ear ly de f ined . Addi tional in f ormation on

- 100

this prob lem was obtained at Logan ,Utah , f rom . a se l f ing exper iment

invo lv ing 122 diplo id , te tr aplo id and 40 hexaplo id crestedwheatgrass plan ts . The mean se l f - f er t i l ity o f the diplo id ,

’

te tra

plo id and hexaplo id popu lation s was and seeds per spike ,

r e spect ive ly ,whi le the percen tage s o f to tal ly ster i le plan ts were 72

,

40 and 18 per cen t f or the same thr ee popu lat ions . In terannual var iation in se l f - f er ti l ity was large . The 45 mo st se l f - f er ti le te tr a

plo ids averaged se l f seeds per spike in 196 1 as compared w ithan average o f in 1962 . However ,

the re lat ive se l f - f er ti l ity o f

the same 45 plan ts remained somewhat the same f rom . year to year as

shown by a h igh ly S ign i f ican t corre lation There did no t

appear to be any assoc iation be twe en se l f - f er t i l ity and morpho logicalcharac ter istics . The asso ciat ion be tween cro ss and se l f - f er ti l itywas e i ther non - exis tent or smal l as Shown by corre lation coe f f ic ien tso f r= . l4 , 122 and . 54 f or diplo id ,

te traplo id and hexaplo id popula

tion s,re spe ctive ly . Re su l ts f rom th is exper imen t sugge st that se l f ing

w i l l be o f l im ited value in breeding te traplo id cres ted wheatgrass ,

al though se l f ing may be use f u l in gene tic inve stigations . On the

o ther hand, i f mo st hexaplo ids prove to be as se l f - f er t i le as the

samp le studied,then se l f ing cou ld be e f f ec tive in the improvement

o f hexaplo ids .

grass . A ser ie s o f 2- c lone comb ination s te sted at'

Mandan , Nor th Da

ko ta,averaged 657 pounds o f seed per acre compared w ith 414 pounds

f or Nordan cr ested wheatgrass . However ,seed we ights o f on ly three

2- c lone comb inations were S ign i f ican tly higher than Nordan . The

heav ies t- seeded comb inat ion,in wh ich the rec iproca l progen ie s

averaged 341 and 3 3 6 m i l l igrams/100 seed as compared w ith 287 mi l l igrams f o r Nordan , invo lved the two heav ie st- seeded c lones . Seed

yie lds o f the se two rec iprocal s were s ign i f ican tly lower than bo th

member s o f the remain ing 2- c lone comb inations . The f irs t generationo f one 2- c lone combination exceeded Nordan by 66% in seed yie ld and

151 in S e ed we ight . The impor tance o f spec i f ic combin ing abi l ity in

condition ing seed yie ld and seed we ight was indicated by the re lative ly poor po lycro ss progeny per f ormance o f the two

'

parental c lonesinvo lved in th is par ticu lar comb ination . Apparent ly the two par en talc lones complemen ted one ano ther

,as one was average in seed production

and exceptional ly heavy- seeded wh i le the reverse was true f or the

second paren t . I t remain s to be seen i f c lones se lected on the bas iso f super ior po lycro ss progen ies w i l l lead to the production o f out

standing 2- c lone comb ination s .

9 . New sorghum . x sudangrass hybr id . A sorghum x sudangrass hybr id ,

deve loped at Linco ln, Nebraska ,

has been re leased f or use in the Gen

tral Great Plain s . The hybr id is a cross be tween ma le - ster i le Mar t inand a low hydro cyan ic ac id sudangrass se lection (N The hybr id ,

wh ich has been ten tative ly named Nebraska Su - l,compares f avorab ly

w ith Piper and Wheeler sudangrass in f orage yie ld bo th as pas ture and

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12 . Amphidiplo ids o f annual ryegrass- tal l f e scue . Co lch ic ine has

been used at Lexington , Ken tucky ,to produce par tial ly f er ti le amphi

diplo ids ( 2n=56 ) f rom high ly ster i l e F1 hybr ids ( 2n=28 ) o f annual rye

grass and tal l f esc ue . The re lat ive ly sma l l number o f amph idiplo idsproduced in this mann er has l imi ted the oppor tun ity to se lec t f or

improved f er t i l ity . However ,a n ew techn ique f or iso lat ing large num

ber s o f amph idiplo ids has been deve loped thro ugh cooper at ive studie sat Lexington , Ken tucky ,

and Un iver s ity Park , Penn sylvan ia . Seed was

obtained by po l l inat ing high ly ster i le F 1 hybr ids w i th co l ch ic in einduced amph idiplo ids . Mo st o f the plan ts grown f rom th is seed had

56 chromo some s,and apparen tly or iginated through the f er t i l ization

o f unreduced egg ce l l s in the F1 ( 2n

=28) w ith reduced po l len gr ain s(n=28) f rom the amph idiplo id po l l inator . The substan tial number o f

amphidiplo ids produced f rom the se cro sse s w i l l f ac i l itate se lectionf or improved seed se t ,

testing the stab i l ity o f amph idiplo ids and

evaluation o f exper imental 56 - chromo some var ie ties .

spec i f ic and in tergener ic hybr ids are valuabl e in e stab l ishing phylogene tic r e lation sh ips among spec ies ,

and may con tr ibute e i ther dir ec tlyor indir ectly to the deve lopmen t o f prom is ing grass var ietie s . A

Nor th Amer ican wheatgrass spec ie s ,Agropyron Spicatum ,

was cro ssedw i th an Old Wor ld specie s

,A . cr istatum ,

at Logan , Utah . The cro ssA . Spicatum ( 2n=28 ) x A . cr istatum ( 2n= l4) produced a triplo id hybr id

Chromo some pair ing in the hybr id usual ly r esul ted in the

f ormation o f 7 bival en ts and 7 un ivalen ts . S ize di f f erence s be twe en

the chromo some s o f the two paren tal spec ies made it po ssib le to iden ti fythe 7 b ivalen ts as r e su l t ing f rom au to synde s i s o f 14 A . Spicatum chromosomes ,

wher eas the 7 A . cr istatum chromo somes werefl le f t as un ivalents .

These data sugge st that A . Spicatum is an au toplo id ,and that non e o f

its chromo some s are homo lo gous w i th tho se o f A . cr is tatum .

14 . Co l lec tions o f indigenous grasse s in Rio Grande do Su l , Braz i l ,under the term o f a PL 480 con trac t . In f ormat ion was obtain ed on the

f orage value and adaptabi l ity o f some 357 gr ass spec ie s ,and co llec

tion s e stab l ished in adaptation tr ial s at 9 locations in the S tate .

Extens ive nur ser ie s o f 12 maj or spec ies were e stab l ished f or de tai ledstudie s on breeding behav ior and cytogen e t ics .

B . Diseases .

1 . For e ign smu t disease attacks pear l m i l le t . In 1962 , To lypo spor ium

smut o f pear l mi l le t caused by I . pen ic illar iae was f ound f or the f irs ttime in the Un i ted S tate s at Ti f ton , Georgia . The smu t is the mo st

ser ious disease o f mi l le t in India and A f r ica where the grain is used

f or human f ood . In the Un i ted State s m i l let is used pr inc ipal ly f or

f orage . No satis f ac tory con tro l measur e s have been deve lo ped in countr ie s where the disease is sever e . Pre cautions such as se ed treatmen t

w ith f ungic ide s and r igid inspect ion ar e under way to preven t Spread

o f the disease to we s tern seed-

produc ing state s . A ll mi l le t nur ser ies

- lo3

at Ti f ton are be ing burned and treated w i th f ungicides to eradicatethe smut i f po ss ib le .

2 . Fungic ide tr eatmen t con tro l s tur f f airy r ing . A t Ti f ton, Georgia ,

the pestic ide s Captan 50 - W ,Phygon X6 ,

Terrac lor,die ldr in

,and Nema

gon were separate ly ro to t i l led in to plo ts o f centipedegrass af f ec tedby the f airy r ing f ungus . The treated areas were re seeded af ter tr eat

men t . Plo ts rece iv ing 5 and 10 pounds per acre o f Captan 50 - W becamecomple te ly cover ed w i th grass r egrow th . Plo ts tr eated w ith Phygon XL

at 2 lbs/acre were rated next be st . Poor grass regrow th occurr ed in

the untreated con tro l and in the o ther pe stic ide - tr eated plo ts .

temperatur e . Cen tipedegrass ,zoysia and bermudagrass var ie ties wer e

no t inj ured by Spraying at weekly interval s with PMAS at up to 3 o z .

and Panogen at up to 6 o z/1000 sq . f t . On ly s l ight phyto toxic i ty was

observed at 6 and 12 o z . rates, r e S pectively , o f the above f ungic ide s .

St . Augustinegrass was severe ly disco lored when 1 oz . o f PMAS and

3 o z . o f Panogen/1000 sq . f t . wer e appl ied . Te sts in temperature ,

con tro l led chamber s demon strated that PMAS and Panogan wer e bo th mor e

phyto toxic to ben tgrasses at 90°F . than at 70

°F . Grass b lades deby

drated be f ore spraying w i th f ungic ide s were in j ured at bo th tempera

tur es

C . Var ie ty evaluation .

1 . Bermudagrass var ie ties di f f er in wear to l erance . The wear to lerance o f improved bermudagrass var ie ties has be en te sted at Ti f ton

,

Georgia ,by dr iv ing go l f car ts over we l l - estab l ished tur f . The exper i

men t was des igned to evaluate var ie ties ,var ious managemen t tr eatmen ts

and the e f f e ct o f tire de s ign on go l f car ts . In th is te st Tif lawn was

the mo st res istan t to wear,f o l lowed by Tifway . The poorest wear to l

erance ratings were ass igned to Ti f green and common . Go l f car tsequ ipped w ith w ide smoo th tire s in f l icted less damage than tho se

equ ipped w ith narrow tire s . Water ing dur ing dry weather, f er ti l iza

tion and rais ing the he ight o f cut increased wear to lerance o f the

var ie ties te sted . The increase in wear to lerance that was obtainedf rom these treatments may be attr ibuted in par t to an increase in

amoun t o f grow th or den s i ty . A s the vo lume or rate o f grow th increased,var ietie s cou ld w i thstand more wear be f or e bare ground appear ed .

2 . Shade to lerance o f ben tgrass . In f ormation was obtained at Be l tsv i l le , Maryland ,

on the re lative shade to lerance o f bentgr ass var ietie s that ar e w ide ly used f or putting green s . Two repl ication s o f a

ben tgrass var iety tr ial were covered f or two months , in each o f two

year s ,w i th screens that exc luded 30 percent o f the l ight in tens i ty .

Sign i f ican t di f f eren ce s wer e no ted among var ie ties in the ir re sponse

to shade and sun l ight . The Wash ington var iety was rated be st f or bo th

shade and sun under the condit ion s o f th is exper imen t . Mo st var ie ties

- lo4

per f ormed be tter in f u l l sun l ight than in the shade ,but Pennlu pro

duced somewhat be tter tur f under shade than in the sun . In general ,var iet ies that per f ormed be st in sun l ight were al so be tter under shade

S ince all var ietie s rece ived the same managemen t tr eatments ,these

re su l ts may di f f er cons iderab ly f rom a test in wh ich each var ie ty was

managed according to its indiv idual r equiremen ts .

D . Cu l tural investigation s .

1 . Black grama re sponds to good management . Black grama is no ted f or

its erratic and general ly low seed se t under range condi tions . Th isf act has suggested the po ss ib i l i ty o f se lec ting f or improved seed se t

and higher seed yie lds as an aid to using th is valuab le spec ie s f or

range re seeding . However , studies at Tucson,Ar izona

,have Shown that

b lack grama w i l l produce reasonab ly good yie lds under cu l tivat ion .

In itiating grow th by irr igating on August 1 was super ior to irr igat ionschedu le s star ting on August 15 ,

bo th f rom the standpo in t o f seed yie l

and percent germ ination o f the harve sted seed . App l ications o f n itrogen incr eased seed yie lds in some tests but no t in o ther s ,

wh i le pho s

phorus and po tassium had no apprec iable e f f ect on seed- se t , seed yie ldseed we ight or germ ination percent . The seed yie ld o f b lack grama

co uld be improved by se lec tion ,but in '

the mean time there are no realbarr ier s to increas ing seed under irr igation f or use in re seeding pro

j ec ts . Lack o f se ed- set on the range may be attr ibuted to inde termi

nate f lower ing under natura l rain f al l condition s ,and lack o f po l l i

nation among w ide ly separated plan ts .

Oi about 100 native and exotic economi c grasse s ,about 25 are included in active research programs and some 45 legume sare the sub j e ct of state

, regiona l , or nationa l re search . Manyintroductions serve as sources of germ. plasm. containing de sirab leagronomi c characteristics worthy of transf er to f ie ld crop varieties .

Orchardgrass introductions wh ich serve as examp les of va luab le germ

p1asm. include : P . I . 220877 ( Ire land ) , 230116 117 ( Iran ) , 231551( Ita ly ) , 235474 ( Switzer land ) , and 237265 ( Denmark ) . The acce ssionsof Cm odon dactylon , P . 1 . 206657 ( Turkey ) , 211021 (Af ghanistan ) ,2133SE ( s. M rica ) , 213385 ( 3 . Af rica ) , 213387 ( 5 . Af rica ) , 213389( 8 . Af rica) , 222789 ( Iran ) , m d 224691 ( 8 . Af rica ) show promi se of

direct usage as pasture grasse s or in breeding programs in Arizonaand Calif ornia . Access ions of Ech inoch loa , PI . 18332 ( India ) ,196291 ( India ) , and 223254 (Af ghanistan ) , are reported as being good

sources of wi ldlif e f ood . Germ. p1asm. containing ear liness in cornis represented by P . I . 228173 (USSR ) and that containing the ti llering character is f ound in P . I . 167959 (Turkey ) . Two Digitariaaccessions, P . I . 279651-652 (Taiwan ) , were introduced specif ica llyin the search f or disease resistance , virus stunting disease , and

cold to lerance . A. bermudagrass , P . I . 224693 ( S . Af rica ) , has entered

commercia l channels in Texas and is in widespread usage throughout

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Dewey , D . R . 1962 . Germ ination o f cre sted wheatgras s in sa l in izedso i l . Agron . Jour . 54 : 353 - 355 .

Dewey , D . R . 196 2 . Morpho logy ,f er ti l i ty and cyto logy o f Agropyron

repens x A . deser torum F2'S . Am . Jour . Bo t . 49 : 78- 86 .

Dewey , D . R . and Ho lmgren , A . H . 1962 . Natura l hybr ids o f E lymusc iner eus x Sitan ion hystr ix . Bul . Torr . Bo t . Club 89 : 217 - 228 .

Dro lsom , P . N . and Nie l sen , E . L . 196 2 . Analys is o f progen ie s f rom

Bromus spec ie s hybr ids . Agron . Abs t Ithaca, N . Y . Augus t 20 - 23 .

Forbe s , Ian Jr . and Bur ton , G . W . 196 2 . Chromo some number s and me iosis in cer tain Cynodon spec ie s and hybr ids . Crop Sc i . 3 : 75 - 79 .

Han son , A . A . 196 2 . In troduct ion and h istor ical re sumé (Apom ixis in

evo lution and plant breeding ) . Agron . Abst Ithaca , N . Y . August

20 - 23 .

Han son , A . A . and Juska , F . V . 1962 . Induced mutations in Ken tuckyb luegrass . Cro p Sc i . 2 : 3 69 - 3 71 .

Hi l l , He l en D . and Buckner , R . C . 1962 . Fer ti l ity o f Lo l ium - Festucahybr ids as r e lated to chromo some number and me io s is . Crop Sc i . 2

484- 486 .

Hi l l , He len D . and Carnahan , H . L . 1962 . An evaluation o f e f f ec ts o f

two temper ature s on m icronuc le i per quar te t in Bromus inerm is Leyss .

Crop Sc i . 3 : 73 - 74 .

Hi l l , He len D . and Carnahan , H . L . 196 2 . Lo l ium perenne L . x inducedte traplo id Fes tuca e latior L . and hybr ids w i th Fe s tuca arundinaceaSchr eb . Cro p Sc i . 2 : 245 - 248 .

Ho l t , E . C Long , J . A . and Bashaw , E . C . 1962 . Seed produc tionprob lems asso c iated w ith apom ixis (Apomixis in evo lution and plan tbr eeding ) . Agron . Abs t Ithaca

, New York . August 20 - 23 .

Hun t , 0 . J . 1962 . Water r equ iremen t o f se lec ted geno type s o f Elymus

junceus F isch . and Agropyron in termedium ( Ho st ) Beauv . and the irparen t

-

progeny re lation sh ips . Crop Sc i . 2 : 97 - 99 .

Hutch in son , D . J . and Bashaw , E . C . 1962 . Cyto log ical studie s in

Pan icum spe c ie s . Agron . Abst I thaca , N . 20 - 23 .

Kneebon e , W . R . 1962 . A s imple ,rapid , prec i se

\

s t ain ing proceduref or iden t i f icat ion o f l ign i f ied ti ssue in grasses . Crop Sc i . 2

268 .

Nath , J . and Nie lsen , E . L . 196 2 . In terr e lation sh ips o f reproduc tivestage s in timo thy . Crop Sc i . 2 : 49 - 51 .

N ie l sen , E . L . 19 6 2 . Ana logie s in the natur e and o ccurr ence o f ster

ility in plan ts . Crop Sc i . 2 : 181- 185 .

Nie l sen , E . L . 196 2 . Cyto lo gy o f F1 hybr ids f rom in ter spec i f icmat ings o f Bromus . Agron . Abs t Ithaca

, N . Y . August 20 - 23 .

Nie l sen , E . L. , Dro lsom , P . W . and Jalal, S . M . 196 2 . Analys is o f

F2 progen ies f rom . Bromus spec ie s hybr ids . Crop Sc i . 2 : 459 - 462 .

Nie l sen , E . L. , Hanna , M . R . and Dro lsom, P . N . 1962 . Fer t i l ity

re lat ion s and analys is o f F1 progen ies o f Bromus spec ies . Crop

Sc i . 2 : 456 - 458 .

N ie lsen , E . L . and Nath , J . 1962 . Cyto logy o f te traplo id x hexaplo idtimo thy ( Ph leum praten se Euphytica 11: 157 - 16 3 .

H . M Rogle r , G . A . and Lor enz, R . J . 196 2 . Impor tan c e o f

tion s in f or age yie ld ,seed yie ld and seed we igh t to the

vemen t o f cre sted wheatgrass . Crop Sc i . 2 : 6 7 - 71 .

K . W . 19 62 .

"Plan t D iseases in Pas tur e and Range Resear ch

ique s . Coms to ck Pub l ish ing Assoc Corne l l Un iv . Press ,242 1n u

D Bur ton , G . W . and Ourecky , D . K . 196 2 . To lypo spor ium

ed S tate s . Pl . Dis . Reptr . 47 : 16 - 19 .

H D . 196 2 . Year - around disease con tro l on southern green s .

16 th Ann . Southeastern Tur f grass Con f Ti f ton, Ga . Apr i l .

H . D . 1962 . Co ttony bl ight disease . Go l f Cour se Reptr

3 3 - 39 .

H . D . 196 2 . Co ttony b l ight disease . Pro c . 3 3rd In t . Tur fs Con f Miami , F la . January .

K . E . and Graham ,J . H . 1962 . Stagono spora bromi on Bromus

'

mis . Pl . Dis . Reptr . 46 : 729 - 73 1 .

aluation

L . V . 1962 . Sorghum almum te sts negat ive . Neb . Expt . Sta .

t . Spr ing .

L . V . 1962 . Summary o f Sor ghum . almum tests in Nebr aska .

ghum Newsle tter , Vo l . 5 .

L . V . 196 2 . Adaptation in sudangrass . Neb . Cer t . § eed News , Mar .

t, H . W . 1962 . Dal l isgrass ,

bah iagrass and vaseygrass (Chap .

and johnsongrass ,carpetgrass and o ther grasse s f or the humid

th ( Chap . Rev ised edi tion o f ”Forages

". Iowa State Un iv .

ss, Ame s .

G . W . 1962 . Bermudagrass ( Chap . 27 ) Rev ised edition o f "For

3 Iowa State Un iv . Pr ess ,Ame s .

G . W . and Deal , E . E . 1962 . Shade s tudie s on so uthern grass .

f Co urse Reptr Aug . , pp . 26 - 27 .

A . A . 196 3 . Summer annual f orage grasses in the Un ited Sta

Un ited S tates Agr ic . Handbook No . 23 8 .

A . A . and Evans , M , W . 19 62 . Timo thy ( Chap ter Rev i sedion o f

"Forages

". Iowa State Un iv . Pr ess . Ames .

A . A . and F . V . Ju ska . 1962 . Seedl ing v igor o f Kentucky b lue3 se ed sour ces . Agron . Abs t I thaca , N . Y . August 20 - 23 .

J . C . I I,He in , M . A . and Juska , F . V . 1962 . Be tter Lawn s .

and Garden Bu l l . No . 51 (Rev i sed) .

V. 196 2 . Shade to lerance o f bentgrasses . Go l f Cour se Repo r

Vo l . February .

Juska , F . V . 1962 . Estab l ishment and care o f Mer ion bluegras s lawn s .

CA - 34- 98- 62 .

Juska , F . V . 1962 . The Estab l ishment o f Zoys ia j apon ica lawns f rom

seed . CA - 34- 99 - 62 ( rev i sed) USDA Mimeo lea f le t ,2 pages . Sept .

Juska , F . V . 1962 . Suggestions f o r spr ing lawn care. CA - 34- l4- 62 .

( rev ised) USDA M imeo . lea f le t , 5 page s . Sept .

Juska , F . V . 1962 . Sugges tions f or f al l lawn care . CA - 34- 24- 62 ( r ev ised) USDA Mimeo . leaf le t , 5 pages . Sept .

Juska , F . V . , Hanson , A . A . and Er ickson , C . J . 1962 . Respon se o f

Mer ion and common Ken tucky b luegrass to several leve l s o f pho sphorus . Agron . Abst . , I thaca , N . Y . August 20 - 23 .

Wr ight , N . 1962 . Ef f ec ts o f managemen t pract ice s on f orage yie ld anc

percent pro te in in blue pan icgrass , Pan icum an tido tale Re tz . Agrox

Jour . 54 : 413 - 416 .

Wr igh t , N . 196 2 . Roo t we ight and distr ibution o f b lue pan icgrass , P

cum an tido tale Re tz . ,as af f ected by f er ti l izer s

,cutting he ight ,

and so i l mo isture str ess . Agron . Jour . 54 : 200-202 .

Wr ight , N . and Trautman, R . J . 1962 . In f luence o f management on n i

trate accumulation in b lue pan icgrass . Agron . Jour . 54 : 3 6 3 - 3 64 .

General

Bur ton , G . W . 1962 . Po ten tial o f agronom ic re search . Pro c . 8th Farr

Seed Industry Res . Con f . , Kansas City , Mo . , November 14 .

Bur ton , G . W . 196 2 . Grass land f arm ing in we stern Europe . Amer icanGrass land Proc August , pp . 14- 15 .

Bur ton , G . W . 1962 . ASA Pres ident ial Addre ss - The agronom ist and £0

f or peace . Agron . Jour . 55 : l- 3 .

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varieta l eva luation is in progress at Berke ley, Calif ornia ; Ft .

Co l lins , Co lorado ; Be ltsvi lle , Nat ; Bozeman , Montana ; Reno ,

Nevada ; Las Cruces , New Mexico ; Woodward , Oklahoma ; Burns , Oregon ;

Beaumont , Texas ; and Logan , Utah . Research in management and

varieta l eva luation is in progress at Gainesvi l le , Fla ; Tif ton ,

Ga St . Pau l , Nhnnesota ; Columbia , Mo. ; Mi les City, Mont . ; Ithaca ,

N . Y" Ra leigh , N . C Mandan , N . Dak . ; University Park, Pa . ; and

Pul lman , Washington . Seeding and estab l ishment , and varieta leva luation is in progress at Mesa , Ar izona . Processing researchis in progress at Tif ton , Ga . ,

and Beaumont , Texas ; seeding re

search at Twin Falls , Idaho ; and var ieta l eva luat ion research at

Laf ayette , Indiana . Research at Bozeman, Mont . , and Mandan , N . Dak . ,

is conducted cooperative ly with Soi l and water Conservat ion Re

search Division and at Mi le s City, Mbntana , with Anima l HusbandryResearch Division . At Twin Fa l ls , Idaho , and Burns , Oregon ,

Bureau of Land Management is a cooperator and at Logan , Utah ,Bureau of Indian af f airs of the U . S . Department of Interior .

The f ederal scientif ic ef f ort devoted to research in this area

tota ls prof essiona l man -

years . Of this number is devotedto seeding and estab lishment , to processing , to manage

ment , to varietal eva luation , and to program leadership .

A PL- 480 contract has been negotiated with the Hebrew University,Jerusa lem, Israe l , under which they wi l l investigate the Deve lopmental Physio logy of Perennia l Pasture Grasses . This is proj ectA lo- CR- 27 , (1961

.A PL- 480 contract has been negotiated with th e Agricu ltura l Ex

periment Station , the Nationa l and university Institute of

Agr icu lture , Rehovot , Israe l , under which they wi l l investigateEstab lishment and Maintenance of Seeded Dryland Range Under

Semiarid Conditions . Th i s is proj ect A lo- CR- 45 (1963

PROGRESS

1 . Coo l Temperatures De leterious to Subtropica l Grasses . In

many subtropica l regions marked seasona l variati ons in f orage pro

duction are observed, a lthough temperatures are we l l above f rost

and c limatic conditions seem f avorab le f or the rapid growth . In

order to de lineate the ef f ect of coo l day or night temperatures

on the growth and deve lopment of subtropica l f orage p lants , an

experiment was conducted at Be ltsvi l le , Md . , in contro l led en

vironment growth rooms at 50 , 70 , and 9O°F . For Pangolagrass

growth was maximized under a constant 900 temperature . Reduction

of night temperature to 70o

resu lted in a 25% de crease in dry

weight . Decreasing the night temperature to 500

resu lted in an

additional 26% decrease in dry weight . Sto lon number s and sto lonlengths were simi lar ly decreased under the lower night temperature .

Coasta l bermudagrass responded simi lar ly to low temperatures .

Pear l mi l let , one of the annua l subtropi cal f orage grasses , also

gave h ighe st yi e lds in seedling stages with the higher night

temperatures and sharp reductions occurred with lower night temper

atures . With pearl mi l let a striking redu ction in growth occurredwith the 50

0night temperature . The yie ld f or this treatment was

only 1% of that f or the 900 continuous temperature and no ti l ler ing

was evidenced at the lower temperature . Severe ch lorosis occurredin the pear l mi l let subj ected to 50

0and this , no doubt , accounted

f or the marked reduction in photosynthetic activity . Since the

mean temperatures in August ,September , and October in the

southern United States , are comparable to the lower temperature s

in these exper iments , it is like ly that the drop in night temper

atures is the primary cause f or reduced late summer and f a l lgrowth of the subtropica l grasses . Simi lar ly, a f ai lure of many

of the subtropica l grasses to g ive expe cted estab lishment and

production in the tropics at the higher e levations shou ld be

anticipated .

high soil temperature s and assoc iated periods of moisture def iciencycan be considerab ly moderated by the shade provided by brush ki l ledby the rootplow . A tarbush site was rootplowed and seeded June 25.

Dur ing the per iod Ju1y 2 to September 20 areas not shaded by plowed

out tarbush provided 1, 6 , and 16 days with soi l moisture abovewi lting at the 2 , and 4- inch depths , respectively . During

the same period and comparab le depths on areas shaded by p lowed- out

tarbush , there were 25, 55, and 67 days , re spective ly, abovewi lting . At the l/2- inch depth so i l temperatures in the open

reached l3lOF

'

while 106OF was the h ighest temperature recorded in

shaded areas , temperatures ranging f rom 14 to 290 lower . On a

creosotebush site a comparable study gave 9 , 32 , and 36 days with

moisture above wi lting at the 2 , and 4- inch depth on exposed

soi l, and 29, 40 , and 64 days where plowed- out creosote bush shaded

the soi l . At the l/2- inch depth maximum temperature recorded was

1380

on exposed sites , and on shaded site s 18 to 37° coo ler .

Furrows and pits aided in preserving moisture but were lessef f ective in reducing soi l temperature . Seedl ings in f urrow or

pit bottoms were a l so buried by loose sand . The studies suggest

that seeding under the shade of plowed- out brush may be successf u l

on range lands not previous ly revegetated by other methods .

The intense competition. wh ich cheatgrass provides seed lings of

desirab le f orage species can be virtua l ly e l iminated by herbicidesaccording to studies cooperative with the Crops Protection ResearchBranch at Reno , Nevada . Paraquat at .7 lbs/acre in combination'

with a surf actant , X- 77 at . 1% reduced cheatgrass f rom

plants/sq . f t . to less than 1, and cheatgrass yi e lds f rom

633 lbs/acre to pounds . Less eXpensive ,*

but somewhat lesse f f ective contro l of cheatgrass wa s provided by Atrazine , IPC and

isocil , which reduced cheat to plants/sq . f t . Perennia l grassesseeded in f urrows on chemica l ly f al lowed land yie lded seed

lings/f oot of row a s compared with .9 seedling/f oot on surf acedri l ling . .A 2-

year old grass stand seeded on a chemica l f a l lowyie lded 824 pounds grass/acre f rom f urrow seeding compared with530 pounds f rom surf ace dr i l ling . A l -

year old grass stand on

chemica l f a l low gave the f o l lowing yie lds and plants per f oot row

pounds and p lants f or intermediate wheatgrass ; 519 pounds

and p lants f or pubescent wheatgrass , and 364 pounds and

p lant f or crested wh eatgrass

At Logan , Utah , and Be ltsvi l le , Maryland, studies have shown that

the f ungus P . vertici l lata cou ld be a major f actor in th e f ai lureof many range seedings . It is wide ly distributed in the sagebrush

type in the Western States , having been identif ied on seeds f rom

contro l studies in Utah , Nevada , Idaho , and Montana . It has also

been f ound in the shadsca le and mountain brush types . Early

studies suggest that inf ection f rom the soil- borne f ungus is most

like ly on f a l l p lanted seeds,when they have absorbed some moisture ,

but where moisture and temperature are not adequate to initiaterapid germination and growth . Seed treatment with Captan 75

gives good contro l .

Bl Si lage

Texas , in cooperation with agri cu ltura l engineers , low cost methods

of storing si lage are being studied in a search f or ef f ective ways

to preserve surp lus spring and ear ly summer ryegrass- c lover f orage

f or winter use . Bunke r and stack si los with se lf - f eeding gates

have cut labor costs and produced good s i lage both f rom wi lted and

unwi lted f orage . W i lted si lage wa s shown to have two advantages(1 ) reduced moisture content with less weight to transport and

store , and (2 ) added vitamin D resu lting f rom the extra sun lightduring the wi lting process . Since the most important requirement

f or the successf u l storage of si lage is exc lusion of air , better

silage'

was produced with the tighter packing shorter cuts inch ) .

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Mi ssouri , Kentucky b luegrass - ladino c lover and orchardgrass

ladino c lover pastures have been eva luated f or 6 years , under a

3- paddock rotation management system . The b luegrass- ladinopastures have given superior anima l perf ormance with average da i lygains of pounds and tota l beef gains of 237 pounds

‘

per acrecompared to average dai ly gains of and tota l bee f gains of

f or the orchardgrass - ladino pastures . During the dry season

of 1962, however , the orchardgra ss outyie lded the b luegrasspastures both in da i ly gains and total anima l production .

3 . High Qua lity Pasture Net Improved by Concentrate Feeding. At

St . Pau l , Minnesota , in cooperation with the fairy Husbandry De

portment , a supp lementa l f eed test invo lved two sets of identica ltwin Ho lstein cows on an exce l lent qua lity a l f a l f a - brome pasture

f rom June to September . One twin of each set received 16 pounds

of high energy concentrate per day while the other re ceived none .

In set one the concentrate - f ed twin produced pounds of mi lkper day whi le the one on a lf alf a - brome pasture without concentrateproduced pounds . In the second set the average da i ly mi lkyie lds were and pounds of mi lk per day by the concen

trate - f ed and nonsupplemented cows , re spective ly . The increasein milk produ ction by the grain- f ed cow of the second set did not

pay f or the cost of the concentrate .

Centra l Plains Experimenta l Range near Fort Co l l ins , Co lorado , six

weeks f escue (Festuca octof lora ) an undesirab le component of the

range vegetation can be comp lete ly control led by an appl icationof 3 lbs/acre of simazine appl ied in ear ly October f o l lowingseasons f avorab le f or f escue deve lopment . Forty lbs . N/acreslightly increased f escue f requency . On p lots without treatment ,

given 40 lb s . N/acre , or 3 lbs . simazine/acre , sixweeks f e scu eand blu e grama yie lds , re spectively, were 90 and 469 lbs/acre , 220

and 552 lbs/acre , and zero and 618 lbs/acre , r e spective ly . N

f erti l ization increased utilization of b lue grama by livestock on

f e scue - inf e sted range , but a lso great ly increased f escue . Residua lef f e cts wi l l be noted in 1963 .

5. Russian Wildr e High ly Productive on Northern Plains Rangeland .

At Mandan , North Dakota , in the f avorab le 1962 f ie ld season Russian

wildrye produced the highest per acre gains recorded in 47 years of

grazing management studies . A so lid dri l led pasture receiving 40pounds N/acre , grazed f or 75 days with year ling steers , yie lded248 lbs . beef/acre . Comparab le crested wheatgrass pasture was

grazed f or 55 days and yie lded 208 lbs . beef/acre . Nonf ertilized

native range , grazed f or 140 days , yie lded 58 pounds beef/acre .

The three pastures provided 127, 100 , and 31 steer days

- ll5

grazing/acre , respective ly . Gains per head were better main

tained throughout the grazing period on Russian wildrye and na

tive range than on crested wheatgrass , but in ear ly spring there

were no dif f erence s . Russian wildrye mainta ined a high leve l of

protein throughout the season , ranging f rom on May 22 to

approximate ly 8% in late f a l l when native range was between 3 and

la.

vantage of a cre sted wheatgrass p lus a lf a lf a mixture over crestedwheatgrass a lone . Al f a lf a remained in the mixture and caused no

b loat prob lems , in the seventh season const ituting 33% of the

f orage . Average gains pounds per head were and f or

crested wh eatgrass and the mixture , respective ly . Ga ins per

acre were and respe ctive ly; pounds dry matter per

acre produced at hay stage and respectively; and

TDN per acre and respective ly . On ly in the very

dry 1959 season was the mixture less productive than crested

wheatgrass , the advantage of the rmmture being enhanced in f avorab le seasons . Crested wheatgrass f erti lized with 40 pounds

N/acre each year , exceeded the mixture in yie ld . The averagevalue of beef per acre was and f or crestedwheatgrass , the cre sted p lus al f a lf a mixture , and cre sted p lus40 pounds N/acre , annually, respective ly .

At Las Cruces , New Mexi co , the grazing habits of the two breeds

are very simi lar but Santa Gertrudis produce weaners more ef f iciently . Heref ord steer ca lves weaned at 254 days averaged 457pounds whi le comparable Santa Gertrudis at 224 days averaged 502pounds . Heref ord he if er ca lves at 246 days averaged 469 poundswhi le comparab le Santa Gertrudis at 206 days averaged 468 pounds .

Both breeds reached maximum weights in De cember and January .

Heref ords lost 22% of their weights to reach the lowest leve l in

May whi le Santa Gertrudis lost 26% by ear ly Ju ly . A . striking

dif f erence between the two breeds was ref lected in mi lk pro

duction , comparab le in May and July but on .August 28 Heref ord cowsaveraged pounds and Santa Gertrudis pounds . Th is may

exp lain the larger ca lves weaned .

Woodward, Oklahoma , compaction of range soi ls , even by light grazing ,very markedly reduced inf i ltration rate as determined by sprinklerinf iltrometer studie s conducted cooperative ly with SWC. Range landstocked year ly at 12 , 17 , and 22 acres per head yearlong , and non

grazed range gave inf i ltrat ion rate s of and

inches per hour , respe ctive ly . The corresponding so i l bu lk density

values were and respective ly, The study

wa s conducted on Pratt loamy f ine sand . If simi lar re lat ionshipsare f ound on soils whose inf iltration rate is lower , where runof f

occurs f o l lowing every ef f ective rain , the deve lopment of grazing

systems that interf ere least with inf i ltration wi ll be come a

maj or ob j ective of the program .

9 . Irrigated Russian Wildrye Develops Extensive Root System . At

Mandan , N0rth. Iakota , Russian wildrye in rows 36 inches apart pro ;

duced pounds of roots in the top 8 f eet of soi l , of wh ichnearly 60% were in the top f oot . Seventy- six percent of all roots

were in the ha lf of the soi l prof ile direct ly under the rows .

”

When

rows were spaced on ly 9 inches apart pounds roots were pro

duced, unif ormly distr ibuted at any horizontal leve l . During 4years of the study, f orage yi e lds increased with each additiona lincrement of N f erti lizati on up to 400 lbs/acre .

“

Root yie ldsreached maximum productivity at 200 pounds N/acre . Nitrogen f er

tilization contr ibuted most to root yie ld in the top f oot of soi l .

02 Basic Physio logy

Fla . , studies on Florad oats ShOW’

the height of c lipp ing , age , and

regrowth s ignif icant ly af f ected a number of p lants ki l led by

f reezing treatment . Ki l ling was greater in the 2 than e ither the

4 6 or 8- inch stubb le h e ight . These resu lts indicate that

grazing to a shorter stubb le wou ld increase low temperature ki l ling .

In genera l o lder p lants in all heights of cuts and regrowth treat

ments were more susceptib le than young p lants to low temperatures .

However , a signif icant interaction occurred since the 6 week- old

p lants were markedly more f reeze resistant than either younger or

o lder plants . These f indings suggest that little or no damage

f rom f reezing wi l l occur in 6 and 7 - week- old p lants of Florad

var iety oats even if grazed to a 2- inch stubb le he ight; however ,because of the increase in susceptibi lity of o lder p lants to

f reezing , oats should be grazed bef ore they reach 9 weeks of age .

At University Park , Pa . , creeping- rooted a lf a l f a wa s f ound to pro

duce twice the number of adventitious stem sites dur ing two months '

growth under shortening daylengths hours decreasing to

hour s ) than dur ing a simi lar period under longer daylengths

hours in ear ly summer ) . Gibbere l lic ac id has been shown to negate

the ef f ect of short days on stem e longat ion .

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were markedly decreased in plants whose re lative turgidity was

reduced to between 50 and and were decreased to less than

ha lf that of contro l p lants when severe wi lting was permitted .

Inorganic phosphate was not af f ected . Marked recovery in most

phosphorylated intermediates occurred with in 24 hours af ter se

verely wi lted p lants were irrigated . These studies he lp to exp lainthe physiologica l ef f ects of moisture stress in plants and suggest

a need f or studies on the ef f ect of moisture stress on phosphory

lating processes and the synthesis and breakdown of enzymes whichcata lyze the interconversion of these intermediates .

7 . Alf a lf a and Birdsf oot Tref oi l Respond Di f f erent ly to Soi lTemperature . Ranger a lf a lf a , 15 weeks af ter planting , consistently

yie lded more root growth than Tana birdsf oot tref oi l in studies

at Bozeman , Montana ,but herbage growth re lati onships depended on

soi l temperature . In a l6- hour photoperiod , with air temperature

at 21°C, the yie ld of a lf a lf a roots exceeded those of tref oi l by

80 , 90 , and l3o%'

wheh soi l temperatures were 12 , 18, and 24°C,respective ly . Under the same conditions a lf a lf a herbage growth

was 80% :more , and 10 and 23% le ss , respe ctive ly . The ratio of

root growth to herbage growth in a lf a lf a rema ined f air ly constant

at the three soi l temperatures , averaging 1 . 15:l . Birdsf oot

tref oi l root to h erbage latio decreased f rom l .27 :l at 12°C to

0 39 21 at 250

0 . Phosphorus f erti lizat ion at thre e leve ls did not

bring out signif icant dif f erences between the spe cies , but was

most benef icia l at the lowe st soil temperature . Birdsf oot tre

f oi l required 49 , and square centimeters of leafsurf ace (1 side on ly ) to produce l gram dry matter (f orage p lusroots ) at 12 , 18, and 24

00 , respective ly, wh i le a lf a lf a needed

only and respective ly .

work reported to date two phases of the prob lem have been initiated;( l ) a study of summer dormancy in Hordeum bu lbosum ,

an importantdrought re sistant range grass , and (2 ) the deve lopment of equipmentf or the simu ltaneou s and continuous determination of net photo

synthesis and transpiration of intact p lants . Detai led resu ltshave not yet been reported f rom either of the se studies .

D1 Variety Comparisons

studied at Ithaca , New Yerk, over a 3-

year per iod in an experiment

involving f requency and intensity of def o liation and leve l s of P

and K f erti l ization . Frequency of cutting has been the largest

single f actor af f ecting yie ld, with two cuts per year givinghighest production . In this study a unique harvesting technique

to simu late gradua l remova l of herbage by grazing anima ls showed

that taking in the harvest in two parts separated by 10 days gaves light ly increased yie lds , particu lar ly with more f requent cuttingtreatments . As expected, higher yie lds were a lso produced with in

creased phosphorus and potassium f erti lization . Root we ights were

higher f or the p lants c lipped leaving a 6- inch stubb le comparedto those cut to 2 inches .

superiority of Ranger and Vernal a lf a lf a over the low growing

varieties , Ramb ler and Teuton ,was conf irmed at St . Pau l , Minnesota ,

under both clipping and grazing by sheep .

'

When the botanica ldominance in the legume grass mixture was used as a criterion ,

plant counts revea led that nitrogen f erti lization resu lted in a

decrease in legume stands and production , as contrasted to ear lierresu lts on a very f ert i le soi l where nitrogen f erti l ization did

not af f ect a lf a l f a stands .

3 . Factors Af f ecting Nitrate Accumu lation in Forages . In contro l ledenvironmental studies at Ithaca , New York, severa l af f ected the

accumu lation of nitrate in plants . These f actors are now beingstudied to determine their ef f ect on the nitrate reductase enzyme ,

and to assess the importance of this enzyme in nitrate accumu lation . Both the leve l of nitrogen in the growth medium and the

air temperature have pronounced ef f e cts on nitrate reductase

activity of p lant extract . Enzyme activity increases with an ih ~

crease in nitrogen and decreases with an increase in temperature .

study Ster ling was the highest yielding of the 12 orchardgrass

varieties tested and outyie lded either Potomac or Common . In a

f escue variety comparison, yields of Oregon 4- 36 , Kentucky 59 - C1- 32,Ky. 31 , A lta ,

and Gear have been essentia l ly the same . In a Reed

canarygrass test Ottawa 1133- 7 was the highest yie lding of the

eight varieties tested .

over the past 9 years , sagebrush continues to invade poor and f air

condition range . On poor condition range sage increased under all

leve ls of N f ertilization , most rapid ly at N leve ls up to 60

lbs/acre and in f avorable seasons . Grasses adverse ly af f ected by

N f ertilization inc luded bluebunch wheatgrass , June grass and

Thurbers needlegrass . In striking contrast squirre ltai l increased

l2- f o ld with N f erti lization . On f air condition range perennialgrasses dec lined f rom 90% to 30% of the tota l herbage , be ing re

placed by cheatgrass and weeds . The change was acce lerated by N

f erti l ization . On good condition (seeded ) range sage dec l inedslight ly during the 9-

year per iod .

cheatgrass increased and .AgrOpypon Spicatum decreased on f erti lizedrange and the reduction in A, Spicatum was accelerated by clippingat ground leve l during any stage of growth . On poor

- conditionrange other grasse s (pr imari ly cheat ) yielded ton/acre on

contro l plots and 2 tons/acre f o l lowing 2 years of f erti lizationwith 80 lbs . N/acre . Comparab le f igures on good

- condition range

were ton and 1 tons , respectively.

'

When mature A . Spicatumwas c lipped at 8

"the average ground cover was .All p lots

c l ipped at ground leve l ranged between and ground cover .

At the Centra l Plains Experimenta l Range near Fort Co l lins , Co lorado ,vegetation on blue grama range can be rapidly and ob j ective ly characterized by noting presence or absence of b lue grama p lants in a

2 by 2- inch quadrat and all other species in a 16 by l6- inch quadrat ,O f wh ich the 2 by 2 is a part . Twenty

- f ive quadrats on each of 10

transects were f ound to accurate ly and ef f icient ly samp le a 200 by

200 - f oot macrOplot .

8 .

'

Western Wheatgrass and Blue Grama Opposite s on Northern PlainsRange land . When exposed to N f erti l ization and one to three harvests ,western wheatgrass and b lue grama are direct Opposites in studies at

Mandan , North Dakota . Plots harvested June 1 , Ju ly 1, and August 1

over a 5-

year per iod, without nitrogen f erti lization , resu lted in a

50% increase in b lue grama and a 13% decrease in western wheatgrass .

.A sing le harvest August 1 , with 160 pounds N/acre/annually resu ltedin a 54% decrease in b lue grama and a 994% increase in western

wheatgrass . The dif f erential response wa s much greater in seasons

O f above norma l precipitation than in dry years . .A sing le harvestAugust 1 each year consistently gave h igher yie lds than f rom harvestsJune 1 and August 1, or f rom harvests June 1 , Ju ly 1 , and .August 1 .

Two annua l harvests resulted in western wheatgrass popu lation re

semb l ing those O f p lots harvested once only, wh i le b lue grama

populations were more l ike those on plots harvested three times .

D2Chemica l Composition and Nutritive va lue .

1 . Forage Qua l ity Determined by Test- Tube Technique . At Laf ayette ,Indiana , the in vitro digestibi lity technique continues to giveval id prediction of anima l digestibi lities . A corre lation co~

ef f icient O f .92 was obtained between in vivo dige stible dry

matter at the fig libitium leve l O f intake and the in vitro digestib le ce llu lose af ter an l8- hour period O f f ermentation . In a

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with the p lants 'pate rn of growth ,

and accumu lation of root re

serves to insure su stained vigor . Under the 2—crOp'

system , tota lherbage yie ld is about 70% O f that Obtained by a sing le comp letegrazing usua l ly ending in June .

PUBLICATIONS

Carnahan , Glenn ,and Hu l l , A . C . , Jr . 1962 . The inhibition of seeded

p lants by tarweed . Weeds 10 , pp . 87- 90 .

Eckert , R . and Evans , Raymond A . 1963 . Chemica l contro l O f

and rese eding in b lack sagebrush (Artemisia arbu scu la and

A . longiloba ) . Nevada Progre ss Report , Research in Range Manage

ment Entomo logy, Circ . 41 .

Evans , Raymond A . ,and Eckert , Richard E . , Jr . 1963 . Contro l of

downy brome (Bromus tectorum ) and e stab li shment of perennia lgrasse s on range lands . Nevada Progress Report , Besaron in Range

Management Entomo logy , Circ . 41 .

Gates , D . H . 1962 . Revegetation of a h igh altitude barren slope in

northern Idaho . Jour . R inge Mengt . , pp . 314- 318 .

Gomm , F . B . 1962 . Re seeding studies at a sma l l high - a ltitude park

in southwestern Montana . USDA Bu l l . 568 , 16 pp .

Hu l l , A . C ., Jr . 1962 . Contro l O f weeds bef ore seeding range lands .

Proceedings Utah Weed Contro l Conf . pp . 22 - 24, Sa lt Lake City, Utah ,(Processed ) .

Hu l l , A . C . , Jr . 1962 . Tarweed A competitor and inh ibitor O f

seeded p lants . Proceedings o f Utah Academy of Sciences , Arts , and

Letters, 39 191 (Abstract ) .

Hylton ,L . and Ba ss , L . N . 1962 . Germination of sixweeks f escue .

Proce edings of 5lst Annua l Me eting O f A ssoc . O f Of f ic ia l Seed

Ana lysts , pp . 118- 124 .

Mccloud , D . E . 1962 . Temperature responses Of \some subtropicalf orage grasses . Pre sented at Se cond Me eting of FAO Working Party

on Pasture and Fodder Deve lopment in the Tropica l Americas , Sao

Pau lo , Brazi l , November 17 - 24.

McGinnies , W . J . 1962 . The e f f ect of seedbed f irming on the estab l i shment O f cre sted wheatgra ss seedlings . Jour . Range Mangt . ,

pp . 230 - 234.

Murphy, A . H ., Kay, B . L.

,and McKell , c. M . 1962 . ERTO pre

- emer

gence herbicide a ids estab lishment of clovers in dryland pasture s .

Ca li f ornia Agricu lture l6 (7 ) .

Sprague , M . A . ( compiled by ) . 1963 . Seedl ing management of grass

legume assoc iati on in the Northea st . Northeast Regional Pub lication 42 , New Jersey Agr icu lture Experiment Station , The U . S .

Regiona l Pasture Laboratory, and the twe lve Northea stern State s .

Sprague , V . G . 1962 . Hay and pasture seedings f or the Northeast .

Chapter 41 , pp . 410 - 420 .

Processing

Burton , Gl enn W . , Jackson , J . B .,

and Hart , R . H . 1962 . Ef f ect of

c lipping f requency on the yie ld , chemica l composition , and

in vitro digestib i lity O f Coasta l bermudagrass ; 1962 me etings ,

A ssoc . Southern Agric . Workers , Jacksonvi l le , Fla . , Feb . 5- 7 ,1962 . Abstract pub lished in 59th Ann . Proc . ASAW ,

Abstract a l so pub l ished in J . Anim . Sci .

Hart , Richard H ., and Burton , Glenn W . 1962 .

‘

Water losse s and

change s in chemical composition during the curing of Coasta lbermudagrass hay; 1962 Georgia Section ASA meetings , Athens , Ga . ,

January 17 . Abstract published in Georgia Agron . Abstracts l962 :5.

Management

Grazing

Corne l ius , D . R . 1962 . Grazing practices in Turkey . Jour . Range

Manst pp 257- 259 .

Donker , J . D . ,and Marten , G . c. 1962 . Summer f eeding O f dairy

catt le . Minnesota Feed Service . May .

Goode , Lemue l , and Gross , H . D . 1962 . A compari son of se le ctedgrass and grass

- legume pasture s f or f inishing year l ing beef catt lein the Piedmont of North Carolina ; 11th Ann . Cattlemen

's Conf .

Jan . 18- 19 , Ra le igh , N . C.

Gross , H . Douglass . 1962 . Progress Report on beef graz ing studies .

Meeting O f the District Repre sentatives O f the North Caro linaBoard of Farm Organizations and Agricu ltura l Agencie s . Jan . 17 - 19 ,Ra le igh , N . C .

Houston ,Wa lter R . 1962 . Ef f ects O f grazing intensity on range vege

tation and bee f catt le production in the Northern Great Plains . Ph . D .

Dissertation , Utah State Univ .

Houston ,Wa lter R . 1963 . Sa lt consumption by breeding cows on native

range in the Northern Great Plains . Jour . Range Mangt ., l6 (1 ) ,

pp . 12 - 16 .

Jordan , R . M . , and Marten , G . C . 1962 . Fle sh and f ibre f rom grass .

Minnesota Feed Service . May .

Lorenz ,R . J . ,

and Rogler , G . .A . 1962 . A comparison O f methods of

renovating O ld stands of cre sted wheatgrass . Jour . Range Mengt . ,

pp . 215- 219 .

Mt Ginnies , W . J . 1962 . Range f e rtiliza . i on trtds in Co lorado 's

f ront range region . Co lorado ric . Exp . Sta . Progre ss Rept . NO . 1 .

Mcke l l , c. M., Wilson ,A . M .

,and Kay, B . L . 1962 . Some f actor s ih

f luencing the ef f ectiveness O f burning medusahead (Elymus caput

medusae ) inf e sted range lands . Weeds pp . 125— 131 .

Pau l sen , and Ar es , Fred N . 1962 . Grazing valuesand management of b lack grama tobosa grass , and re lated shrub

ranges of the Southwest . Tech . Bu l l . 1270 .

Rogler , Lorenz , R . J . , and Schaaf , H . M . 1962 . Progress

with gra ss . North Dakota Bu l l . 439 .

Rumburg , Char les B . 1962 . Seasonal patterns of dry matter pro

du ction and N accumulat ion f rom wet meadows . Proceedings of

We stern Society O f Crop Science , Bozeman , Montana .

Shoop , M. C . , and McIlvain , E . H . 1962 . Inf luence O f low- leve lsti lb estro l on weaner steers and suckling calves under range con

ditions . Jour . of Anima l Science pp . 197- 199 .

Sneva , F . A . , and Hyder , D . N . 1962 . Forecasting range herbage

production in Eastern Oregon . Oregon Exp . Sta . Bu ll . 588 , 11 pp .

Sneva , F . A . ,and Hyder , D . N . 1963 . Stand density and age as

f actors inf luenc ing the aring response of crested wheatgrass to

nitrogen f erti lization . Abstracts of annual meeting of Amer icanSociety of Range Management , Rapid City, S . Dak . , p . 37 .

Wa l lace , Joe D . , Ra le igh , R . J . , Hubbert , Farris , Jr . , and Sawyer , W .A .

1962 . Winter f eeding and management of range ca lves . Oregon

Agric . Exp . Station Bul l . 584.

A lexander , and MhCloud, D . E . 1962 . 002 uptake (net photo

synthesi s ) as inf luenced by l ight intensity of iso lated bermuda

grass leaves contra sted to that of swards under var ious c l ippingregimes . Crop Science - 135

Burton , Glenn W . , and Jackson ,James E . 1962 . .A method f or measur

ing sod reserves . Note , Agron . J .- 55.

Hu l l , A . Jr . 1962 . Growth in the greenhouse of grasses and

shrubs on soi ls f rom shadsca le and sagebrush areas . Jour . Range

Mangt . , pp . 262- 266 .

MbKell , C. M . , and Wi lson ,A . M . 1963 . Ef f ect O f temperature on

S35 uptake and trans location by rose and subterranean c lover .

Agron . J . pp . 134- 137 .

Sprague , V . G . , and in f orage pr?duction . Chapter 36 , pp . 359- 367

Sprague , V . G . , Car lson , G. E . , and Motter , G . A . 1962 . Regrowth of

grasses in darkness indicate s re lative energy accumu lation . Agron .

Abs . p . 87 .

West , S . H . ,and Prine , G . M . 1961 . The inf luence of row direct ion

on yie ld and f reeze damage in lupine and oats . Soi l and Crop Sci .

Soc . of Fla .,

- 147 .

We st , S . H . 1962 . Th e ef f ect O f water stre ss on nuc leotide and

r ibonuc leic acid metabo lism in corn seed lings . Plant Phys io logySupp . 37 :Lii .

West , 3 . H . 1962 . Prote in , nuc leotide , and r ibonuc le ic acid metabo l ismin corn dur ing germination under water stress . Plant Phys . 37 :565- 7l .

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Smika , D . E . , Jones , H . J . ,and Rogler , G . A . 1963 . Native grass

and crested wheatgrass production as inf luenced by f erti lizerp lacement and weed contro l . Jour . Range Mengt . l6 (l ) , pp . 5- 8 .

'

Weihing , Ra lph M . 1962 .

‘

Winter and spring f orage f rom Gulf rye

grass . Ri ce Journal - 8 . September .

Wright , Madison , J . , Begg , JOhn E . , and Manson , warren G . (ARS ,USDA ) . 1962 . Perennia l Forage Grasses . Farm ResearchSeptember .

Chemi ca l Composit ion and Nutr itive va lue

Barnes , R . F . ,and Mott , G . o. 1962 . Comparison of in vitro rumen

f ermentation procedures . J . .Animal Sc ience (Abstract )Burdick, Dona ld . 1962 . The component sugars and rate of hydro lysis

of f orage lemicelluloses in re lation to digestibi l ity . Ph .D .

Thesis . The Pennsylvania State University . June.

Su llivan , J . T . 1962 . Eva luation of f orage crops by chemica lanalys is . A critique . Agron . J .

- 515.

Sul livan , J . T . 1962 . The re lation of chemica l composition to

nutritive va lue . Paper given at annual meeting of AmericanSociety of Agronomy, Ithaca , N . Y} , August 21 .

Genera l

Hull , .A . C . , Jr . 1962 . Ef f e cts of f erti lizer on an estab lishedgrass stand in the Cache Nationa l Forest . Ferti lizer Tests in

Utah , Agricu ltura l Experiment Sta . , Utah State Univ . , pp . 14- 15.

Hyder , D . N . , and Sneva , Forrest A . 1962 . Se lective contro l O f

big sagebrush assoc iated with bitterbrush . Jour . Range hangt . , 15

pp . 211- 215.

Hyder , D . N . , Sneva , Forest A . ,and Freed, V . H .

'

1962 . Suscepti

bility to - D by big sagebrush and green rabb itbrush as re latedto certain environmenta l , phenologica l and physio logica l conditions . Weeds pp . 288- 295.

Jone s , M . B . , Mcke l l , C. M. , and Winans , S . S . 1963 . The inf luenceof soil temperature and nitrogen f erti lization at two e levationson the growth of sof t chess , (Bromus mo l lis ) . Agron . J .

PP 44- 46

Mcllvain , E . H . ,and Armstrong , C . G . 1963 . Progress in sh innery

oak and sand sage control at Woodward . Proceedings of OklahomaAeria l App l icators Conf erence .

McKell , C. M . ,Jones , Mi lton B . , and Perrier , E . R . 1962 . Root

production f rom f erti lized annua l range . Agron . J .

pp 0Ll-59 - ll-62 o

McKell , C . M . 1962 . Root studies . Pasture and Range ResearchTechniques , pp . 173- 179 .

Sneva , F . A . 1963 . Further studies on se lective contro l of big sage

brush associated with bitterbrudi Proc .of ELM Range weed Mtg . , Oreg .

SEED CROP CULTURE , DISEASES , PHYSIOLOGYNUTRIT ION, HARVESTING , AND VARIETY EVAIMMT ION

CrOps Research Division , ARS

Prob lem . Grass and legume seed crops are 10 to 20 percen t be lownational consumption . Importation o f se ed o f many crops

is ne cessary be cause te chno logy has not been deve loped to make seed

production a pro f i table f arm enterprise . Some exce l lent f orage- crop

var ie tie s with a known satisf actory reproduction potent ial f re

quently produce poor seed yie lds ,which means high seed cos ts .

Several drought- to leran t and h igh ly nutr itious grasse s , adapted to

the Great P lains ,have had l im ited usage because o f the f requent low

and erratic seed yie lds and h igh pr iced seed . De cl ining seed yie ldsf requent ly occur af ter seed crops have been grown in an area f or a

f ew years , and of ten f orce seed growers to terminate the ir seed pro

duction enterprise s . Diseases serious ly reduce seed yie lds . Some

organisms de stroy on ly the seed or inf lore scence , oth ers ki l l the

p lant . Research is needed to investigate the f actors that are l imiting ti l ler in itiation

,f er til ization , and se ed f ormation and to

deve lop cultural and managemen t techn iques inc luding disease contro lpractice s that wil l assure e f f icient seed produ ction . Fundamentalphys io log ical inve stigations on growth re sponses o f grasse s and

legume s to var ious environmental , management , and m icroc l imat icf actors are needed to establ ish the specif ic requirements f or

reproduction .

PROGRAM

Grasse s and Legume s . The Departmgpt has a continuing long- time pro

gram invo lving agronomis ts , physio logists , and patho logists engaged

in both bas ic and app l ied studies . Cu l tural and management studiesf or f orage

- crop seeds are underway at Sti l lwater , Oklahoma ; Corval l is ,

Oregon ; Prosser and Pu l lman , Wash ington ; and Logan ,Utah . Physio logic

invest igations are under way at Laf aye tte , Indiana , Sti l lwater , Oklahoma ; and Pro sser ,

Wash ington . Varie ty evaluation studie s are con

duc ted at Shaf ter , Cal if orn ia ; Laf ayette , Indiana ; and Pro sser ,

Washington . Disease inve stigations are underway at Corval l is , Oregon .

All work is conduc ted in cooperation with the respective State agricu l tural exper iment stations , and the Entomo logy and Agr icu l turalEngineering Re search Div is ions .

The Federal scientif ic e f f ort devoted to research in this area

totals prof essional man -

years . Of this number is devotedto cu l ture ,

to physio logy, to diseases , to varie ty evaluation ,

and to program leadership .

A contract with the Agricu ltural Research Centre , Tikkuri la , Finland,provide s f or the evaluation o f genetic stabil ity in seed o f alsike ,

red and white c lovers produced in dif f erent c l imatic regions of

North America . Its duration is 5 years , l96o- 1965 ,

“

and invo lvesP . L . 480 f unds f or equ ivalent in Finnmarks .

A contract with the Hebrew University , Rehovot , Israe l , provide s f or

research to determine the inf luence of environment on genetic shif tsin f orage

- crop varieties . I ts durat ion is 5 years , 196 2- 1967 , and

invo lves P . L . 480 f unds f or equivalent in Israe li pounds .

PROGRESS

A . Culture

1 . Ef f ect o f Date of Planting on Grass Seed Production . The lossof cash income during the estab l ishment o f Spring p lantings has

de layed deve lopment o f the grass seed industry in some of the highly productive irrigated areas . Studies have been conducted at

Prosser , Washington , to determine the e f f e cts O f Spring and f al lp lantings on the reproduction potential o f several grass species .

Spring seedings of timothy, smooth bromegrass , tal l f e scue , and

f our wheatgrasses produced smal l amounts o f seed the year o f e stab

lishment . Crested wheatgrass produced 363 pounds o f seed, orchard

grass produced none . All produced the ir peak seed yie lds the

f o l lowing year . Fal l seedings of timo thy, smoo th bromegrass , and

f ive wheatgrasses resu lted in peak yie lds the f o l lowing year . Tal lf escue and orchardgrass produced some seed the f o l lowing year but

did not reach the ir peak until the second year . Fal l seedingsappear to be an ideal time f or the e stabl ishment of all the coo lseason grasses studied except orchardgrass and tal l f escue . To

Obtain maximum seed yie lds the year f o l lowing -

p lanting , these two

species must be sown in the spring . The number o f culms per me ter

o f row was high ly corre lated with seed yie ld . Weight of 100 seeds

and seed per 100 culms had f ewer high corre lations with seed yie ld .

Intermediate wheatgrass was the on ly grass with high corre lationsbe tween the cu lms per me ter , seed weight , and seed per 100 cu lms .

2 . Rate of Planting and Spr ing Cl ipping Ef f ects the Seed Yie ld

o f Dixie Crimson Clover . The inf luence o f spring c l ipping

on the components of seed yie ld and qual ity o f Dixie crimson c lover

is being investigated at Corval l is , Oregon . Planting at low seed

ing rates increased seed yie lds without spring mowi ng . In 1962

the h ighest seed yie ld was obtained f o l lowing mowing o f p lants 8 to

9 inches in height to 1 inche s on p lots p lanted at approximate ly

12 pounds o f l ive seed per acre . Stands p lanted at low rates o f

seeding yie lded highest among the unmowed p lots ,

but le ss than the

mowing treatments X higher rates o f p lantings . Corre lati ons l n

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- 130

begun . The resu l ts of th is study indicate that seed maturationor

"af ter harve st ripening” does occur in immature grass seed

wh ich remains attached to the cu lm unt i l it is air dried .

5 . Dis tr ibution o f Foundation Seed o f Forage Spec ies . Distribu

tion o f f oundation seed o f superior f orage- crop varie tie s by the

Foundation Seed Pro j ect reached an all- t ime h igh in 196 2 . Dur ingthe year pounds of f oundation seed were dis tribu ted to

cer tif ied seed growers and seedsmen . This was pounds more

than the tota l f oundation seed dis tr ibu ted in 196 1 . Increase s in

the distribution o f f oundation Vernal al f al f a , Lake land and

Pennsco tt red c lovers , and Gah i - l and Starr pear l mi l le t accountedf or a large part o f the overal l increase . In addition , the Pro je ctdistr ibuted f oundation seed o f A tlant ic and Narraganse tt al f al f as ,

Do l lard and Reu land red c lovers , Potomac orchardgrass , and Empirebirdsf oo t tre f o il . A lso , it make s cer tain that adequate quantitie s o f f oundation Buf f alo and Ranger al f a lf as are avai lable . A

to ta1 <fi5130 , 3 98 pounds o f f oundation Narragan sett and Vernalal f a l f a , Do l lard and Lake land red c lover , and Gah i - l and Starr

pear l mi l le t seed was produced by grower s under contract with CCC

in Arizona, Idaho , Nevada , and Wash ington . P lant ings f or the pro

duction o f Cherokee alf al f a , a new high -

yie lding , disease - re sistant

al f al f a adapted to the Southeast , were made f or the f irst timeduring the year . The f irst f oundation seed f rom the se p lantingswi l l be available af ter harvest in 196 3 . The Foundation Seed

Pro je ct is cooperative among the U . S .D .A the State agricu l turalexper iment stations ,

commercial seedsmen , and State f oundation

seed organizations and seed certi f ying agenc ies .

- 131

1 . Improved Procedure f or Ge rminating Sand Lovegrass Seed .

Pronounced do rmancy in the seed o f sand lovegrass (Eragros tistrichodes ) constitute s serious problems in evaluating the e f f e cto f var ious seed production practice s on this species . The o f f icialru le s f or te sting seeds o f th is spe cies sugge st pre

- ch i l l ing six

weeks and the u se o f KNO3f or breaking dormancy . Studies were

initiated at Stil lwater , Oklahoma , to deve lop a more rapid me thod

f or breaking dormancy and to de termine the Spe ci f ic requirementsf or germination and grow th o f se edl ing sand lovegrass p lants . The

re su lts of the se s tudies show that sand lovegrass seeds germinatebest in al ternating temperature s o f 20 to 30

°or 20 to 35

°C . Pre

ch i l l ing the seed at 5 to looC . on a substrate mo istened wi th

water or a Ca (NO3 ) 2 so lution f or 14 days ef f e ctive ly breaks dor

mancy . When KNO3 was used as a moistening agent dur ing the pre

ch i l l treatments roo t damage and abnormal seedl ings some times t e

su lted . Cal c ium nitrate was f ound to be less l ike ly to cause roo t

damage than KNO3 but was equal ly e f f ec tive in breaking dormancy .

Pre - heating the seed f or 40 minute s at 90 to 1000C . combined with

the use o f a nitrate salt so lution is as e f f e ctive as a l4- day

pre- chi l l treatment in breaking dormancy . However , the studie s

have shown that the pre- heat treatment can kil l non - dormant seeds .

The suggested procedure f or germinating sand lovegrass seed is

( a ) Divide the seed and p lace one portion in an oven set at 900

to 1000 C . f or 40 minute s ; (b ) p lace samp le s o f the preheated and

untreated seed in germination boxe s with a so lution o f cal c iumn i trate mo istened substrate ; ( c ) p lace the seed in a germinator set

f or al ternating temperature s 20 to . 300C . ; and (d ) discontinue the

te st af ter 14 days and repor t the lo t with the h ighest germination .

C . Diseases .

1. Burning f or Grass Seed Nematode Contro l In jurious to Some

Bentgrasses . Practices f or contro l l ing the grass seed nematode

in several grass spe cies o ther than the bentgrasses have been deve loped at Corva l l is , Oregon . These inc lude the disinf e ction o f seed byspe cial seed c lean ing processes , burning stubble , and the use o f 2

year crop rotat ions . Grass seed nematode is pre sently establ ishedand causing damage in several new p lantings o f Astor ia and Seaside

bentgrasses in the Wi l lame tte Val ley . The disease does not respond

to f ie ld burning o f Astoria bent and burning is too in jurious on

Seaside bent . A program to provide nematode - f ree f oundation seed is

considered e ssential to reduce the damage f rom this disease to bent

grasses . Methods are be ing exp lored to achieve this goal .

2 . Smut - f ree Bentgrasse s Deve loped f or Foundation Seed Source .

Seed smuts o f bentgrasses cause ser ious lo sses in seed f ie lds . At

Corval l is , Oregon , the smuts were e l im inated f rom sto cks o f B- ll

- l32

ve lve t bentgrass and f rom Exeter (Rhode Is land No . 5 ) co lon ial bent

grass . P lantings o f the se smut - f ree sto cks have be en estab l ishedf or the production o f f oundation seed .

D . Var ie ty Evaluation .

1 . Popu lation Shif ts in Do l lard Red Clover Seed Induced by Envi

ronmen t and Management Treatmen ts . Seed o f Do l lard red c loverproduced at Pro sser ,

Wash ington , and Shaf ter and Tehachapi , Calif or

nia ,and representing increases f rom dif f erent seeding rate s , dates

o f seeding and c l ipp ing treatments was evaluated f or several vegatative and f loral character ist ics at Laf aye tte , Indiana . Dur ing

the year o f estab l ishment each p lan t was rated f or its degree o f

f loral deve lopment . The ratings f or the variou s seed lo ts were

compared to ratings f or the original breeder seed used to e stab l ishthe increase b locks . Over all management treatments the seed lo tsproduced at Shaf ter , Cal if ornia ,

had the h ighe st f loral - type rating ,

indicating a larger por tion of ear ly p lants . The seed lo ts f rom

Tehachapi , Cal if ornia , were next h ighe st wh i le the seed lo ts f rom

Prosser ,Wash ington ,

were vir tual ly identical to the breeder seed

lo t f rom which the seed increase blo cks were establ ished . There was

no indication that rate o f seeding up to 12 pounds per acre in rows

Spaced 40 inche s apar t had any ef f ect on f loral - type response of

the seed lo ts . At Shaf ter, the seedings made October 1 and December 1

were identical to the original breeder seed . However , seedings made

in February 1 and Apri l 1 resu lted in seed lots with h ighe r f loraltype ratings than the or iginal breeder seed lots . A t Prosser , no

di f f erences were observed be tween seed. 1ots produced the year f o l lowing a spring or f al l seeding . Seed lo ts harvested in the seedl ingyear at bo th Tehachap i and Prosser were dif f erent f rom the lo ts pro

duced f rom the same stands during the second and th ird productionyear . The se cond and third year production at bo th Tehachap i and

Prosser were virtual ly identical to the original breeder seed . At

Prosser , c l ipp ing the seed-

produc tion blocks had no e f f e ct on

f lower ing type . A t Shaf ter ,c l ipp ing re su lted in seed wh ich was

almost identical to the or iginal breeder seed but the seed f rom

unc l ipped p lo ts re su lted in a h igher pe rcentage of f lower ing p lan ts .

Winter su rv ival f o l lowed inverse ly the p lant- type ratings . A t

Tehachap i , f or examp le , the progeny o f the seedl ing year harvesthad a h igh percentage of f lowering p lants but a low winter surv ival .

Likewise , at Shaf ter ,the seed harve sted f rom February and Apr il

p lantings was lower in winter survival than the seed produced f rom

f a l l sowings . These resu l ts indi cate the inf luence o f management

treatments and environment on popu lation sh if ts dur ing the mul tip l ication o f cross -

po l l inated f orage var ie tie s . The next genera

t ion o f seed has been produced at the same locations under simi lardate s o f seeding and cl ipp ing treatments and wi l l be evaluated in

1964 .

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f or the ir seed production potential at Shaf ter , Cal if ornia, under

irrigation to de termine whe the r more intensive studies wou ld bewarranted . Sand bluestem , sand lovegrass , weeping lovegrass ,sand dropseed, bu f f alograss , and sideoats grama produced seedyie lds over pounds per acre . Ho l t Indiangrass and greenneedlegrass proved to be de f inite ly unsuited to this area f orseed production .

5 . Evaluation o f Seed of Clover Varieties in Fin land . The P . L .

480 Pro ject nego tiated with the Agricul tural Resear ch Centre in

Fin land provides a long day laboratory f or evaluating p lant pcpulations f rom seed lots produced in areas with dif f erent environments . Dur ing the 196 2 growing season evaluation tests were

carried out at Tikkuri la ( latitude and Maaninka ( latitudeusing f irst , second and third generation seed of Finnish varie tiesproduced in the U . S . A . and Canada in 196 1 . The most de tai ledwork has been carried on with Tammisto red c lover .

— It was f ound

that genetic change s in Tammis to red c lover seed lots f rom the

U . S . A . and Canada had been very smal l . Even in the second and

third generations the number o f ear ly- f lowering p lants had in

creased on ly s l ight ly or not at all in comparison to the Finnishgrown breeder seed . Simi lar resu l ts were fi also obtained with 8

lo ts o f f irst -

generation Jo TPA No . 1 te trap loid red c lover and

6 lots of Jo TAA - 4 tetrap lo id alsike clover . During the 196 2

growing season seed o f Finnish c lover and grass varie ties were

produced in the U . S . A . and Canada under the p lan of the P . L .

480 Pro je ct . Seed o f 59 lots of a synthetic white c lover variety,representing 6 c lones se le cted at the U . S . Regional Pasture

Laboratory and produced at dif f erent geographic locations in the

United State s , were evaluated in 1962 at Tikkuri la . In addition ,

seed o f several f orage - crop varieties originating in the U . S .

was produced at three latitudes in Fin land ranging f rom 60°to

These seed lo ts wil l be used in the investigations to

study popu lation sh if ts in varietie s when seed is grown under long ,intermediate , and short natural photoperiods .

and Legume Var ie tie s . The P . L . 480 Pro j ect nego tiated withHebrew University in Rehovoth , Israe l, e f f ective August 1, 1962,

prov ides a natural laboratory f or evaluating p lant populationsf rom seed lots produced at 3 1

0 latitude . Two separate iso latedseed increase nur series were e stabl ished at Rehovo th and Be i tDagan ,

con taining one varie ty each o f a l f a lf a , birdsf oot tre f o il ,alsike c lover

,red c lover ,

white c lover , bromegrass , and orchard

grass . Seed crops wil l be harve sted in 1964 and 1965 . The f irstgenerat ion progen ies wi l l be evaluated at Rehovo th , Israe l ;Tikkuri la , Fin land; and Laf aye tte , Indiana

, f or a number o f

morpho logical and physio logical characteri stics wh ich wi l l indicatethe degree of popu lation sh if ts that o ccur .

- l35

PUBLICATIONS

Cul ture

Ahring , R . M . 196 3 . Me thods o f handl ing in troductions o f

grass seeds be longing to the tribe Andropogoneae . Crop

Sci .

Canode , C . L. , Robocker , W . C . and Muzik, T . J . 196 2 . Grass

seed production as inf luenced by chemical contro l o f Downy

Brome . Weeds,

Dade , P . E . and Johansen , Car l . 196 2 . Seed production in

Central Washington . Washington Agr . Expt . Sta . Circ . 406 .

Dewitt , J . L Canode , C . L . and Patterson , J . K . 196 2 .

Ef f e cts o f heat ing and storage on the v iabi l i ty o f grass

seed harve sted w ith high mo is ture content . Agron . Jour .

- 129 .

Nye , W . P . and Pedersen , M . W . 1962 . Nectar sugar concentration as a measure o f po l l ination o f al f al f a . J . apic . Re s .

- 27 .

Pedersen , M . W . 196 2 . An analys i s o f certain f actors assoc iatedwith po l l ination and se ed production in al f al f a . Proc . Firs tInter . Sympos ium on Po l l ination , pp . 64- 74 .

Pedersen , M . W . 1962 . Part I . A l f al f a seed produc tion as in

f luenced by three var ie tie s , six cu ltural treatments , and f arm

growing seasons . Utah Agr . Expt . Sta . Bu l . 436 .

Pedersen , M . W . and Nye , W . P . 196 2 . Part II . Additionalf actors associated w ith seed yie lds . Utah Agr . Exp t . Sta . Bu l. 436

Rampton , H . H . and Frake s , R . V . 196 1 . Ef f ects of mowing treat

ments on seed yie lds and asso ciated variables in crimson c lover .

Agron . Abstr . p . 73 .

Rampton , H . H . and Pe tersen , R . G . 196 2 . Re lative e f f ic iencyo f p lot sizes and number o f rep l ications as indic ated by yie ldso f orchardgrass seed in a uni f ormi ty te s t . Agron . Jour .

- 249 .

Ahring , R . M . 1962 . Storageability under laboratory conditionso f seed o f blue grama , side - oats grama and smoo th bromegrass .

Oklahoma Agr . Expt . Sta . Bul . T - 9 7 .

Bu la , R . J . , May, R . G Garrison , C . S . , Rincker, C . M . , and

McAllister , D . R . 196 2 . Growth responses o f progeny derivedf rom vege tative ly propagated po ly- cross nur ser ies o f six wh itec lover c lones e stabl ished at diverse geographic locations .

Agron . Abstr . p . 98 .

Bu la , R . J . 196 2 . Prevent winterki l l ing o f al f al f a . Hoard's

Dairyman .

Garr ison , C . S Rincker , C . ML McAllister , D . R Staten , R . D

and Dean , J . G . 196 2 . Inf luence of environment on the repro

duc tion potential of wh ite c lover c lone s at f ive diverse geo

graphic locations . Agron . Abstr . p . 99 .

Matches , A . G'

Mb tt , G . and Bu la , R . J . 1962 . Vegetativedeve lopment of al f al f a seedl ings under varying leve ls of shad

ing and potassium f erti l ization . Agron . Jour .- 544 .

D iseases

Hardison , J . R . 1962 . Susceptibil ity o f Gramineae / to’

cloeo tinia

temu lenta . Mycologia- 210 .

Hardison , J . R . 196 3 . Commercia l contro l o f Puccinia striif ormis

and other rusts in seed crops o f Poa pratensis by nicke lf ungicides . Phyto .

- 216 .

Varie ty Evaluation

Bu la , R . J . and Garrison , C . S . 196 2 . Fa l l regrowth response

o f Ranger and Vernal al f al f a as re lated to generations of in

crease and area o f seed production . Crop Sci .- 159 .

Val le , Otto and Garrison , C . S . 196 2 . Experiences withFinn ish c lover varieties grown f or seed at various latitudesin North America . Agron . Abstr . p . 100 .

Graham, J . H . , K ; E . Z eiders, and S . W . Braverman . 1963 .

Sporulat ion and Pathogenic ity of Scolecotrichum. graminis f rom

Orchardgrass and Tall Oatgrass . Plant Disease Reporter . Vol . 47,NO . 4, pp . ass-256 . Apri l 15.

James ,E . 1962 . Mechanica l Control of Humidity in Seed StorageRooms . Seedman '

s Digest, 13 . No . 12 . Dec .

James, E . 1962 . National sssa Storage Laboratory Inventory Corn .

03 -27- 62 . Mar .

James , E . 1962 . Nationa l Seed Storage Laboratory

'Inventory

Forage Crops . CR-29 - 62 .

James , E . 1962 . Nationa l Seed Storage Laboratory InventorySmal l Grains . CR- 35- 62 . Mar .

James , E . 1963 . An Annotated Bib l iography on Seed Storage and

Deterioration . ARS 34- 15-2 . Apri l .

James , E . 1962 . National Seed Storage Laboratory InventorySorghums . CR- 31- 62 . Mar .

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Crops Research. Div . , ARS

Prob lem. weeds cause losses in crops , orchards , grazing lands , f orests ,

water supp lies , and irrigation and drainage systems . These

losses can be reduced by f inding more ef f ective chemical , biological ,mechanica l and comb ination methods of weed contro l .

P lant -paras itic nematodes occur in all soils used f or growing of cr0ps

and attack all kinds of p lants grown f or f ood, f orage , f iber , f eed or

ornamental purposes . Severity of attack by certain f ungi is increased if

nematodes are present . Nematodes also have been known to be the ve ctorsof severa l p lant viruses . There is need f or improvement in methods of

contro l l ing nematodes on grain and f orage crops .

PROGRAMfi

iMuch of the weed and nematode contro l research in the Department is

cooperative with State Experiment Stations , other Federal agencies ,industry and certain private groups ; and is cross commodity in nature .

The total f ederal weed contro l program. involves prof essiona l man

years'ef f ort . Of this total , man years are spec if ically directed

to weed control in grain cr0ps in rice ; and in f orage and

range p lants . The total f ederal nematode control program invo lvesprof essional man years

'ef f ort of which are devoted to cereals and

to f orage and range crops .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE

A . Weed Contro l

1 . Wheat . App lications of three f ormulations of -D at rates

varying f rom to 4 Ib/A on three dates , a"

short time bef ore

wheat harvest in 1961, did not af f ect the chemi ca l composition or

‘

mi l l ing and baking properties of Bison wheat in. studies conductedat Hays , Kansas .

2 . Corn . Observations at St . Paul , Minnesota , demonstrate that

inbred l ines of corn'

with high resistance to corn. borer and stalk

rot also have high resistance to two triaz ine herb icides , atrazineand simazine . A. naturally occurring chemica l in corn plants whichdetoxif ies triazine herb icides is known to impart resistance to

insects and fungus diseases .

Addition of a surf actant to prometryne and atrazine f ormulationsincreased toxic ity of the herb icides in greenhouse and f ie ldexperiments at State Co l lege , Mississippi . Prometryne p lus a

surf actant reduced the yield of corn in f ield experiments . At

Tampa, Ar izona , 2 lbs . of atrazine incorporated into the soil

ef ore planting gave season - long weed contr ol in corn . Preplantnd postemergence appl ications of l inur on reduced stands and

etarded growth .

t Whitevil le,North Car ol ina ,

f ull season contr ol of witchweed was

btained wi th 2,

- trichlor obenzoxypropan ol (2 , at 2 lb/A ;amethoxy—B, 6 - dichlorobenzoic acid (dicamba ) and - trich l or oenzoic acid - TBA ) were also more ef f ective than 2

,h- D . All

hree herbicides were used successf ully to increase the time interval

etween treatments previ ous ly required f or control of witchweed using2,h4D . High rates of nitr ogen and combinations of nitr ogen with

- TBA or dicamba gave f ull season control of witchweed . Most

ef f ective time of treatment was 6 to 8 weeks af ter planting .

A program of catch and/or trap crops in a continuous cultural system

f or 5 years has been used to deplete the witchweed seed in the soil .

However,even af ter 5 years of a catch and/or trap cr op ,

a f ew

witchweed p lants were observed in each plot . Herbicide treatments

in crop r otation reduce witchweed and annual weed populations af ter

2 or A years . Residual studies on prep lanting soil - incorporatedchemi cals applied the previous year were conducted with tobacco as

the indicator crop . Nine of f orty- one chemicals showed f ormativeef f ects but none very severe .

Viabi lity of witchweed seeds is strongly inf luenced by temperature

during storage , pretreatment , and germination . Four new syntheticcompounds were f ound active in inducing germination of witchweedseeds . A germination inhibitor extracted f r om witchweed seeds

str ongly inhibits the ef f ects that the corn stimulant has on the

induction of witchweed seed germination . Cotton plants have been

f ound to produce a highly active germination stimulant whichapparently has simi lar chemi cal pr operties to the germinationstimulant obtained f r om corn and coleus plants . C oncentrates of

the natural stimulants have been f urther purif ied dur ing the past

year . A crystal line mater ial obtained f rom the stimulant concentrates

was inactive as a witchweed seed germination stimulant . Elementalanalysis indicated an empirical f ormula of 08H9N02 and a molecularweight of 151 .

Studies on transl ocation of —TBA appl ied to corn leaves indicatethat the herbicide or an active f orm of the compound trans l ocatesf r om corn to witchweed where it pr oduces toxic ef f ects on the

parasitic plant .

Research deal ing with weed contr ol in maize was initiated at severall ocations in Poland under P . L . h80 proj ect E2l - OH - l2

,FG- Po - lhO .

Progress was made in developing laboratory, greenhouse and f ieldmethods f or estimating simazine and atrazine residual activity in

s oi ls and plants . Increases in potass ium ratios in f ertilizertreatments increased the resistance of cereal s to simazine .

jMississippi . At Hays ,sorghum. was pr oduced with no cultivation

other than the planting operation . Application of 3 lb/Aatrazine in .August 1961 accomplished weed contr ol unti l the sorghum

cr op was harvested in 1962 . Chemically treated p l ots had better

stands , more vigorous growth , higher yie lds , and better weed controlthan p l ots which were cultivated . At State Col lege ,

2- chl oro- h, 6 - bis ( isopropylamino ) fg

- triazine and

atrazine at 3 lb/A did not injure grain sorghum and gave near

perf ect weed contr ol . At Hays , f or the second year , application

had no detrimental ef f ect on any of the 10 grain sorghum. hybrids .

None of 60 genotypic l ines of sorghum showed any evidence ofdamage f r om. these two chemical treatments ; however , atrazine app

l iedas a preemergence treatment injured sorghum .

4.

Other Cereal Crops . At Tempe , Ar izona , good temporary controlof wild oats and increased cr op yi e lds in bar ley and wheat were

obtai ned by'

k- ch l oro- Z - butynyl m e chlor ocarbanilate (barban )appl ications varying f r om l/h t3

'

1 . 0 lb/A whenit was applied whilewi ld cats were about h inches high .

5 . Rice . Extensive greenhouse and f ield studies relating chemi calweed c ontrol to cultural practices in rice were conducted at

Stuttgart, Arkansas . weed inf estations where shown to severelyreduce yi elds in rice . IMethyl N - ( 3 ,h- dichlorophenyl ) carbamate (CMPC )at 3 or N lb/A applied at time of weed emergence and 3 ,h- dichlor o

pr opanilide (propanil ) at 3 or A lb/A appl ied to weed grasses in the

l to 3 - leaf stage were ef f ective f or weed contr ol .

‘

Irrigationpr ior to propanil treatments increased susceptibil ity of weed grasses .

F l ooding soon af ter pr opanil treatment was required to prevent

reinf estations by grass weeds . IMixtures of the two herbicidescontrol led grass weeds better than e ither herbicide alone where

f l ooding was de layed f or 3 weeks af ter treatment . Rice in the

2 to 3 - leaf stage was sometimes injured by CMPC,but usually outgrew

the injury'

soon af ter spraying .

Chemi cal seedbed preparation was f ound to be an economi cal and

extreme ly ef f e ctive method f or estab l ishing new stands of perennial

grasses f or se ed production at Corval l is , Oregon . Seedbeds were

prepared in October 1961 ; germinated weeds were ki l led by midwinter

applications of herbicides ; and grasses were seeded in March 1962without any additional mechanical seedbed preparation , Exce l lent

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and produce viable seeds regardless of the stage when cut . Numbersof seedheads and seedhead size changed within date of seeding andWi thin stages cut .

In Indiana,time - lapse photography has been shown to be an ef f ective

tool in the study of weed competition because it clear ly shows the

amount,degree and time of natural p lant movement

,By indicating

times of maximal elongation ,the arrangement and positioning of

leaves,the complexity of light competition can truly be appreciated

especial ly in terms of measuring the environment .

Data taken during six seasons in Nebraska indicates greatest

dormancy of buds of ir onweed is during the months of August , September ,

October,and November . Ir onweed apparently has no dormancy during

the months of March,April , and May . Approximate ly 60 percent of

the buds harvested during the dormant period do not sprout when

provi ded optimum conditions f or sprouting . These may be used f or

studies requiring buds known to be dormant .

Dormancy of buds in ir onweed evidently consists of recurring annual

cyc les of no dormancy f ol l owed by'

absolute f dormancy . Dur ing the"no dormancy

"or

"active " stage , buds behave simi lar ly none

are dormant ) . Since all buds are active dur ing one part of each

year ,long

- term. dormancies such as exist in the buds of certainother species is not present in ir onweed .

'

When ir onweed stands are

c l ipped dur ing the summer months the response of the axillary bud

is re lated to the height of c l ipping .

’

When dormancy is only partial lyestab l ished sprouting activity of buds is greater when the stem. is

cut low than when the stem. is out high . As dormancy be comes more

f irmly establ ished the length of stem which is all owed to remain is

of less importance .

Respiration of small and of large ironweed buds ~

was determinedmanometrically ; Smal l buds had a higher rate of respiration than

large buds . Large buds were less sub j ect to sharp f luctuations than

small buds . This was probably because of a smaller ratio of injuredto uninjured tissues in the large buds . Additional injury caused

by s l icing the buds cause an appr oximate two - f old increase in

respiration of large buds and a smaller increase in respiration in

smal l buds . Respiratory quotient ( carbon dioxide evolved/oxygentaken up ) was af ter 2 hours and af ter 15 hour s .

Sprouting of hardshe l l bu lbs of wi ld gar l ic f rom Kentucky and

Missour i were nearly identical dur ing a season in. Missouri .

Eighty - f ive percent sprouting occurred with excised primordia f rom

dormant hardshel l bulbs of wi ld garlic indicating that primordiahave the potential to sprout but may be b l ocked by

'

a physical and/orchemi cal mechanism. in the surrounding tissue . Concentrated extracts

of hardshel l gar l ic bu lbs decreased growth of p lant material inbio - assays indicating the presence of an inhibitor material and/ormater ials .

Leaf samp les of tal l larkspur , (De lphinium barbeyi ) colle ctedl,2 and 3 weeks af ter spraying Wi th an amine saIt of 2,h,5- trichlo ro

phenoxyacetic acid ( 2 ,h,5—T) and 2 - trichlorophenoxy ) pr opionic acid ( silvex ) had much higher concentrations of alkal oidsthan those of untreated p lants in Utah . Plants treated with silvexcontained more alkal oids than those treated with 2

,h,S- T . Both

chemi cals have ef f e ctive ly control led tal l larkspur if appl ied in

the late vegetative to very early'

bud stage of growth .

Snakeweed (Gutierre zia microcephala) has a root system which has

a lateral spread which is about f our times that of the aer ial portionsin. Arizona . The r oots are most common in the surf ace 6 inches of

soil . Dormant buds occur in a band above and be l ow the root cr own .

These buds grow in the ear ly spring . Older plants dominate the site,

causing a stagnate stand; this may acc ount f or the sudden disappearance of this short- l ived perennial weed without management or contr ol

ef f orts . Control of this weed would mainly shorten the period inwhich the grasses are suppressed . Al so

,lack of germination of

l ocoweed, (Astragalus lentiginosus ) seeds collected in 1961 may

explain the present absence of this weed in areas in which it had

f ormer ly been abundant .

Analysis of the data f rom samp l ing weed species in Nebraska and

construction of f requency distributions f rom these series of successive samples showed that

, (l ) stems or p lants of weeds per unit area

are se ldom arranged in a random manner but rather in an aggregated

or clumped pattern , ( 2 ) using a smal l sample area on species havingsuch a pattern results in a skewed f requency distribution c l ose lyresembl ing the contagious types of theoretical distributions .

These distributions can be made to appr oach normal ity by increasingthe sample area . An alternate method of normal izing such a

distribution is to adjust sample size to a certain range then applya log or log (N+1 ) transf ormation .

'

Weed Control Studies . For the sec ond year ,atrazine at l lb/A

br ome in washington . Best stands of crested wheatgrass (Agr opyr ondesertorum ) seeded one year af ter appl ication of herbicides were

also on p l ots treated with atrazine . Fal l appl ication of thisherbicide on winter annual grasses was more re l iab le than springappl ication .

- dimethyl -u,h ' - bypyridinium salt (paraquat ) f rom to lb/Acation

,when appl ied at time of spr ing seeding gave exce l lent post

emergence downy'

brome contr ol and was not injur ious to seedlings of

pubescent wheatgrass in Nevada . Ef f ectiveness of paraquat in

downy brome control at rates of lb/A cation and lower was

general ly increased by late af ternoon application as compared withmorning appl ication . Paraquat was not ef f ective in downy

'

brome

control even at lb/A cation without an ef f ective surf actant .

Three chemicals, 2-methoxy—h- ethylamino - 6 - isopropylamino- s - triazine

( atratone ) , ametryne , and prometone, prevented all seed productionof halogeton f or two years (1961 and 1962) without ser ious injuryto perennial kochia (Koch ia americana) in Utah .

Spraying with silvex or 2,h,5—T at rates of 2 lb/A reduced timber l ine

mi lk vetch (Astragalus mi ser var . decumbens ) by 99 to 100% dur ingthe f irst year f ollowing treatment in Utah . Surviving plants and

newly establ ished plants account f or less than 1% of the pre - treat

ment population three years af ter treatment .

Silvex or 2,h,5- T at 2 lb/A applied once year ly are satisf actory f or

control of Austrian peaweed (Swainsona salsula ) in washington .

Seedl ing roots of S . salsula were f ound to grow as much as 10 f eet

in one growing season .

The most promising herbicide of 15 evaluated on bracken f ern in 1962

was dicamba at 8 lb/A in washington . Also,dicamba has shown

selective control of wi ld garl ic in established f orage grasses in

Indiana and warrants f urther investigation .

Good to excel lent c ontr ol of most weeds occurring in native grasses

in Oklahoma have been obtained with 2,héD ester at . 75 pounds acid

per acre app l ied in May or June . Plants not contr olled were ir onweed,

buckbrush,sumac and skunk brush . One pound of 2

,h- D ester per acrein a single or repeated appl ication had very l ittle ef f ect on nativelegumes such as native lespede za , ye l l ow neptune , prairie cl over

,

lead plant , wi ld alf alf a and sensitive briar .

Preemergence treatments with an ester f ormulation of 2,h+D applied

at rates of 1 and 3 lb/A acid during the latter part of Mar ch and

April gave satisf actory c ontrol of western ragweeds , annual broomweeds

, yarr ow and most all annual broadleaved weeds commonly f ound

in native grass pastures in Oklahoma . The 2,h—D had no residual

ef f ect on weeds beyond the year appl ied.

The satisf actory control of weeds in Indiana in the establishmentof f orage legumes requires combinations of materials presently

available . The choice,rates, and timing of application wi l l

depend on weed species , densities and seasonal variation in weather .

The use of wetting agents to increase the ef f ectiveness of lowerrates of s ome herbicides appears to be both practical and economical .

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plants in Washington . Percent reserve carbohydrates in the olderr oots did not vary f r om untreated plant values regardless of the

2,h—D spraying regime used .

Seed of came l 's thorn did n ot germinate r eadily wi thout scarif ication

of the seed coat . The optimum germination temperature of scarif iedseed was near 250 C . About 60 percent of unscarif ied seed survived96 hours of stay in the rumen of a f istulated Herefore steer on

roughage ration . On a high c oncentrate ration 80 percent survivedlhh hours of stay . Cattle spead camel '

s thorn .

Soi l f rom. near juniper r oots inh ibit grass gr owth , but some

individual grass plants of each species tested were not ef f ected

by junipers at all in. Arizona .

Contr ol Studies . Als o,in Arizona repeated biannual applications

of 2 lb7A of an ester of 2,h,S— T over a three -

year period ki l ledover 90 per cent of tr eated shrub live oak plants but repeated annualapplications of 2 lb/A of 2

,h,5- T over a three -

year per iod did not

ki ll an appreciable percentage of the treated bushes .

Pelleted f enur on at 8 lb/A kil led over 80 percent of shrub l ive oak

bushes; at 16 lb/A control exceeded 90 percent . These f igures are

pr obably conservative since survi vi ng bushes were at the margins of

plots . Lehmann l ovegrass re - established itself 12 16 months af ter

treatment with 16 lb/A of f enur on .

Preliminary evaluati ons indicate that dicamba may be more ef f ectiveas a f oliar spray f or control of shrub live oak than any of the

other herbicides tested to date .

weight of shrub live oak spr outs af ter May and June of 1960 topremoval was three times as great in. August 1962 as when tops were

removed in September and October of 1960 .

Only a f ew post and blackj ack oak spr outs are appearing on areas in

Oklahoma having repeated annual aer ial spraying of 2,h,5- T eight

to ten years ago which caused 70 to 80 percent ki ll of smal l brushand trees .

In Oklahoma ,surf actants Tergitol , NPX ,

Triton X - llh and Emcol H—86C

each used in emulsi ons of the butoxy ethanol ester of 2,h,5— T f oliar

applied at 2 p ounds acid in S-

gall ons of water per acre f or 2 years

caused apparent kil l and def oliation of post and blackjack oaks

that was equal or slighly greater than that f r om 2,h,5- T ester in a

c ommercial f ormulation pr oduced f or aer ial spraying . Each of three

surf actants made up 1% of total spray applied .

Dormant stem. spray applications of 2,h,S- T shows promise f or contr ol

l ing sprouts of Gambel oak (Quercus gambe li i ) in Arizona . By the

end of the f irst gr owing seas on f ollowing treatment there was an

apparent r oot kill of 50 percent and a stem kil l of 92 percent .

Granulated - TBA applied to the soil at the base of alligator ,one - seed

, and Utah junipers was as good as or better than pelleted

f enur on applied at the same rates .

Eight and 16 pound rates of - TBA per acre applied in e itherthe summer or f all control led camel '

s thorn in washington without

appreciable reduction in perennial Distichlis stricta and annual

Br omus tectorum populati ons which were of some value f or grazing

118 6 .

An ester of 2,h- D was slightly more se lective f or big sagebrush than

2,h,5- T ester . Two lb/A is recommended f or the sele ctive c ontr ol of

big sagebrush in bitterbrush stands in Oregon . De laying spraying

progressively f rom the time of leaf appearance until early f ruit

development of bitterbrush resulted in greater 2,h- D damage . Spraying

at any time killed virtually all leaf tissue and current twi g gr owth

of bitterbrush ; however ,spraying at the time of leaf origin and

bef ore the appearance of distinct twig elongati on or f lowers lef t

only a smal l amount of dead tissue on large plants . Subsequently ,dormant buds initiated new gr owth and in the autumn only s lightevi dence of spray injury remained . The amount of gr owth attained

f r om dormant buds depended upon the duration of f avorable growingc onditions af ter spraying . In contrast to large bitterbrush

,those

less than 12 inches tall were consistently killed .

Comparisons of repeated mowing and spraying treatments f or 2 years

on buckbrush in late May in Nebraska showed that while mowing gavethe appearance of partial c ontr ol because the old woody stems were

knocked down and only recent spr outs or new stems were standing .

However,mowing only reduced the stand 2h percent . Spraying with

2,h- D at 1 and 2 lb/A reduced the stand 90 and 92 percent

respectively . Spraying with a mixture of 2,h- D and 2

,h,5- T at the

same rates gave 80 and 86 percent contr ol .

Short leaf pine in Oklahoma that were def oliated or had terminalinjury f r om 2

,h,5- T aerial applications recovered the year af ter

being treated and made normal f oliage and height gr owth .

'

Where

cone injury occurr ed f ollowing 2,h,S- T applications the seed trees

set and pr oduced normal cones the year f oll owing the herbicide

treatment .

Inj ector treatments with undiluted triethy amine of 2,h,S- T

(h lb acid per gal l on ) ki l led 99 to 100 percent_

of winged- elm brushand trees in Oklahoma . Control of oak with the

“

same treatment was

good , but hickory and ash were resistant to initial treatment andrequired retreating to obtain satisf actory contr ol .

Def ol iation of post and blackj ack oaks in Oklahoma with low volatileester of 2

,h,5- T at l - l/h, 2- l/2 , and 3 - 3/h lb/A each in 20 gal l onsof diese l oil per acre were moderate ly successf ul . Treatments were

app l ied September 18 to 20,1962 and def ol iated 85, 86 and 96 percent

respectively f or the rates used . Dinitr o and pentachl orophenol at

3 , 6 , and 9 pints in the same volume of diesel oil was only about

1/ as ef f e ctive in def oliation of oaks at 2,h,5- T . Sodium metaborate

at 12,16

,and 20 pints each in 20 gallons of water per acre was

about equal to dinitr o and pentach l or ophenol in def ol iation of post

and blackjack oak . Seven - oxabicyclo heptane - dicarboxyl icacid (endothall ) at the same rates as S odium. metaborate was onlyabout as ef f ective as the latter .

B . Nematode Contro l

1 . At Logan, Utah a method has been deve loped f orsore a ieties and breeding lines f or resistance to the

stem nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci ) . This involves inoculation of

young seedlings, requi res a mini mum of space and apparatus, and is

rapid enough to permit handling a large number of tests in a short

time . A method of culturing the nematodes needed f or the tests has

also been developed.

Tests at Tempe , Arizona, have indicated that the new Sonora var ietyof alfalfa recently released f or use in the southeast has retainedall of the root-knot nematode resistance f ound .in s its "Af rican "

var iety parentage . This resistant var iety will be usefu l to includein crOp rotations designed to reduce nematode populations .

Experiments at Tempe, Arizona have shown that seedlings of one breed

ing line of Sirsa alfalf a and 13 breeding lines of Af rican alfalf a

are high ly resistant to the cotton root-knot nematode and the

Javanese root-knot nematode as compared with the lahontan var iety.

Resistance of all the Af rican lines was greater than that of the

Sirsa line .

The stem nematode (Dit lenchus di aci ) was f ound on a lf alf a in hdif f erent f ield locations ln

'

l5t In 1962, severe losses occurred

at one location because of stunting of plants and loss of stand, and

localized areas of loss were observed in other locations .

Studies of the stem nematode o clover at

Puyallup, Washington, showed ou persist indef initely in the f ield, on volunteer plants . The nematode goes in

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- 150

Dawson,J . H . 1962 . Progress report on dodder contr ol in alf alf a .

Proc . wash . State weed Conf . , pp . 3 - h.

Dawson,J

. H . 1963 . Evaluati on of herbicides f or dodder control in

alf alf a . Res . Pr og . Rept . WWCC, p . 37 .

Pois onous and Other Herbace ous weeds

Canode,C . I n ,

Robocker,W . C . and Muzik

,T . J . 1962 . Grass seed

production as inf luenced by chemical contr ol of downy br ome .

'

Weeds,10

, pp . 216 - 219 .

Davis,F . S Peters

,E . J Klingman ,

D . L. ,Kerr

,H . D . and

Fletchall,O . H . 1962 . Chemical contr ol of wild gar lic . weeds

10, pp . 28l—28h.

Evans,R . A . and Eckert

,R . E . 1962 . Estab lishment and gr owth of

seeded perennial grasses in relation to chemical contr ol of

cheatgrass and cultural treatments on cleared sagebrush lands .

Bge . Mgmt . and Ent . Res . Prog . Rept .,Univ . of Nev . Circ . 36 ,

pp '

Evans,R . A .

,Powell

,

'

W. R . and Love,R . M . 1962 . Herbage pr od

uction potentials f or Mil lsap s oi l . Soil - Vegetation Surv .

Unnumbered Series,Calif . Div . For .

Evans,R . A . and Eckert

,R . E . ,

Jr . 1963 . Control of downy br ome

by'

paraquat with and without surf actants . Res . Pr og . Rept .

W CC, pp . 7- 8 0

Fletchall , O . H Peters,E . J . ,

Hicks , R . D .,Talbert , R . E .

and Stritzke ,J

. F . 1962 . Re commendations f or weed contr ol in

f ield cr ops 1962 . Circ . 761 ,Univ . of Mo . Coop . Ext . Serv .

Hyder ,D . N .

,Sneva

,F . A . and Freed, V . H . 1962 . Susceptibility

to 2,h—D by big sagebrush and green rabbitbrush as related to

certain environmental, phenological , and physiol ogical conditions .

weeds,10

, pp . 228- 295.

Hyder ,D . N . and Sneva , F . A 1962 . Se lective control of big

sagebrush gr owing in associ ation with bitterbrush . Jour . of

Rge . Mgmt . 15, pp . 211 215.

Johnsen,T . N . ,

Jr . 1962 . Chemi cal control of Colorado rubber

weed in Ar izona .

'

Weeds,10

, pp . 328—329 .

Linscott,D . L . and McCarty ,

M . K . 1962 . Ef f ect of mowing and

weeds,10

, pp . 298- 303 .

Linsc ott,D . L . and Fertig , S . N . 1963 . Legume establi shment in

1962 A Progress Report . (Abstract ) Proc . NEWCC, p . 2h8 .

Linsc ott,D . L . and Hagin ,

R . D . 1963 . Decomposition of h h- DB )

in silage . Proc . NEWCO , pp . 260 26h.

- 151

cCarty ,M . K . and Linscott

,D . L . 1962 . Response of ironweed to

mowing and 2,h- D . Weeds

,10

, pp . 2hO - 2h3 .

urphy ,

'

W} J . ,Fletchall

,O . H . and Peters

,E . J . 1962 . Ef f ect of

phenoxy compounds on grasses the year af ter seedl ing treatment .

Res . Pr og . Rept . NCWCC, p . 86 .

eters,E . J . 1961 .

'

Weed c ontrol in seedling legumes . (Abstract )Agr . Chem . Short Cour se Proc . (U . of 1

, pp . 18~l9 .

Peters,E . J . 1962 .

'

Weed control in grass legume mixture s .

(Abstract ) Agr . Chem . Short Course Proc . (U . of 12, pp . 20 - 2l .

Peters,E . J . and Stritzke

,J . F . 1962 . Herbicides with and

without surf actants at two dates of spraying f or the contr ol of

ir onweed . (Abstract ) Re s . Pr og . Rept . NCWCC, pp . 86 - 87 .

Peters,E . J . and Stritzke

,J .

"

F . 1962 . 2,h- D andx h- (2 ,h- DB )on Korean and Kobe lespede za . (Abstract ) Res . Prog . Rept .

NCWCC, p . 83 .

Peters,E . J . and Stritzke

,J . F . 1962 .

'

Weed control in seedl ingalf alf a . (Abstract) Res . Pr og . Rept . Ncwcc

, pp . 82- 83 .

Robocker,W. C . 1962 . Range land weed control . wash . State weed

Conf . Proc . , pp . 5- 10 .

R obocker,W} C . and Kerr

,H . D . 1963 . Ef f ects of six herbicides on

three annual grasses and on initial stand of crested wheatgrass .

Res . Prog . Rept . WWCC, p . 8 .

Sand,P . F . and McCarty , M . K . 1963 . Contr ol of woollyleaf

f ranseria with 2,h- D .

'

Weeds,11

, pp . 25- 27.

Brush Contr ol

Behrens,R . and Morton ,

H . L . 1963 . Some f actors inf luencing the

activity of 12 phenoxy acids on mesquite r oot inhibiti on .

Plt . Physiol 38, pp . 165- 170 .

Davis , E . A . 1961 . Research on the chemi cal contr ol of shrubl ive oak . Rept . of the Pac . Southwest Inter - Agency Comm .

1961 - 6 Meeting .

Elwell , H . M; 1963 . An evaluation of oils as di luents f or2,h,5- T aerial ly appl ied f or oak control . (Abstract ) Pr oc .

swc, pp . 271- 272 .

Johnsen ,T . N .

,Jr . 1962 . Sex change in one - seed juniper trees .

Leaf lets of western Botany , 9 , pp . 25h- 255.

Johnsen ,T . N . ,

Jr . 1962 . One - seed juniper invasi on of northernAri zona grass land . Ecol . Monographs , 32 , pp . 187- 207 .

Kl ingman ,D . L . 1962 .

'

Weed and brush control on grazing lands .

Farm Chemi cals, pp . 12

,lh, 52 .

Li l lie , D . T . and Davis,E . A . 1961 . Chemi cals f or the contr ol

of Chaparral . Proc . Fif th Ann . Ar iz . watershed Symposium .

Martin ,S . C . and Tschirley , F . H . 1962 . Mesquite seeds l ive a

l ong time . Prog . Agr i . ,l, p . 15.

Meyer ,R . E . and Morton

,H .

L. 1962 . Factors af f ecting 2

,h,5- Tacti on on pr ickly pear . (Abstract) Proc . SNO

, p . hOl .

Morton,H . L . and Meyer ,

R . E . 1963 . Abs orption of substituted

phenoxy acids by mesquite r oots . (Abstract ) Proc . -SWC . p . 1102 .

Tschirley , F . H . 1962 . Contr olling me squite with 2,LL,5- T . Ariz .

Ext . Serv . Rept .,Ar iz . Agr . Expt . Sta . Folder 98 .

Nematode Contro l in Forage and Range

Courtney, W . D. 19 62. Stem nematode of clover in the Pacif icNorthwest. Wash . State University Exp. Sta. Bull . NO . 6140,pp . 1-17 .

Courtney, W . D . , Peabody, D . V. and Austenson, H . M. 1962. Ef f ect

of herbicides on nematodes in bentgrass . Plant Dis . Reptr . ,

1160 0, pp. 256- 257

O ' Bannon, J . H. , and Reynolds, H . W . 1962 . Resistance of alfalf a

to two spec ies of root-knot nematodes . Plant Dis . Reptr .

h6( 8 ) . pp . 558-559 .

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transmission of diseases of grain crops is in cooperation with State

and Federal plant pathologists . This research inc ludes studies on

hessian fly, wheat jointworm , and cereal l eaf beetl e at West Laf ayette ,

Ind. , and Manhattan , Kans . ; aphids and mites attacking smal l grainsat Stil lwater , Okla . ,

Brookings , S . Dak and Tif ton ,Ga . ; wheat stem

sawf ly at Minot , N . Dak. , Brookings ,S . Dak and Bozeman ,

Mont

corn earworm at Tif ton ,Ga . , State Col l ege ,

Miss . ,and West Laf ayette ,

Ind f al l armyworm , pink scavenger c r,and rice weevil at

State Co l lege , Miss . ,and cts attacking corn at

Brookings ,S . Dak. , State Col l ege , Miss . , and Tifton

, Ga . ; corn l eafaphid at Brookings , S . Dak. ; southwestern corn borer at Stillwater ,

Okla . , and State Col lege , Miss . ; European corn bor er at Ankeny, Iowa ,

State Co l lege , Miss . ,and Wooster , Ohio ; corn earworm ,

sorghum midge ,sorghum webworm

,and corn leaf aphid on sorghums at Stil lwater , Okla

and Ti f ton ,Ga . ; and insect transmission of grain diseases at

Manhattan ,Kans . , and Brookings ,

S . Dak . Research t o evaluate improvedequipment f or appl ication o f insecticides to grain crops is underway

at Ankeny, Iowa,and Tif ton

,Ga . , in cooperation with Federal

agricultural engineers . Work on corn rootworms is being conducted at

Brookings , S . Dak . Additional re search is being conducted under ARS

contracts , on the bio logy and contro l of the cereal l eaf beetl e withMichigan State University, and on soil insects attacking corn with the

University o f Nebraska .

The Federal scientif ic ef f ort devoted to research in this area total spro f essional man- years . Of this number is devoted to basic

biology, physiology ,and nutrition ; to insectic idal and cul tural

control; t i nsect l c 13e residue determ

control ; to

to control ; .5

Certain phases of this research are contributing to regional research

project NC- ZO"Factors In f luenc ing European Corn Borer Popu lations

"

.

A P. L . 480 project , E8- ENT - l,

"Popul ation Dynamic Studies on

Calligypona pe l luc ida ( F . ) and the Nature of Injuries Caused by Thisand Other Leaf hopper Spec ies ( Fulgoridae ) on Cereal s ,

Especial ly Oats

and Spring Wheat is underway at the Agricu ltura l Research Centre ,

Department of Pest Investigation ,Hel sinki , Finland . Another P . L .

480 project , AlO- ENT- S , Host Plant - Vector and Host Plant - VirusRe lationships of Rough Dwar f Virus of Corn and Methods f or Control of

The Disease is being conducted at the Hebrew University, Rehovoth ,Israe l . A7 - ENT - 25 in India is Concerned with " Research on InsectPests o f Maize With Special Re f erence to Stalk Borers .

"

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRA MS

1. Corn Insects . Popul ation studies on European corn borer in Boone

County, Iowa ,in the spring of 19 63 showed that overwintering borers

averaged per acre . Pupation began May 15 , 196 3 , and f irst brood

oviposition June ‘2 . The population o f the f irst brood averaged 15

borers per 100 -

pl ants . The 19 62 f al l popu lation had averaged 105

borers per 100 plants , and 483 3 borers per acre .

Experiments at Ankeny, Iowa,designed to study the f actors inf lu

encing mating of European corn borer moths indicat ed that maximummating can be obtained in 48 hours under laboratory conditionsby alternating temperatures f rom 85

°F . (dayj to 65

°F . (nighfi ,

and

maintaining a l ight period of 14 hours in l ength f or each 24- hour

period .

A study initiated at Wooster ,Ohio , to study single -

generation and

mu ltiple generation strains of the European corn borer , showed that

the dipl oid number of chromosomes was 62 .

Diet and l ight studies in laboratory tests on the European corn borer ,

at Ankeny produced the f ol lowing results : ( 1) Corn borer larvaereared on arti f icial media wi l l go into a f alse diapause if subjectedto 13 hours of light daily . ( 2) Deterioration o f l eaf f actormaterial s stored in a re f rigerator can be prevented by addingsupplementary vitamins . ( 3 ) Dietary shortages l ead to morphol ogicaldef ormities . (4) A complet ely def ined diet is necessary to studynutritional diseases of the European corn borer .

At Brookings , S . Dak. , it was determined that susceptibl e strains of

the southern corn rootworm metabol ized aldrin to dieldrin whil e the

resistant strain metabol ized aldrin to an unknown compound . The

resistant strains requ ired about 3 times as much aldrin as the sus

ceptible f or an LO The western corn rootworm metabol i zed aldri nin a similar manne

At Ti f ton ,Ca the quantity of Telodrin required internal ly to pro

duce mortality o f f irst - instar corn earworm larvae ranged f rom

to and of third- instar larvae , f rom to p .p .m .

The corn earworm caused an estimated loss to corn in Georgia ,

Florida ,Alabama , North Carol ina , and South Caro l ina ,

in 19 62 , and

was f ound in every f ie ld examined during a survey in these States .

The pink scavenger caterpil lar was f ound in 9 9 % o f the f ields , the

rice weevil in and the f al l armyworm in In Mississippi over56 % of the ears were inf ested by the corn earworm, causing an estimatedloss of Extreme ly heavy f al l armyworm populations caused

a complete crop f ai lure in late -

planted corn . About 89 % of the ears

were in f ested with the pink scavenger caterpil lar . The southwestern

corn borer now occurs in all agricu ltural districts o f Mississippiexcept the south- central district ,

inf esting near ly 40% o f the f ields .

In a study of corn earworm larval f eeding habits in a resistant ( F44 x

F6 ) and a susceptib le (Mp3 16 x Hp3 l9 ) sing le cross at State Co l lege ,

Miss . ,the larvae pref erred si lks to kerne ls f or f ood and in some

instances chose si lks f or the entire f eeding period . They al so f ed

more on hybrids having high percentages o f reducing sugars than on

those with low perc entages of such sugars .

At Tif ton , Ga measurements of the circadian rhythm of the corn ear

worm indicated de f inite periods o f night f light that are not depend

ent on l ight changes . Photoe lectric -

photograph analyses o f moth

f light showed that noctuid moths are much more maneuverab le than

sphingid moths ,with a greater degree of aerodynami c l i f t at a lower

angle o f attack. Leg appendages are used f or f l ight stabil ization .

Antennae are f airly stabl e in l evel f light . Noctuid antennae tend to

bend under aerodynamic stress ,e . g . , during leaps or steep cl imbs ,

while sphingid antennae remain f ixed and rigid under the same stress .

At Tif ton , Ga . , morphological and l ight trap popu lation studiesindicated that the f irst April - May corn earworm f l ights are of majoreconomic importance . The early popu lation probably represents an

e f f ic ient overwintering popul at ion since the percentage o f mating of

this f l ight is f ar above the year ly average .

At Stil lwater,Okla . , the percentage o f stalk girdl ing by the south

western corn borer was higher and the yield l ower in late-

plantedthan in ear ly-

planted corn . Also , the percentag e - of borer girdl ingand stalk lodging increased and the yie ld decreased as harvest was

de layed . Machine harvesting in inf ested corn resulted in lower yieldsthan hand harvesting , largely because o f the f ailure of the harvesterto recover lodged stalks , the majority o f which were girdled by the

borer .

In southeastern South Dakota and northwestern Iowa , resistant strainso f the western corn rootworm were observed in f ields which had beentreated with chlorinated insectic ides . Some o f the strains were 40

times as resistant as the strain co l lected f rom untreated areas .

Damage to corn by the northern corn rootworm was moderate when larvalpopu lations devel oping to adults numbered 70 per plant .

Adult emergence o f the northern c orn rootworm at Brookings , S . Dak. ,

extended over a six- weeks period beginning August 1 . Maximum emerg

ence occurred August 15- 25 .

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Studies on the ef f ect of temperature and host plants on f ecundity o f

f ield and greenhouse biotypes of the greenbug at Stil lwater ,Okla

indicate that f ecundity was not af f ected in the f ield biotype when

reared on resistant and susceptibl e host plants at low temperatures ,

but at higher temperatures f ecundity was great ly retarded on re sistant plants . Fecundity o f the greenhouse biotype when reared on

resistant wheat (DSZ8A) was comparabl e to that of the f ield biotypewhen reared on susceptibl e plants (Ward barl ey) at all temperatures ,indicating that D828A wheat lacks resistance to the greenhouse bio

type .

At Stil lwater , Okla . , the f al l armyworm caused a yield reduction of

12% in late -

planted sorghum,due to a decrease in the number and size

of kernel s in the inf ested heads . The corn earworm ,southwestern

corn borer , f all armyworm,and tobacco budworm have been successfu lly

reared throughout their l if e cycl es on arti f icial media for use in

sorghum insect resistance studies .

At Manhattan , Kans . , a study of the wheat curl mite in native or

cu ltivated grasses indicated that grasses are not important in

epidemic outbreaks of wheat streak mosaic . Grasses are probablyhelpful in maintaining endemic popu lations of the mite , but volunteerwheat is essential f or epidemic outbreaks . Size and co lor of the

wheat curl mite may be used as criteria f or determining when

popul ations are ready to disperse . Ninety- six percent of the larger( 225- 23 0 mi crons ) darker (ye l low) mites f rom the older , dry materialbecame establ ished when transf erred to wheat seedl ings, as comparedwith 6 2% o f the smal l er ( 218 microns ) l ighter colored mites f rom

green , succul ent wheat .

Research in Michigan indicated that the cereal l eaf beetle has onlyone generation a year under f ield conditions . The adu lt diapausecan be broken by artif ic ial co ld and under laboratory conditions all

stages of the beet le can be made availabl e f or study throughout the

year .

B . Insecticidal and Cu ltural Control

1. Corn Inse cts . Granular f ormulations which gave satisf actory con

trol o f f i rst - brood European corn borer at Ankeny, Iowa ,were

diazinon ,Sevin , endrin ,

Bayer 44646 , Zectran ,and Union Carbide 83 05 .

Telodrin was most e f f ective against second- brood borers . Zectran ,

Telodrin ,and endrin in that order were the most ef f ective when

applied as a spray . The ef f ectiveness of Sevin Spray was increasedby the addition of a Spreader

- sticker ( Lovo Systemic insecti

cides showing promise were American Cyanamid C .L. 47470 and C.L.

4703 1, reducing corn borer cavities in the stalks as much as 90% in

some tests .

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Studies conducted at Wooster ,Ohio , growing resistant and susceptibl e

singl e crosses in nutrient solutions,indicated that the leve l o f

borer estab lishment in both broods increased with an increase in

phosphorus leve l . The resistant strain contained somewhat f ewer

larvae than the susc eptible one , the dif f erence being especial lyapparent in second brood inf estation .

Of six insecticides evaluated f or contro l o f the corn earworm at

Ti fton ,Ga Bayer 4183 1 at 2 pounds per acre , Bayer 44646 at 1 pound ,

Bayer 47940 at 2 pounds , Z ectran at 1 pound , and Telodrin at 1 pound,

gave contro l equal to or better than that obtained with a l-

pound

per- acre appl i cation of DDT . Zinophos at 1 pound per acre and

heptach lor at 1 pound gave poorer contro l .

In two experiments at two locations in Mississippi four to six appli

cations of endrin at pound per acre , or Sevin at pounds per

acre , signi f icant ly reduc ed plant girdling and breakage due to south

western corn borer inf estation . Contro l of the southwestern cornborer in late -

planted corn resulted in signif icant ly greater yieldsranging f rom 8- 19 bushel s per acre . Fal l cu ltural practic es af f ectedlarval surviva l o f the southwestern corn borer in Mississippi .

Larval survival in undisturbed stalks the f ol lowing spring was

in uprooted stalks and in di sked stalks l . l% .

In Mississippi ,aldrin at 1 p ound per acre appl ied in a 6 to 8- inch

band along the dril l row,

or at 2 pounds per acre applied broadcastat time of pl anting , gave better contro l o f soil insects in cornf ieldsthe second year af ter treatment than the f irst . At Lincoln ,

Nebr . ,

both phorate and diazinon gave good control o f the resistant strain

o f the western corn rootworm .

2 . Smal l Grain and Sorghum Insects . At Stil lwater ,Okla . , Sevin at

1 pounds per acre was more ef f ective against the corn earworm in

sorghum heads ( 58% control ) than Zectran at 1 pound and Bayer

3 7344 at 1 pound Sevin had the least e f f ect on the benef icialpredator ,

Orius sp . ( 13 % mortal ity) f o l l owed by Z ectran and

Bayer 3 73 44 Sorghum varieties exhibted dif f erential burnreaction when treated with nal ed at 1 pound per acre ,

with 64% o f the

72 entries showing injury . RS—6 10 and Dekalb E56a ,the varieties

used most commonly in previous insectic ide spray tests f or sorghum

insect control , showed l ittl e or no burning .

Of seven materials tests against the army cutworm on wheat in Oklahoma ,

endosu l f an and Bayer 25141 gave the best

contro l , although the Bayer compound resulted in some phytotoxicef f ect when appl ied to Triumph wheat at 1 pound per acre . In tests

conducted at Stil lwater against the corn f lea beetl e die ldrinand Telodrin at pound, toxaphene at 2 pounds , and DDT

at 1 pounds , gave the most e f f ective contro l .

In Michigan Sevin at to 1 pound per acre gave better contro l of

the cereal leaf beet l e on oats than malathion at 1 pound per acre .

Insecticides as foliage , furrow ,and seed appl ications were tested

f or wheat stem sawf ly control at Bozeman ,Mbnt . Heptachlor and

heptachlor epoxide applied as furrow and seed treatments at time o f

seeding gave the best control . Appl i cations were made with a

commercial type f erti lizer attachment on a press dri l l or with a

single - row be lt seeder . Both were ef f ective . Rate of seeding alongthe margin o f wheat strips as a means o f decreasing wheat stem sawf lycutting was al so studied at Bozeman . The heavier seedings had a

lower percentage of cutting in one test but not in another . exam

ination o f wheat inside the f ie ld next to the heavily seeded rows

showed no reduction in amount of sawf ly cutting , regardl ess o f

seeding rates .

Under low l evels of insect and mite popu lations on wheat subjected to

stubbl e mu lch and c lean cu ltivation til lage practices , more army cut

worms , brown wheat mites , white grubs , and f al se wireworms were

f ound in the stubble mu l ch than in the c lean cultivation plots .

Popu lations of the greenbug , apple grain aphid, and Engl ish grainaphid were about the same in both til lage practices .

C. Insectic ide Residue Determinations

1 . Residues on Corn . Corn treated with 1 and 2 pounds o f diazinon0

Iowa, had residues of and respectively, 2 days af ter

treatment . In 16 days these residues were reduced to p .p .m . and

p .p .m . No diazinon residue could be detected 48 days af ter

appl ication .

Sevin appl ied as a spray to corn f our times , at 4- day intervals ,

produced residues on the husks 1 day af ter the last treatment of

p .p .m . when appl ied alone , p .p .m . when appl ied with "Plyac

sticker ,and p .p.m . when appl ied with " Lovo "

sticker . Samplesof husks and cobs col lected 7 days af ter the last treatment contained

and p .p .m . o f Sevin f rom treatments of Sevin alone ,Sevin plus Plyac , and Sevin plus Lovo ,

respectively. Subsequent

f ermentation of the corn did not resu lt in an appreciabl e loss of

Sevin .

l- Bromochlordene granul es appl ied to corn plants f or contro l of the

f irst brood o f European corn borer at Ankeny, Iowa , at 1 pound per

acre left residues o f p .p .m . and 2 and 16 days

af ter appl i cation , respectively . The residue of p .p .m . remainedf or 48 days without further decrease .

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- 162

Hypertrophy and granulation changes were observed in a nucl ei o f the

af f ected tissues and in their vicinity in a manner suggesting insipientstages o f pathological changes . Abnormal tissue f ormations f requent lydenoted by intense me lanin deposits were diagnosed ,

espec ial ly in

pupae . In adults simi lar symptoms were accompanied by lack o f deve lopment of ovaria and oc casional ly anomalous f eeding behavior (bloating) .

Aldrin , dieldrin, heptachlor ,

and diazinon had no adverse ef f ect on

soil bacteria or nematodes at Brookings ,S . Dak . ,

when appl ied at

concentrations up to 1000 times normal f ie ld dosages .

1 . Corn Insects . Female f al l armyworm moths laid steri le eggs af ter

being indi vidual ly f ed micrograms of tepa per moth in a lot

sugar solution . Male moths were steri l ized when f ed microgramsof tepa per moth . No apparent reduction in mating was observed in

f emal e f al l armyworm moths which were f ed 125 , 250 , or 500

micrograms o f tepa per insect . However , the f requency o f matings perf emal e was reduced . Male f al l armyworm moths were steril ized when

f ed and micrograms of tepa per moth but were abl e to mate

as f requently as untreated moths .

Only steril e eggs were produced f rom matings of f emal e and mal ef al l armyworm moths f ed on a 1% honey solution which contained 1 mg .

o f apho late per ml . Aphol ate reduced egg production by f al l armyworm

moths which emerged f rom pupae dipped in water so lutions containing1 mg . o f apholate per ml . However , the eggs deposited by these moths

were viabl e . Unmated f al l armyworm moths , 3 ,4, 5, and 6 days old

were f ed f or 24 hours on a 10% honey solution containing mg . o f

apholate per ml . None of the eggs produced af ter mating were viabl e .

On the other hand viabl e eggs were produc ed by l and 2~day~o ldmoths f ed the so lution and by moths f ed immediately af ter emergence .

Continuous exposure of f al l armyworm moths to a solution o f 1 mg . of

apho late to 1 ml of honey, practical ly e liminated egg laying . The

f requency o f mat ing was reduced by 64

Progress is being made in the f ie ld of attractants . At State Col l ege ,Miss . ,

an extract f rom f rozen vapor col lected f rom a f reeze - dry

apparatus in the lyophlization of f resh corn si lks proved to be an

attractant to corn earworm larvae . However ,it had no ef f ect on the

adu lts . At Brookings , S . Dak . , a f eeding arrestant was extractedf rom corn l eaves which when added to ce l lulose - cotton caused northern

and western corn rootworm beet les to f eed on the material . At

Ankeny,Iowa, an ether extract o f tips of abdomens of mating pairs

of corn borer moths was an ef f ective sex (male ) attractant in smal lcage laboratory studies .

1. Corn Insects . Sticky- board surf aces covered with an adhesive

and 12- f oot l evel s , ef f ectively trapped adu lts o f the northern cornrootworm and provided evidence that f light of most beetles in growingcorn in late August oc curred below the 6 - f oot l evel . The trapappears promi sing f or the detection and measurement of adultpopulations of corn rootworms .

Agricultural engineers and entomologists at Tif ton ,Ga . ,

f ound that

plants dusted with an electrostatic duster , producing both positivelyand negative ly charged partic les , had about 57% and respectivelygreater residues than plants dusted with uncharged partic l es , even48 hours after appl ication . The positively charged dusts in general

’

produced sl ight ly higher residues than the negatively charged dusts .

These researchers al so determined that superior spray coverage and

corn earworm control could be obtained when sprays were applied at

100 p . s . i . with f an type nozzl es placed 9 0°

to the plant . Methyleneblue was a satisf actory dye f or use in a study o f spray residuedeposit .

At Brookings , S . Dak a method of extraction of rootworm eggs f rom

soil was devised , util izing a f l otation technique . A soil sample is

placed in a container of concentrated sugar solution and agitatedbrie f ly by a magnetic stirrer . The debris f loating on the sur f acelarger than rootworm eggs is removed with a screen . The remainingdebris is washed onto f i lter paper in a bucher funne l , and the excesswater removed . The f i lter paper is then examined under a dissectionmicroscope f or the eggs . All stages of the rootworm f l oat readilyin concentrated sugar so lution without any apparent il l ef f ects .

Use of a ratio o f 1 part soil sample to 4 parts o f a molar sugar

solution , with an agitation time of 3 minutes and a f l otation timeof 5 minutes , provides a suitable means f or recovering 85% o f the

rootworm eggs in a sampl e of sandy l oam soil .

2 . Smal l Grain Insects . Under conditions prevai l ing in South Dakota

during the spring of 19 6 3 , yel low pan traps were nearly usel ess f or

detection o f grain aphid f l ight activity. Grain aphids were repeat

edly taken in wind traps during April and May whi le ye l l ow traps were

apparently unattractive . Beginning early in June , yel low pans began

to yie ld Specimens of the grain aphid.

G. Varietal Evaluation f or Insect Resistance

1. Corn Insects . One- hundred and f orty- three inbred l ines of cornsubmi tted from State and Federal agencies associated with the Southern

Corn Improvement Conf erence area were evaluated at Ankeny, Iowa , for

f irst- brood European corn borer resistance . Fif teen percent of the

4 611

entries were rated as highly resistant , 60% were intermediate , and

25% were susceptib le .

Studies conducted at Ankeny, Iowa , on f actors af f ecting stalk lodging( and harvest ) as measured by crushing strength indicated that as the

mean corn borer inf estation , stand ,and nitrogen appl ication increased

,

the crushing strength decreased .

Progress in the deve lopment of corn borer resistant hybrids duringthe past decade was studied at Ankeny, Iowa

, by comparing a group o f

old and new hybrids . On the basis of di f f erences in yield between

the treated and infested Sp lit pl ots ,three hybrids extensively grown

10 years ago ( Ia .429 7 , Ia .4417 , and US . 13 ) lost an average of

bushel s per acre as a result o f corn borer inf estation . Five of the

newer hybrids ( Ia . 503 6 , Ia . 506 3 , AES .514 , and AES . 704) lostan average of only bushels per acre . Stalk breakages f or the

older and newer hybrids were and re spective ly.

At Ankeny the Iowa inbred B52 was the most resistant l ine to secondbrood European corn borer . Released inbreds R101, RI81, 851 and an

experimental NEQ recovery also exhibited a very satisf actory degree

o f resistance . Lines c lassif i ed as having intermediate resistancewere 814 ,

BSS , 854 ,BSS , B57 , and B50 .

At Wooster , Ohio , inbred l ines of dent c orn , submitted by cornbreeders f rom the Northern States of the North Central Region were

evaluated f or corn borer resistant germ plasm . Many inbred l inesf rom the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station ,

some reciprocalrecurrent selections out of doubl e crosses , and some derivatives of

crosses between susceptible and resistant l ines and brachytic and

pro l i f ic segregates , had a good degree o f resistance . Eighteenhybrids , primari ly experimental double crosses , al so had a good l evelof resistance .

At State Col l ege ,Miss . , qual ity or quantity o f 20 protein amino

ac ids was not associated with resistance in the resistant dent corncross ( F6 x Mp426 ) , an intermediate dent corn cross (Mp426 x Mp3 19 ) ,and a susceptib le dent corn cross (Mp3 17 x Mp3 19 ) . The concentrationof non -

protein amino acid was assoc iated with resistance , beingl ower in the resistant cross , and higher in the susceptibl e cross .

Experimental dent corn hybrids and commerc ial hybrids, f rom Mississippi ,

Louisiana , and Texas Showing promising corn earworm resistance , are

Dixie 18 ,La . 521, Coker 6 7 , Del ta 8812 , Keystone 257 , Coker 811,

ASgrow 500 , Texas Experimental 6 001, Ala 8456 , and Ala . 8471.

Yel low inbreds with a high degree of reS i stance to the corn earworm

in other experiments were as f ol lows : Mp44o, Lsc 64 , L699 , and the

Texas inbreds 529 ,601, and 3 25 .

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-l66

re leased by the Purdue University Experiment Station in 1962 . It

is estimated that 4 mil l ion acres of hessian f ly- resistantwheat were grown in 19 6 1 62 . Progress has been made in the development o f wheats which have combinations of one or more types of

resistance , namely ,Kawvale ,

Marguillo ,W3 8

,PI 94587 , and Ribiero .

Multiple resistant type wheats are needed to prevent or slow down

the development o f new hessian f ly races in the f ield .

Monosomic analysis ,using Chinese monosomic plants , indicated that

chromosome 5A ( IX) is responsibl e for the Single gene resistance o f

PI 94587 derivatives .

Forty- f ive sel ec tions f rom the bar l ey backcross Besert x é Decatur

obtained f rom Beltsvi l l e , Md . ,were tested at West Laf ayette , Ind

f or resistanc e to Race A hessian f ly . These backcross l ines havecontinuously shown a high type o f resistance . One hundred and sixtyone Purdue winter bar leys having f ly- resistant parents were alsotested to Race A . Seventy- one promis ing sel ections were saved f or

further sel ection or crossing in Uni f orm Wheat Nurseries .

Several hundred se l ections of wheat , oats , and bar l ey were rated f or

f or resistance to the cereal l eaf beetl e . Some dif f erences were

l eaves .

Studies on wheat stem saw f ly resistance were conducted in cooperationwith wheat breeders of the Cereal Crops Research Branch , Crops

Research Division , entomologists and plant breeders of the Montana

and North Dakota Experiment Stations , and the Science Service Laboratories o f the Canada Department of Agriculture .

Tests conducted at Minot , N . Dak. , on varieties f rom the Wor ldCol lection have reveal ed no new sources o f resistance to the wheat

stem sawf ly. Several thousand F3

and F6 hyb

rid selections f rom the

North Dakota breeding program were evaluated and rese l ected on the

basis of agronomic qual if icat ions and reaction to sawf ly and rust .

Sel ection 57 - 134 , a very promising product of the North Dakota

program,was disqual if ied as a potential sawf ly- resistant variety

by its poor agronomic perf ormanc e . Sel ection 60- 54 , f rom the cross51- 3 549 x II - 50- l7 , is now considered to be the most promisingsawf ly- resistant sel ection .

In the International Sawf ly Nurseries , several varieties and advancedhybrid se lections f rom the breeding program o f Canada, Montana ,

and

North Dakota, exhibited a degree of sawf ly resistance equal or

superior to that o f the resistant Rescue check. Some solid- stemmed

Rescue - N13 15 x 13 15 x Golden Bal l hybrids (possessing a type o f stem

so l idness di f f erent f rom that of Rescue ) and That cher x Rescuehybrids , have Shown particu lar promise .

Pre liminary studies at Brookings ,S . Dak indicate that the sol id

stem sawf ly- resistant wheat Rescue deve loped hol low stems when grown

under a short l ength day at a moderate ly high temperature . The

normal sol id stems deve loped when the wheat was grown in growth

chambers programmed f or an l8- hour day and moderate temperature .

At Tif ton , Ga . , 59 o f 192 grain sorghum lines screened f or resistance to the grain sorghum midge exhibited resistance in varyingdegrees , and at Stil lwater , Okla di f f erential reaction to cornl eaf aphid was observed among sorghum varieties , with DeKalb ,

Plainswan ,

and Dekalb Shorty 50 having the l owest popul ations of the

insect .

H . Insect Vectors of Diseases

1. Corn Insects . A plant virus bel ieved to be previously unknown

was studi ed for comparison with other re lated viruses . The virus ,which has been designated Pumpkin Mosaic Virus

,or PMV,

was ef f ec

t ively transmitted by the striped cucumber beet le , northern cornrootworm, southern corn rootworm,

western corn rootworm ,and a

grasshopper ,Mel an s dif f erentialis . Possibl e transmission was

also observed ree ap

Root - rotting fungi have been associated with corn rootworm f eedinginjury. They have been isolated f rom rootworms and f rom rot - damaged

roots . In pathogenicity tests conducted in the greenhouse on

representatives of fungi isolated , none were high ly pathogenicunder the conditions of test but most o f the isolates did producesome degree o f rotting .

In Rehovoth ,Israel , ( P. L . 480 proj ect ,

AlO- ENT- S) the planthopper ,

Calligypona mar ginata ,was discovered to be the vector of the rough

dwarf V i rus di sease of corn . This disease has caused serious damage

to corn in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea but does not

occur in the United States .

2 . Wheat Insects . The wheat curl mite , vector o f the wheat streak

present on volunteer wheat and the mite vectors present were late in

dispersing , so that the mosaic that was transmitted to the wheat

crop caused l itt l e damage .

In He l sinki , Finland , ( P . L . 480 project , E8 - ENT - l) it was estab

lished that Calligypona pel lucida f emal es caused toxic injury to hosts ,

the amount o f injury and abundance of leat ppers being positively

- 168

corre lated . It was al so establ ished that C . sordidula causes a kindof damage to oats which resembles a virus type o f di sease . Of the

C . pe l lucida vector f emal es proved considerabl e more ef f ective in

Spreading the virus than males .

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Becton ,A . J . , George , B . W . ,

and Brindley, T . A 1962 . Continuousrearing of European corn borer larvae on arti f i cial medium . IowaState Jour . Sci .

- 172 .

Brindley,T . A 19 62 . Factors inf luencing corn borer populations .

Regional Proj ect NC- ZO . Proc . No . Cent . Br . E.S .A .

Cal lahan ,P . S . and Cascio ,

Thomas . 1963 . Histo logy of the repro

ductive tracts and transmission of sperm in the corn earworm,

He l iothis zea ( Boddie ) . Annals Ent . Soc . Amer . 1956 zJuly . SSS- 556 .

Chada , Harvey L. 19 62 . Toxicity of cel lulose acetate and vinylplastic cages to bar ley plants and greenbugs . Jour . Econ . Ent .

- 2 .

Dicke ,F . F . and Jarvis , J . L . 1962 . The habits and seasonal

abundance o f Orius insidiosus ( Say) (Hemiptera- Heteroptera

Anthocoridae) on corn . Jour . Kans . Ent . Soc .- 3 44 .

Douglas , W . A . , Henderson ,C . A and Langston ,

J. M . 19 6 2. Biologyof the pink scavenger caterpil lar and its control in corn . Jour .

of Econ . Ent .- 655 .

Gal lun ,R . L. ,

and Longston ,R . 1962 . Hessian f ly f eeding studies

util izing radioisotopes P- 3 2 . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E .S .A .

Henderson ,C . F Chada , H . L. ,

Wood, E . A . ,Jr . ,

Kinzer , H . G . , and

Bailey,D . L . 196 3 . Sorghum insect studies in Oklahoma . Sorghum

Newsletter ,Vol .

- 41 .

Jarvis , J . L. 19 62 . Seasonal deve lopment o f the European corn borer

in re lation to temperature accumulations . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E.S .A .

Singh , Shiv Raj , and E . A . Wood ,Jr . 19 6 3 . Ef f ect o f temperature

on f ecundity of two strains o f the greenbug . Jour . Econ . Ent .

- 10 .

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-170

Varietal Evaluation f or Insect Resistance

Atkins ,R. E . ,

Pesho , G . R . ,and Dicke ,

F . F . 19 6 3 . Yield and seed

size reduction in grain sorghum inf ested by the European cornborer (Ostrinia nubilalis Iowa State Jour . Sci .

- 452 .

Caldwel l ,R . M Compton ,

L. E Patterson ,F. L. ,

Schaf er , J . E . ,

Gal lun ,R . L Hatchett , J . H Hodges , H . P . ,

Mulvey, R . R and

Teare , I . D. 19 62 . Indiana . Disease and Insect Occurrence ,Indiana Wheat Production . Analysis of hessian f ly races in f ieldpopulations . Wheat Newsletter - 3 7 .

Dicke ,F . F . , Atkins , R . E . , and Pesho , G . R . 19 6 3 . Resistance of

sorghum varieties and hybrids to the European corn borer ( Ostrinianubilalis Iowa State Jour . Sci .

- 257 .

Dicke ,F . P . ,

Penny,L . H . , and Pesho , G . R . 196 2 . Ef f ect o f

f erti l ity and stand on European corn borer inf estation in singlecrosses . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E. S .A .

- 52 .

Gal lun,R . L . 196 2 . Report on distribution of hessian f ly resistant

wheats . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E .S .A .

Gal lun ,R . L. 1962 . Hessian f ly resistant wheat varieties . Wheat

Newsl etter

Heyne ,E . G Lof gren ,

James , Johnston ,C . O Browder , L. E . ,

Somsen , H . ,Honsing , E . D . , and Finney, K. F . 19 62 . Kansas

Wheat Production . Wheat Newsl etter - 42 .

Hormchong , Twee , and Wood , E. A . , Jr . 1963 . Evaluat ion of bar l eyvarieties f or resistance to the corn l eaf aphid. Jour . Econ . Ent .

56 ( l) :113 - 4 .

Pesho , G . R. 19 62. A comparison o f relative f ist and second- brood

European corn borer resistance in inbred l ines of f ie ld corn .

Proc . N . Cent . Br . E .S .A .- 51 .

Schaf er ,J . F Patterson ,

F . L Caldwel l , R . M . ,Compton , L . E

Gal lun ,R . L Hatchett ,

J . H Shands ,H . , Hodges , H . F . ,

Gilbert , S . K and Waud,J . Indiana Barl ey . Barley Newsletter

Misce l laneous Publ ications

Brindl ey, Tom A . 1962 . The Ankeny corn borer laboratory . Proc .

N . Cent . Br . E . S .A .- 93 .

- 171

A . , and Dicke ,F. F . 19 6 3 . Signif icant deve lopments

an corn borer research . Ann . Rev . Ent .- 176 .

19 62 . The Northern Grain Insects Research Laboratory .

Cent . Br . E . S .A .

RICE INSECTS

Entomology Re search Divis ion , ARS

Probl em: A number o f insects including l eafhoppers , the rice stinkbug , and rice water weevil , seriously damage rice in the

several rice -

growing areas of the United States . More inf ormationis needed on saf e , ef f ective chemical - control methods ,

and on

cu ltural - contro l methods , to destroy these pests and reduce the

damage they cause . Additional emphasis should be given to new

approaches to control ric e insects . Rice varieties need to be

evaluated f or resistanc e to major rice insects . The discovery o f

hoja blanca ,a virus disease of rice , and its insect vector , a

planthopper , in the commerc ial rice -

growing area of Louisiana , hasgreat ly intensi f ied the need f or more inf ormation on the biology,ecology , and control o f the vector , and on its rel ation to trans

mission of the virus .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department's program on rice insects involves entomologists ,

agronomists , plant breeders , and plant pathologists engaged in both

basic studies and in the appl ication of known principles to the

solution of growers'

problems . The research is being conducted at

Baton Rouge , La . ,in cooperation with the Louisiana Agricultural

Experiment Station . Some of the l ines of work have been underwayf or only a short period o f time .

The Federal scienti f ic ef f ort devoted to research in this ar ea total sprof essional man- year s . Of this number is devoted to basic

biol he leafho rice stink bu and rice water weev i l;

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

Rice stink bugs ( Oebalus pugnax) were reared f rom the egg to adu lt on

rice seedl ings in the laboratory at Baton Rouge , La . Mating was

observed but no eggs were laid, indicating that whi le rice seedl ingsare adequate f or maintenance and growth o f the stink bug , they are

apparent ly nutritional ly inadequate f or egg production .

At Baton Rouge ,studies were made of external morpho logical character

that might be used f or determining the sex of rice water weevil s

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Insecticidal control of the green rice leaf hopper , Draeculacephala

portola ,was also studied . Phorate and Di- syston appli ed at a rate

o f 2 and 4 pounds per acre at the f irst f lood or 2 pounds per acreat the second f lood , gave good control of the leat pper . No dif f erences in yields were assoc iated with the dif f erent treatments .

C . Insecticide Residue Determinations

At Baton Rouge , La . , in a cooperative study with Pesticide ChemicalsResearch Branch ,

rice seed treated with aldrin lost about 40% o f the

insecticide during presprouting operation , probably in the water used

to soak the rice grains . This might explain why f ish and crayf ishare somtimes kil l ed in streams and ponds used to soak rice seed priorto planting .

Analysis made of duck which had been f ed 50 mg . of technical aldrinin gelatin capsu les , and kil l ed 48 hours later , showed that the oil

gland had 120- 230 p .p .m . o f dieldrin , the body f at 60- 280

and skin f at 7- 132 p .p .m . The remaining tissues had l ess than

3 0 p .p .m . of dieldrin .

D . Varietal Evaluation f or Insect Resistance

Greenhouse studies were made at Baton Rouge , La . ,on pre f erential egg

deposition by Sogata orizicola on various rice varieties . The variety,Dina ,

was l ess acc eptable for oviposition than Bluebonnet 50 , Gul fRose , or BG- 79 .

E. Insect Vectors of Disease

The insect vector of hoja blanca ,the rice delphacid , Sogata orizicola,

was found on 34 properties in 7 parishes of south Louisiana duri ng 1962 .

All o f the inf ested f ields were treated with insectic ides , phorate ,Phosdrin ,

or a DDT- malathion mixture by the Plant Pest Contro l Division .

Subsequent surveys f or insect vectors at the end o f rice harvest in

these f ields were negative . No hoja blanca was f ound . A singleSpecimen o f Sogata was recovered in rice on Kramer I sland , Palm BeachCounty, Fla on June 18 , 19 63 .

A new method was developed f or screening insect transmitters f or a

greenhouse colony , using plants 4 - 7 days old ( about 3 - l eaf stage ) .

Symptoms o f hoja blanca develop in inf ested pl ants in 4- 11 days

f ol lowing exposure to insects . Techniques used previously required1- 5 weeks f or symptom deve lopment . With the new technique nymphs are

used instead of adu lts , permitting contro l led mating of known

transmitters . This technique had made possibl e the sel ection of

l aboratory populations with 80- 95% of the individuals capable o f

transmitting the hoja b lanca virus .

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PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

McMillian ,W . W. , Everett ,

T . R . , and Lamey, H . A . 196 2 . Hojablanca,

a serious threat to rice . A 20 - minute , 16 mm . co lormovie with sound track.

McMillian,W . W . 19 6 3 . Reproductive system and mat ing behavior o f

Sogata orizicola (HomO pterazDelphac idae ) . Ann . Ent . Soc . Amer .

- 3 3 4 .

Insecticidal Contro l

Everett ,Travis R . 196 3 . Rice insect studies . 54th Annual Progress

Report o f the Rice Experiment Station . Crowley, La .

FORAGE AND RANGE INSECTSEntomology Research Division , ARS

Problem : Numerous insect pests that _ attack f orage and range plantsin various parts of the United States lower seed produc

tion , reduce the quantity and qual ity o f f orage crops ,and decrease

the abundance of range plants f or the grazing of l ivestock. Certaininsects are involved in the transmission of f orage- crop diseases .

Among the more important insect pests are grasshoppers , lygus , and

stink bugs , the al f al f a weevi l , root borers , Spittl ebugs ,and a

variety o f aphids including the spotted al f al f a aphid . A varietyo f insecticides is used to contro l these insects but they are of ten

cost ly and may create residue hazards in meat and milk as wel l as

adversely a f f ect wildl i f e . There is great need f or more ef f icientinsecticides that can be applied on f orage c r0ps and range vegetationwithout leaving residues harmful to man or animal s or that mightharm

bees and other pol l inating inse cts . Increased attention should begiven to the devel opment of nonchemical control methods . The searchf or insect parasites , predators , and pathogens and ways to employthem e f f ectively shou ld be emphasized in research . The developmento f cr0p varieties which resist attack by insects o f f ers economicaland saf e insect - contro l procedures . Forage crops shou ld be evaluatedf or resistance to major insect pests and resistant germ plasm shouldbe made availabl e f or use by the plant breeders in crop- improvementprograms . Basic studies are al so needed on the f eeding habits of

grasshoppers under dif f erent environments that af f ect the abundanceo f these insect pests . New approaches to control o f forage and

range insects ,such as steri lization techniques and sex attract

ants , should be investigated .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department has a continuing l ong- term program of basic and

appl ied research on f orage and range inse cts Studies on varietieso f al f al f a resistant to insects are cooperative with State and

respective State Experiment Stations . White- f ringed beetle researchis conducted at Florala ,

Ala . Biological contro l studi es on army

worms and cutworms at Baton Rouge are cooperative with the LouisianaExperiment Stat ion . Investigations on al f al f a insects are beingconducted at Mesa , and Tucson , Ariz . , Lincoln ,

Ne5r . ,and Beltsvil le ,

Md in cooperation with the Experiment Stations in these States .

Work on white grubs at Lincoln , Nebr is cooperative with theW

Nebraska Experiment Station . Research on c lover and grass insects atqq

n— w “

Forest Grove , Oreg . ,is conducted in cooperat i on W l th the Oregon

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In al f al f a f ields in south- central Arizona the average grasshopper

popu lation in April 19 6 2 was per square yard compared withper square yard in 19 6 1. The migratory grasshopper ,

Melanoplussanguinipes ,

was dominant . The average summer populati on of thisspec ies during July and August 1962 , was per square yard as

compared with in 19 6 1 . The migratory, desert , and di f f erentialgrasshoppers were the l eading spec ies in the summer survey. In

Apri l 19 6 3 the average population was per square yard , a

noticeab le reduction f rom that in April , 19 6 2 . The migratory grass

hOpper comprised 94% o f the grasshoppers col l ected .

In late June 19 62 heavy populations up to 45 per square yard were

f ound in range meadows ,al f al f a

,and smal l grain f ie lds in high

e levation areas in eastern Arizona . Plant damage ranged f rom 25 to

Grasshopper popu lations in f our range plant habitats at PeeplesVal l ey, Ariz . , averaged and per square yard in June and

July 19 6 2, respective ly ,compared with and in 19 61. The

decrease was coinc ident with severe drought and very poor and c lose lygrazed vegetation in the spring and much o f the summer o f 196 1 .

Populations di f f ered very l ittl e in f orbs , mixed grass and f orbs ,

grass , and Juncus meadows .

On range- recovery plots in Arizona ,

the average square-

yard grass

h0pper numbers on a sparse grass area f or April - July 19 62 , in f enc edand grazed untreated plots were and respectively . Green

plant conditions f avored greater grasshopper deve lopment than in 19 6 1 .

By mid- July the percentage of blades eaten by one grasshopper per

square yard in the f enced plot was as compared with in

19 6 1. Leading species were Au locara elliotti and Hadrotettix

trif asc iatus . In a good grass area with good management practic es ,

the average grasshopper populations in f enced and grazed check plotswere and per square yard, respective ly. In mid- August a

peak number of 8 grasshoppers per square yard occurred in the grazedarea , owing to a good hatch of summer spec ies and second-

generationMe lanoplus sanguinipes . Dominant grasshoppers were Psoloessa

deli catula and Eri tettix variabil is in the ungrazed plot and P .

Tests in a screened insectary without temperature control at Mesa,

Ariz . , indicate that eggs of the di f f erential grasshopper may hatchwithout exposure to low temperatures . Some o f the eggs that were

laid in March and April hatched in June . They were kept over moistsand in salve tins . Daily minimum temperatures during the incubation

period ranged f rom 47°

to 74°F . : maximum temperatures ,

68°

to 105°

F .

- 179

saturation but did not lay eggs in air - dry sand whenmoist sand was

avai labl e . This species was reared through 6 generations under

laboratory- insectary conditions . More than 86 % o f the eggs of the

sixth generation hatched , and the nymphs and adu lts were apparent lynormal in size and vigor .

l ettuc e extract but without chol estero l , none of the test insectscompl eted more than two o f the normal f ive mo lts . Two analogs of

chol esterol , cholesteryl acetate and dihydrochol esterol , were

partial ly uti l ized as a so le stero l source . Diets containing these

two analogs resu lted in 10% of the test insects reaching adu lthoodversus 90% f or a contro l diet containing chol esterol . However ,

chol esteryl chloride ,a cho lestero l analog having anti - cho l esterol

ef f ects in some animal s,was not util ized .

Subsequent tests were undertaken to see whether or not chol esterylch loride wou ld inhibit cholesterol utilization in Melanoplus . The

arti f icial diet was prepared using the original amddfif_

df"

3holesterol

and an equal amount of chol esteryl chl oride . There was no detectabl einhibition of growth in insects f ed the diet containing cho lesterylchl oride . The chol estero l could be reduced by three- f ourths withoutinhibiting growth . This smal ler amount was then used in a ratioand a ratio (cholest erol :cholestery1 chloride) . The amount of

chol esteryl chloride made l itt le di f f erence in the results and it was

conc luded that util ization o f cholesterol was l ittle inf luenced by

chol esteryl chloride .

Investigations were continued at Bozeman ,Mont on the ecol ogy o f

until mid - Ju ly. Adu lts were f ound by mid- Ju ly . Mating began the

f irst part o f August and continued through September . Nymphs and

adults were conf ined to areas containing numerous plants of snake

week, Gutierrezia sarothrae . However , even in areas of heavy

entire area but remained concentrated near the hatch i ng pl aces .

Fie ld- col lected nymphs of all instars were suc cessful ly reared to

adu lts in laboratory cages using c lippings of snakeweed f or f ood .

The numphs and resulting adu lts f ed mainly on the leaves and

bl ossoms but would eat the bark if f resh f ood was not availabl e .

Al so ,dried c l ippings of snakeweed were accepted as f ood by o lder

nymphs and adults .

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Viab le eggs were obtained f rom laboratory cul tures of Hesperotettixviridus . Nymphs hatching f rom these eggs were successfu l ly rearedto adults on a diet o f snakeweed branches and powdered snakeweed

incorporated in an artif icial media . Under laboratory conditionsthe average time f rom hatching to adul t was 43 days . Adult l if eunder laboratory conditions extended f or 3 1 days .

Eggs obtained f rom f irst -

generation laboratory- reared mal formed adu lts

o f Melanoplus bivittatus were hatched and the grasshoppers reared in

the laboratory . All of these second-

generation grasshoppers reachingthe adul t stage were perf ect ly f ormed , lending additional support to

the theory that the mal f ormations are not geneti c . In a subsequent

experiment , using eggs f rom the same mal f ormed parents , numerous

individuals died short ly af ter becoming adults . Specimens sent to

the Insect Pathology Laboratory have been determined to be inf ected

Since approximate ly 100% o f the insects were diseased ,with l ess than

being mal f ormed , it appears that disease is not the cause of

the mal f ormations . Physical f actors of the rearing procedure are

stil l considered responsibl e .

2 . Alf alf a Insects . Feeding tests with the al f al f a weevil were

conducted at Be ltsvil l e ,lfi . ,

using 47 di f f erent plants . Both larvaeand adults f ed on near ly all the true c lovers ,

Tri f ol ium spp . ,and

on yel low and white sweet cl over , Mel i lotus . Plants f ed upon byadu lts but not by larvae were soybeans , mustard, rape , and blacklocust . Adults refused to f eed on or lay eggs in one hop c lover ,

Tri f ol ium patens ,when conf ined on it , but readily laid eggs in it

when al fal f a or sweetclover was also avai lable f or f ood . Thisindicated the presence of a f eeding deterrent and absenc e of an egg

laying deterrent in this clover . The presence of f eeding and egglaying stimulants has been demonstrated in ether and water extractso f f resh al f al f a . Partial suc cess has been achieved in the f ormu

lation of an arti f icial diet by incorporating leaf extracts in an

agar base .

Continuous laboratory rearing of weevils has been accompl ished at

Be ltsvil l e , Md . , by maintaining larvae under short day l engths o f

8 hours l ight Under these conditions the diapause inherent in

f ie ld populati ons is either lost or se lected out in 2 generat ions .

Af ter the f ourth generation , the time f rom adul t emergence to f irstegglaying stabilized at 3 to 4 weeks . This makes possibl e the

production of six generations per year in the l aboratory as comparedto one in the f ie ld .

Control led matings at Be l tsvi l le , Md . , between eastern weevil s and

weevi l s f rom f our western locations substantiated resul ts obtained in

19 61 . Western males crossed with eastern f emales produced inf ert i le

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and soil moisture was observed . No grubs were f ound in the dryupland areas and populations were quite low in areas of excess ive lywet soi l . Beet le f light , determined by using Japanese beet l e traps ,

extended f rom May 25 to June 24 . More beet les were caught in a wet

meadow than in an upland area .

At Ti f ton , Ga . ,a black l ight trap caught 14 times more males than

f emales of a bermudagrass Spitt lebug ,Prosapia bic incta . Periodic

sweeping o f an ar ea near the trap showed the populati on to be

approximately 6 1% f emal es,indicating that the trap had l ittl e ef f ect

on the sex rat io . . In the Sp ring the f irst newly emerged spitt lebugnymph was f ound 21 days af ter soil temperature had reached and

remained above 65°

F . In the laboratory eggs required 17 - 21 days to

complete their devel opment when he ld in contact with mo isture at 70°

F. This spitt l ebug has been reported on a l arge variety o f plantsincluding such economic Species as pangolagrass , St . Augustinegrass ,

coastal bermudagrass , and mil let .

The bermudagrass mite , Aceria neocynodonis ,was in f esting Arizona

common bermudagrass breeding Ga . , in October 19 6 2 .

A survey of other varieties and species of grass revealed no other

in f estations . In November adul ts ,nymphs , and eggs were present

beneath l eaf sheaths . During December temperatures dropped to a low

of 6°

F . and no mites have been f ound S ince that time .

plots without a winter crop ,the rate of growth of larvae under these

conditions , and the e f f ect o f popul ation density on survival and rate

rate of growth . All plots were planted to cowpeas each summer , and

ryegrass was used as the winter crop . Each year in August or September

the plots were in f ested W i th egg masses at the rate of 213,426

,6 3 9 ,

and eggs per square f oot . The larval populat ions , larval size ,and depth of the l arvae in the soil were determined in early February

and early April each year . With each greater rate o f inf estation there

was an increase in the larval popu lation . At each examination and

each rate o f in f estat ion the survival was greater in the p lots providedwith winter f ood p lants . The winter f ood plants caused an averageincrease in survival f or all rates of inf estation of in the

February examinations and of in the April examinations . An

increase in larval size resul ted f rom the supply of winter f ood, whil ehigher rates o f in f estation caused a decrease in size . Winter f ood

plants and the rate o f inf estat ion did not cause any appreciabledif f erence in vertical distribution of the l arvae in the soil .

B. Insecticidal and Cultural Control

1 . Grasshoppers . During the winter of 196 2- 63,50 new compounds

were screened at Bozeman ,Mont . ,

using Melanoplus bivittatus and

M . sanguini es . The f ol lowing 9 compounds were equal in toxic ity to

The aldrin standard : Hercul es 784SC; Mobi l MC- A- 6 00 ; and Stauf f er

B- 9340 , B- 9714, B- 10204 , B- 10205 , B- 103 41, R- 5722 , and N- 453 9 .

Seven of those tested equal ed the aldrin standard at twice the

dosage . These were : Monsanto CP 19203 ; and Stau f f er B- 97l3 ,B- 10175 ,

R- 5977 , R- S723 , R- 5725,and N- 2793 .

In 1962 , 5 compounds were f ield tested on 2 - acre plots usingground equipment . American Cyanamid 43 064 at 6 ounc es per acre was

superior to the aldrin standard. Bayer 3 9007 at 6 ounces per acrecompared favorably with the standard, but General Chemical s 4072, at

8 ounces ,Dibron 85 at 6 ounces ,

and Bayer 4183 1 at 8 ounces peracre were in f erior .

Spray volumes of 1 pint to 1 quart per acre were appl ied to 40 - acrerangeland plots by means of a Piper Pawnee airpl ane f lying 100- f oot

swaths f or grasshopper contro l . Comparisons were made between the

Micronair Rotary Atomizer , Model AV- 2000 , producing droplets with an

average diameter in the range of 84 microns and a Standard boom

arrangement producing droplets in the range o f ISO- 200 microns . Withthe boom arrangement , ounce of dieldrin in diesel f uel per acregave kil ls of 79 to 99% at the l- pint volume and 93 to 96 % at 1 quart .

A standard appl ication o f ounce dieldrin in 1 gal lon of dieseloil per acre gave kil l s of 94 to In the same series of tests

the Micronair unit gave kil l s of 65 to 98% at the 1- pint volume and

80 to 98% at 1 quart .

In tests in eastern Montana with smal l aircraf t ( Piper Pawnee ) on

40- acre range plots in 19 62 , Bayer 25141 in diesel oil at 2 ouncesper acre gave kil ls equal to the aldrin standard . General ChemicalGC- 3 707 appl ied as an emulsion gave kil ls equal to the standard at

a dosage rate of 4 ounces per acre . Malathion at 8 ounces in

emu lsion was inf erior to the standard. Dimethoate emu lsion at 1

ounce per acre with additives of plyac ,molasses , and ethylene glycol

was inf erior to the standard . However , the addition o f plyac at 2

ounces per gal lon increased the kil l approximately Mo lasses at

1 quart per gal lon of spray increased the kil l by 6 6,while ethyl ene

glycol had no apparent e f f ect .

In tests with Twin- Beech aircraf t on 320- acre plots in eastern

Montana, Bidrin ,General Chemical CC- 3 707 , and dimethoate ,

all at 2

ounces per acre , gave kil l s inf erior to the aldrin standard . In the

case of GC- 3707 and dimethoate the kil l was approximately 10% l essthan similar dosages appl ied by smal l aircraf t . Since the f l ightheight of the Twin Beech was 100 f eet compared with 40 f eet f or the

-18h

Pawnee ,it was theorized that the lower kil l f rom the large aircraf t

might be due to greater loss through evaporation of the water

emu lsions .

In May 1963 in Cal i f ornia , malathion was applied with a Stearman air

craf t on 160- acre plots of range land. A new f ormulation consistingo f 95% malathion per gal lon was applied in panasol , an aromaticnaphtha solvent ,

at 12 ounces in 1 quart per acre . An emul sionconcentrate containing 8 pounds of malathion per gal lon was appl iedat 12 ounces in 1 quart and one gal l on per acre . Both f ormulationsgave satisf actory ki l ls .

2. Al f al f a Inse cts . At Beltsvi l l e , Md. , app lications of Geigy 30494

November 13 f ai led to give satis factory control of al f al f a weevi llarvae the f ol lowing Spring . Heptachlor at 1 pound .and Telodrin at

. 75 pound per acre gave good control . The addition o f the adjuvant ,Cellosize OF 4400 , to 5 phosphate insecticides and methoxychlordecreased control as compared to the materials appl ied alone . However ,

EPN and methoxychlor appl ied as Sprays at 2 and 3 pounds per acre ,

respective ly , gave 88 and 82% control compared to 99 % f or heptachlorat 1 pound .

On November 14,1962 , appli cations of Telodrin at to \1/2 pound

per acre and heptachlor at 1 pound gave 96 to 100% control of

al f al f a weevi l larvae the f o l lowing spring . Fal l appl i cations of

methoxych lor gave f air control but appl i cations of Guthion ,EPN

,

and se l i ca-

gel were not ef f ective .

In the Spring of 196 2 appl ications of Guthion and \ dimethoate withand without the adjuvants LS 053 1, Sterox AA , Igepal C0 630 , and

Sun X223 - 5 showed no signi f icant dif f erences in al falf a weevi l controlbetween Guthion and Guthion combinations , but the addition of

Igepal CO 63 0 to dimethoate increased control S igni f i cant ly overdimethoate al one . Guthion alone ,

dimethoate plus Igepal, and

heptachlor at rates of and pound per acre , reSpé c

tively, gave 80 to 85% contro l 20- days af ter appl ication . The three

promising insecticides Imidan,Geigy 3 0494 , and Telodrin at

respective rates o f and pound per acre gave 97 99

larval contro l 10 days after appl ication . At 20 days af ter

application , the percentages o f contro l were 72 , 84 , and 94 ,

respective ly. Good control of the pea aphid was obtained with Geigy

3 0494 up to 10 days , and good control of the meadow Spittl ebug was

obtained with Imidan and Telodrin up to 20 days . Of 10 experimental

phosphate insecticides appl ied as sprays , 9 gave al f al f a weevilcontrol equal to heptachlor at 10 days af ter appl i cation and 3 were

only sl ight ly less e f f ective than heptachlor at 20 days .

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-186

Samples of grass f rom plots treated with Imidan at 4, 8 , and 16

ounces per acre ,were f ed to 3 - day old f al l armyworms in the

laboratory at Ti f ton , Ga . One day af ter appl ication sampl estaken f rom the 16 - ounce level produced f rom the 8 - ounce l evel49 % and f rom the 4- ounce leve l 3 4% mortal ity in 24 hours .

5727 , American Cyanamid 24055 , diazinon ,American Cyanamid 1813 3 ,

Telodrin,and Bayer 29852 , to determine their ef f ectiveness as soil

insecticides f or the contro l o f white - f ringed beet l es . Thesematerials were used at rates of l

,S , and 10 pounds in

cubic yards o f soil , the upper 3 inches o f an acre . Telodrin

was high ly e f f ective against newly hatched white - f ringed beetlelarvae ,

all dosages giving compl ete mortality . The other materialswere not ef f ective at the highest dosage used .

In outdoor soil chambers ,aldrin

,die ldrin ,

and heptach lor were mixedinto the upper 3 inches of soil in Ju ly 1957 at rates of 1

, 3 ,and 5 pounds per acre . These chambers have been inf ested each year

with newly hatched white- f ringed beetle larvae . In 196 1- 62 , the

pound dosage of aldrin gave 9 7% and the l- pound dosage of heptachlorgave 9 8% control , whi le all other dosages gave compl ete mortality .

Granular application o f dieldrin and heptachl or at 3 and 5 pounds per

acre and emul sion at 5 pounds of the insectic ides per acre on the

soi l surf ace around estab lished azalea and camel lia plants at Floralaf ai led to e l iminate all white - f ringed beet l e larvae . However ,

dieldrin has given better contro l than heptachlor .

C. Insecticide Residue Determinations

l . Endosul f an Residues . Coastal bermudagrass at Tif ton ,Ga treated

contained and p .p .m . residues ,respectively , when

cut 7 days later . On the 78th day af ter ensil ing , the residues in

the S i lage were and p .p .m . for the and

pound treatments . Analysis of milk f rom dairy cows f ed the ‘

silage ,with sampl es taken at interval s o f 1

,3 , 6

,13

,20 , and 28

days of f eeding , showed no detectab le residues .

Endosul f an as an emu lsion spray was appl ied at pounds per acreto three 2- acre pastures of coastal bermudagrass . An untreated

pasture served as a contro l . Sampl es of grass taken at interval saf ter treatment Showed up to p .p .m . endosul f an 71 days af ter

treatment . Three beef animal s were placed on one of the treated

pastures at interval s of l,7 , and 13 days af ter treatment and grazed

f or 3 1, 3 5 , and 3 6 days , respectively . Animals were grazed f or 3 1

days on the control pasture . Residues on the grass during the grazing

periods ranged f rom to to and

to f or the l,7 , and l3 - day waiting periods . Chemical

analysis of f at sampl es obtained by biopsy f rom the exposed and

contro l animal s indicated that no endosul fan was present .

Endosu l f an was incorporated into rye silage at 10 and 100 p .p .m .

and placed in gal lon jars . Analysis indicated that residuesremaining af ter 11 weeks of storage were approximately 40% o f the

init ial amounts added to the si lage .

2 . Phorate Residues . In the greenhouse at Ti f ton ,Ga . , phorate

than - f rom a water emu lsion of the same insec ticide injected intothe root zone . Residues resu lting f rom granul ar heptachlor , sur face

appl ied ,were not detected signi f icant ly sooner than those of

phorate emu lsions inj ected into the root zone .

3 . He tachlor Residues . At Forest Grove , Oreg . ,red c lover was

treatedwith 2- 172% granular heptachlor at the rates of and 1

pound of heptach lor per acre . Sampl es taken 4 months af ter treat

ment and analyzed at Yakima,Wash . ,

contained measurabl e amounts of

heptach lor but no measurabl e amounts of heptachlor epoxide . Red

clover treated with 1 pound o f heptachl or as an emu lsif iabl econcentrate and harvested 6 months later did not contain measurabl eamounts of heptachlor or heptachlor epoxide .

D . Bio logical Contro l

1 . Grasshoppers . At Bozeman , Mont . ,laboratory and f ield Studies

were init i ated to ascertain the ef f ect of the protozoan disease ,

Nosema locustae , on grasshoppers . During the summer of 196 2 the

organism was f ound in grasshoppers col lected in Minnesota , eastern

Montana,and southern Idaho . In f ections of this organism have

occurred in at least 11 species of grasshoppers . The disease reducesrate o f deve lopment , increases death rate and reduces weight of

adults .

In Montana and Idaho ,species o f Tachinidae , Sarcophagidae ,

and

Nemestrinidae were f ound parasitizing grasshoppers . Mermithed worms

were common during the ear ly summer . A fungus resembl ingAspergil lus f lavus produced high mortal ity rates in Camnula pel lucida35TT33?3d

_

fiear Fernwood , Idaho ,and Lamedeer ,

Mont . The same—

fdfigd§produced high mortality rates in some laboratory- reared Melanoplusbivittatus . Ef f orts to isolate viruses f rom

unsuccessful .

-188

The l if e history of the parasitic grasshopper mite , Eutrombidium

sp . ,was studied at Columbia , M0 . The pre

- oviposition periodaveraged days . The average time f rom egg laying to the

deutovum stage was days , and f inal hatching oc curred about

days later . The larvae searched out and attached to availablegrasshoppers where they remained f or an average of days . Af ter

engorgement the mites underwent a pre- nymphal , quiesc ent period

which averaged days . The nymphal period was about 3 2 days

during which time the mites f ed readi ly. Preimaginal pupationrequired about 17 days whereupon the adul t emerged . Femal esproduc ed an average o f egg masses .

of the grasshoppers where membranous areas were present , especial lyat the base of the hind wings . Detached engorged larvae were mobi le ,six- legged , hairy creatures , red- orange in co lor and l to mm. in

l ength . The l if e cyc le required about 127 days . Both the nymphs and

adults f ed readi ly on grasshopper eggs .

2 . Spotted Al f al f a Aphid. Aphe l inus semif lavus and Praon palitans ,imported parasites of the aphid, were not observed in Ar i zona in 196 2.

However , the latter spec ies was observed in one f ield in 19 63 . The

known State range o f Trioxys uti l is , a third imported parasite of the

aphid wide ly estab l ished in central and southern Arizona by 196 1,was not extended according to surveys made in 196 2 . In 1962 para

sitization by T . uti l is was observed in only two f ie lds and averagedless than 1% bdt thi s parasite was more wide ly distributed and

abundant in 1963 .

Observations on the Spotted al fal f a aphid and its natural enemieswere continued bi- weekly in 1962 in 4 untreated al f al f a f ields near

Mesa, Ariz . Compared with 19 6 1 there were moderate to large increasesin such predators as beet l es , nabids , geocorids , syrphid f ly larvae ,

and lacewing f ly larvae ,a sl ight increase in Orius Spp . , and a

sl ight decrease in Co l lops vittatus .

3 . Al f al f a Weevi l . The al f al f a weevil has continued to spread in

the Eastern States and now occurs throughout the Eastern al f al f agrowing areas f rom Mississippi and Arkansas , northeast through Ohio ,

to southern New Hampshire and Vermont . Parasites , primarily Bathy

plectes curculionis ,were released on 4 l ines extending northwest

f rom origins in Georgia ,North Carol ina, New Jersey, and Massachusetts .

Of 24 releases made in 19 61 and 19 62, the parasite has been recoveredf rom 23 ; the 24th S ite was not sampled . Five additional re leases were

made in 19 63 in newly inf ested areas o f Tennessee , Ohio ,and New York.

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to be Apante les marginiventris which attacks the f al l armyworm .

continued in 19 62 . Field- col lected adul ts were rel eased in the centero f an outdoor cage ,

24 by 24 f eet ,where they had a f ree choice of

movement . Peanut ,sicklepod ,

and cocklebur plants covered with doubl escreen wire cages to prevent beetles f rom f eeding on the f ol iage , and

cages without plants ,were placed near the outer edge o f the large

cage . The adults f ound on the small cages were removed 3 times eachday. Sl ightly more beetl es were f ound on the cages containingplants than on the empty cages . Cages containing plants inf estedwith beet l es were more attractive than cages containing plantswithout beetl es .

In other tests one hi l l o f peanuts was planted in the center of 80

hil l s o f corn in a cage 3 0 by 3 0 f eet in size . Field- co l lectedadu lts were rel eased at the 4 corners o f the area

,or f eet f rom

the peanut plant . The beet l es f ound at the peanut pl ants were

removed three times each day . From July 17 to August 20 ,adu lts were rel eased in 2 test areas and only 10 . T

°o were recovered

at the peanut plants . Apparent ly the adult does not possess the

abi l ity to detect a f avored host plant by smel l er sight .

on noncu ltivated land . A special appl icator was used that appl iedgranu lar f ormulations of insecticides in narrow bands 12 inchesapart on the soi l sur face in such a manner that the insectic ide wouldnot come in contact with the plant f o l iage . The plots were treated

in October 19 60 and inf ested with egg masses in 19 60 and 196 1 .

Larval populations were determined in Apri l 19 6 1 and again in April19 62 . Aldrin ,

chlordane , die ldrin , heptach lor ,and Sevin were used

at 2 or 3 rates . Sevin was not e f f ective as a surf ace treatment .

The broadcast appl ications gave better contro l than the stripappl i cations during the f irst year f ol lowing treatment , but during

‘

the second year both types of treatment were equal ly ef f ective . Thismachine disturbed the surf ace of the soil thereby enabl ing newlyhatched larvae to penetrate the so il more readi ly . This f actorcaused a greater survival in all plots treated with the machinethan in the plots receiving broadcast appl i cations in the f irst year

f ol l owing treatment but not in the second year . In plots whichreceived no insecticide the soil disturbanc e f rom the machine caused£1 9 1% increase in survival over that which o ccurred in untreated

- 191

nondisturbed plots in 19 6 1, and a 60% increase in 19 62 . The smal lerdosages of aldrin ,

chlordane ,dieldrin ,

and heptachlor were lesse f f ective than the larger dosages .

G . Varietal Eva luation f or Inse ct Resistance

1 . Sonora , a new non- dormant spotted al f al f aaphi resi stant vari e evelOped in the cooperative al f al f a improvement program in Arizona , Cal i f ornia ,

and Nevada , was re l eased in

19 62 . The variety is adapted to the lower desert val l ey areas of

Arizona ,Cal i fornia , and southern Nevada and presumably to areas in

northern Mexico which have similar growing conditions .

At Mesa , Ariz . , 18 alf al f a plants , progenies f rom f our c lones of

Chil ean 21- 5 sel ected f or resistance to the spotted alf al f a aphid ,

were caged tested f or antibiosis and 14 rated highly resistant . Thisindicates that it may be possible to deve lop a resistant variety f rom

Chil ean 21- 5 .

Studies on the spotted al f al f a aphid at Mesa , Ariz . , Showed that

mortal ity o f inf ested seedl ings o f resistant and susceptibl eal f al f a varieties was the same up to 15 days f ol lowing germination .

This suggested that certain mechanisms o f resistance were not

Operating during this critical period, and insecticidal treatment of

resistant varieties may be needed in the seedling stage if popu lationsof aphids are high .

At Tucson , Ariz . , seedl ings of 13 synthetic combinations , constitutedby members of the Southwest Al f al f a Group ,

were evaluated f or resistance to biotypes ENT A and ENT B of the Spotted al f al f a aphid .

Resistant Moapa and Sonora were used as checks , and 3 commerc ialvarieties were al so included . Outstanding synthetics were SW- 12 and

SW- l3,both Cal i f ornia combinations . SW- 12 was rated best in

abil ity to make growth f ol lowing inf estation ,and SW- l3 gave t0p

per f ormance in plant survival Also exce l l ent in plantsurvival was SW- 17 a two - c lone Arizona combination ,

and SW- Z l

a Cal if ornia coastal and high desert combination .

At Linco ln , Nebr . ,seedl ing progenies of aphid resistant and aphid

susceptibl e clones were mass inf ested with parthenogenetic f orms of

the sexuale-

producing strain o f the spotted al f al f a aphid . Plantsresistant to the so le ly-

parthenogenetic strain o f the aphid were al soresistant to the strain which has the abil ity to produce sexuales .

Aphids f rom neither strain l ived much longer than 3 days when conf inedto resistant plants , indicating that apparently there are no basicdi f f erences between the two strains in regard to host plant resistance .

2 . Lygus Bugs . At Mesa , Ariz . , the screening of al f al f aplants representing several varieties and experimentals resu lted in

se lection of 3 6 with moderate promise f or resistance to lygus bugs .

Most of these plants had some damage ,and none showed the marked

reaction desired f or breeding resistance into new varieties .

3 . Al f al f a Seed Chal c id . Fif ty- f our varieties of al f al fa at Yuma

and 48 at Mesa ,Ari z . ,

were evaluated for resistanc e to the al f al f aseed chal cid. Among entries having the lowest mean inf estation at

Yuma were A- 224,Orestan , Chilean 21- 5 , and New Mexico 11- 1, and

at Mesa, Zia , Wil l iamsburg , Rambl er , and Talent . Lahontan , whichshowed promise in ear l ier tests , ranked 8 and 13 in the Yuma and

Mesa studies , respective ly. Among 5 cl ones which comprise the

variety Lahontan , c lone C- 89 had the lowest chalc id population in

two separate tests . Apparently this c lone contributes most to the

S l ight resistance in Lahontan to the al f al f a seed chalc id .

Over individual plants f rom 18 dif f erent sources were screenedf or resistance to the chalcid in tests at Mesa . Nearly 3 00 plantswere se lected f rom this group on the basis of having less than 3 0

chal cids per raceme . Most of the promising material was se lectedf rom the two- c l one combinations in which M- 56 - 11, an importantsource o f cha lcid resistance ,

was crossed with three high-

yieldingsel ections out of Af rican .

4 . Pea Aphid . At Lincoln , Nebr research is continuing in the

development of combined pea aphid and Spotted al fal f a aphid resistance . Nebraska synthetic 27 , whose parents had been se lected f or

resistance to both aphids in greenhouse tests , showed a high leve lof pea aphid resistance under a heavy aphid inf estation in a f ieldcage . In general there was c lose agreement between greenhouse and

f ie ld cage results with all plants tested.

At Poznan ,Poland

, ( P . L . 480 project E21- ENT- 9 ) two prel iminarytests showed some antibiosis of lupine plants to the pea aphid . In

the f irst test Gorki (yellow) , Wielk0po lski (blue ) and Przebedowski

(white ) reveal ed some resistance as measured by extreme ly low aphidreproduction . The second test with 12 varieties conf irmed these

results and revealed similar resistance in varieties Osbornicki

(yel low) and Przebedowski Wczesny (white) .

5 . Potato Lea er . Counts were made at Lincoln ,Nebr . , o f adult

and s o f the potato leaf hopper on establishedvarieties , plant introductions , and experimental synthetics o f

al f al f a at peak l eafhopper inf estation during mid- July . No

corre lation was f ound between leat pper popu lations and a system

o f visual rating based on the degree of plant ye l lowing . There is

apparent ly no dif f erence in attractiveness to the potato leat pper

among these al f al f as , and dif f erences in degree o f plant ye l lowing are

probably due to tol erance .

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and stem diameter , between stem diameter and egglaying , and

between stem diameter and adu lt f eeding . Thus either or both

stem diameter and f eeding pref erence appear to be closely associatedwith egglaying and resul ting larval damage .

were screened for sweetclover aphid resistance . None of these

ac cessions were uni formly resistant but a number of them containedone or more resistant plants . The l ines f rom which resistant plantswere selected came f rom many dif f erent areas of the world. The

accession ( PI- 1789 85 ) producing the greatest number of resistantplants was of Turkish origin . Heritabil ity of resistance in the

majority o f the sel ections was conf irmed by testing sel f ed-

progeny.

8 . Sweetc lover Weevi l . Sweetc lover weevi l larval populations were

determined in a f i eld nursery containing 4 common varieties , Spanish ,

Denta , Madrid and Goldtop , and one experimental , N- l3 . The mean

number of l arvae per square f oot of soi l ranged f rom. 28 . 6 f or Spanishto f or Denta but these di f f erences were not statistical lydi f f erent .

Since practical l evel s of resistance to the sweetc lover weevil havenot been uncovered in the screening o f varieties and l ines , screeningtests were conducted at Lincoln

,Nebr . , on all o f the available Species

of the sweetclover genus ,Mel il otus , and a c lose ly related genus ,

Trigone l la . One Species of Mel i lotus was nearly immune to f eeding bythe adult weevil . It is hoped that this species can be crossed withthe common sweet clover species .

H . Insect Vectors o f Diseases

1 . Vectors of Red Clover Root Rots . At University Park, Pa studies

were made to determine whether the control o f root weevils and root

rots wou ld increase the longevity of red c lover stands . Pl ots were

Sprayed periodical ly with insecticides and fungicides singly and in

combination during the seedl ing , f irst ,and second year . At the

beginning o f the third harvest -

year ( or f ourth year) the percent of

ground cover f or che ck plots averaged l ; fungicide plots l ; insecticide

plots 45 ; and combined f ungicide - insecticide pl ots 45 .

Results of a greenhouse experiment made at Universi ty Park, Pa . , showed

f or the f irst time that larvae of Calomycterus setarius f ed on smal lroot lets of red c lover ,

and when ful l -

grown , gouged the t0p and

lateral roots . The crown and root weights of weevil - damaged plantswere less than those in the controls . l Of the 4 treatments - control ;soil in f ested with C . setarius ; with Fusarium spp . ; and with both C.

setarius and Fusarium spp .- most root rot developed on plants given the

last treatment , with smal l di f f erences among those in the other treatments .

- 195

2 . Tumors on Al f al f a . At University Park, Pa an al f al f a plant

The tumors occurred at the f eeding sites on stems, petiol es ,and

l eaves . The epidermis usual ly ruptured within 42 to 48 hours af ter

f eeding by nymphs or adults and the growth devel opment terminatedwithin 5 days . Tumors cou ld be produced arti f ic ial ly by prickingleat pper body juices into the plant tissues with a needl e . Heat

and f ormalin used to destroy virus did not af f ect tumor growth .

3 . Insect Vectors of Lupine Diseases . Continued studies at Tif ton ,

Ga . , of aphid abundance on yellow lupine af ter treatments W ith

granular phorate and emul sion sprays of dimethoate ,at 2 pounds of

the insecticide per acre indicated ( 1) that the insectic ides persistedin the plants , as determined by comparative biological assays

util izing Drosophila melanogaster adults ; (2) that aphid populationswere great ly reduced after both treatments ; and ( 3 ) that the reduc

tion o f aphids was associated with a reduction in bean yel low mosaicvirus in the plants .

aphid were used as vectors , doubl e transmission of bean ye l low mosaicvirus and cucumber mosaic virus f rom inf ected to healthy lupineplants was suc cessf ul only with the green peach aphid . The other

aphid species transmitted each of the viruses singly but never bothsimultaneously . The green peach aphid was the most e f f icient vector ,

f ol lowed by the pea aphid and the bean aphid .

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Jarvis , J . L 1963 . White grubs in the sandhil ls . Nebr . Expt . Sta .

Quarterly

Kreasky, J . B . 19 6 2 . A growth f actor in romaine l ettuc e f or the

Manglitz , G . R Kishaba , A . N . , and Calkins , C . O . 1962 . Sexual esin the Spotted al f al f a aphid and the overwintering of the species in

Nebraska . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E .S .A .- 99 .

Nie lson ,M . W . 1962 . A synonymical l ist of leat pper vectors of

plant viruses . USDA , ARS- 3 3 - 74 .

Niel son , M . W . , and Bl eak, E. E. 1963 . Re lationship of sex and

popu lation densities o f the leat pper , Aceratagallia curvata , to

damage of seedling al fal f a . Jour . Econ . Ent .- 5 .

Prescott , H . W . , and Newton ,R. C . 196 3 . Fl ight study of the c lover

root curcul io . Jour . Econ . Ent .- 70 .

Insecticidal and Cu ltural Control

Leuck, D . B . ,Wel ls , H . D . , and Beck, E . W . 1962 . Systemi c insec

ticides f or indirect contro l o f bean yel low mosaic virus in seed

f ie lds of ye l low lupine . Plant Disease Reporter- 242 .

Manglitz , G . R and Calkins , C . O . 1962 . Time o f plowing f or sweet

c lover weevi l control . Proc . N . Cent . Br . E .S .A .

Steinhauer ,A . L. , Bli ckenstaf f , C . C . , and Adler

,V . E . 196 2 .

Experiments on al f al f a insect contro l in Maryland. Jour . Econ . Ent .

- 22 .

Insectic ide Residue Determinations

Derbyshire , J . C . and Murphy, R . T . 1962 . Diazinon residues in

treated si lage and milk of cows f ed powdered diazinon . Jour . of

Agr . and Food Chem .- 6 .

West lake , W . E. , Cor l ey, C . , Murphy, R. T . , Barthe l, W . F . ,Bryant , H . ,

and Schutzmann , R . L . 19 63 . Chemical in the milk of cows grazed on

chlordane- treated pastures . Jour . Agr . and Food Chem .- 46 .

Barnes ,0 . L. 1962 . Resistance of Moapa al f al f a to the spotted al f al f a

aphid in commerc ial - size f ields in south- central Ar izona . Jour .

ECO “ . Ent .- 5 0

Varietal Evaluation f or Insect Control

Carnahan , H . L. ,Peaden , R . N . ,

Lieberman ,F . V and Peterson ,

R . K.

19 62 . Dif f erential reactions of al f al f a varieties and sel ectionsto the pea aphid . Cr0 p Sc ience - 22 .

Howe , W . L Kehr ,W . R . ,

McKnight , M . E and Manglitz , G . R . 19 63 .

Studies of the mechanisms and sources o f Spotted al f al f a aphidresistance in ranger al f al f a . Nebr . Agr . Expt . Sta . Res . Bul l .

210 . 21 pp .

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Manglitz , G . R . , Kehr , W . R . , and Calkins , C. O . 19 6 2 . Pea aphidresistant al f al f a now in sight . Nebr . Expt . Sta . Quarterly

- 6 , 24 .

Schonhorst , M . H . ,Niel son

,M . W and Thompson ,

R . K . 19 63 . Sonora

New al f al f a f or the Southwest . Prog . Agr . in Ariz . XV :10 . Januaryand February .

Insect Vectors of Diseases

Newton ,R . C . and Graham ,

J . H . 19 62 . Larval injury by Calomycterus

setarius on roots of red c lover and its relationship to the

inc idence o f Fusarium root rot . Plant Disease Reporter .- 101.

Wel ls , H . D Leuck, D . B . ,Beck

,E. W . , and Forbes , Ian . 1962 . A

proposed system f or contro l l ing bean yel low mosaic V i rus ( BYMV)of sweet yel low lupine through the production o f certi f ied seed .

Ga . Coastal Plain Expt . Sta . Leaf l et N . S . 3 3 .

PRODUCTION, HARVESTING AND FARM STORAGESTRUCTURES , EQUIPMENT ANDMMETHODS

Agricultural Engineering Research Division , ARS

Prob lem . Better'

methods , techniques , equipment and structures f or use

on. the f arm. f or produc ing, harvesting, storing , and the initialpreparation of grain and f orage crops f or market are needed to increasee f f ic iency in. the use of labor and equipment , preserve qual ity and

prevent spoi lage and damage f rom mechanical handling and insects .

The Department has a continuing long-term. program involving agriculturalengineers , statistic ians , physicists , and architects engaged in both bas icand applied research in this area . The total e f f ort involves pro

f essional man-years . Of this number , are devoted to equipment f or

estab l ishment of f orages , to insect contro l in grain , to weed

control in corn and soybeans , to energy radiation equipment f or

seed treating, to harvesting equipment f or f orage and seed, 5.h

to drying grain and f orage, to pe l leting f orage , to seed c leaningand to structures f or grain and f orage . Work is carried on at

Be ltsville , Md . ; Athens , Experiment , and Tif ton , Ga . ; Ames , Iowa;

Lincoln, Nebraska; Corvallis, Oregon; C lemson , S . C . ; and Bushland ,Texas; in cooperation with State experiment stations .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A” IEgu ipment f or Estab l ishment o f Forages .

1 .Twenty- one exper iments on the estab l ishment and product ion o f pastures

and haylands were put in cooperat ive ly with State and Federal research units .

Thirteen exper iments were handled out o f the Be ltsvi l le Stat ion ,three by

the Southeastern Station ,and f ive by the Southwestern Station . Some typica l

responses to the var ious studie s are : In the range land o f the Southwest

exce l lent stands o f three des irab le f orage spec ies ( switchgrass ,sprang le

top ,and sideoats ) were estab l ished in poor range land at one location with

a Spec ial range mu lcher - seeder mach ine in 1962 . Seeding at another locat ion

was not success f u l . Cons iderab le study and exper imentat ion wi l l be necessary

to prov ide dependab le methods and equ ipment ,

but th is study shows promise

o f deve loping suitab le equipment and pract ices f or th is prob lem . The

success fu l estab l ishment o f a desirab le legume in an estab l ished grass sod

was repeated again in studie s with the Un ivers ity o f Maryland ( tre f o i lb luegrass ) . The use o f a curved disk cou lter disp laced enough sod and gave

suitab le seedbed preparat

ion f or a grass land dr i l l seed- f er t i l izer opener to

f irm ly estab l ish th is legume . ( I t is di f f icu lt to get a good stand w ith

th is spec ies in the mid- At lant ic area . ) Fur ther studies on management are

f o l lowing up th is success f u l method o f estab l ishment . In a f ive -

year study

o f the e f f ect o f nitrogen f er ti l izat ion on f orage product ion o f an e stab

-200

lished stand o f irr igated legume grass in the Northwest ( ladino - orchardgrassmanagement studies ) the greater production showed no pro f it the f irst two

years . Two hundred pounds o f N per acre were added f orage market

pr ice o f $20/ton dry matter . However , on the th ird year , over $ 7 per acrewas re ce ived as addit ional net return over no f ert i l izat ion

, $ 16 the f ourth

year ,and $ 10 the f i f th year .

B . Corn P lant ing and Fer ti l iz ing Equipment .

1 . Fertil izer p lacement studies on corn in Georg ia have been terminatedaf ter three years o f tr ia ls . As f ound previous ly , the 1962 studies gavefurther proo f that one Operation corn growing is h igh ly f easib le . More

pro f it can be made as the one operat ion o f p lant ing , f ert i l iz ing ,and

cu ltivat ing has the lowest cost o f produc ing h igh yie lds o f corn .Treat

ments indicate that f er ti l izer app l ied on a 2 X 2 basis ( two inches be lowand two inches to s ide o f seed) in a comp lete ana lys is at p lant ing timewi l l give h igher yie lds than sp l it app l icat ions o f n itrogen . The app l icat ion o f a pre

- emergence herb ic ide (Atrazine ) can e l im inate the need f or

cu lt ivations or post- emergence herbic ides .

1 . In invest igations made in cooperat ion w ith the Iowa Station f or the

contro l o f the European corn borer, the maj or emphas is o f the chem ica l

contro l program was to screen new insect ic ides ,deve lop system ic insecti

cide contro l , study the e f f ect o f partic le s ize and amo unts o f carr iers in

granu lar f ormu lat ions ,and to study the rate o f loss o f inse ct ic ide res idue

on corn p lants . The resu lts o f these studies indicated that in addit ionto the present ly recommended inse ctic ides , Te lodrin at 1b ./acre ,

Diazinon at 2 1b ./acre , Zectran at lb ./acre , and Bayer 44646 at

lb ./acre a lso gave good contro l o f f irst and se cond-brood corn borer

larvae . The e f f e ctiveness o f Sevin was increased by the use o f Lovo ,a

Spreader- sticker . Amer ican Cyanam id CL47470 and CL4703 1 showed systemic

activity aga inst corn borer larvae . Ground corn cobs were as e f f ective as

attapu lgus c lay granu les as carr iers f or inse ct ic ides f or borer contr o l .

Telodr in res idues f ram granu lar f ormulations cou ld be detected 90 days

a f ter app l ication and res idues f rom Spray app l icat ions were less pers istent .

Studies were undertaken to de termine the e f f ect o f common ly used spray mix

dens ities ,v iscos it ies ,

and sur f ace tensions on f low rates with nozz les izes at di f f erent pressures and temperatures . Resu lts Show that increase sin temperature de crease dens ity ,

viscos ity ,and sur face tens ion . These

changes in the phys ica l propert ies o f spray m ixes were not independent ,

and although the f low rate was changed with phys ical property changesaddit ional work w i l l be needed to c lear ly estab l ish the re lat ionship o f

spray mix phys ica l propert ies and f low rate . Exper imenta l Sprayers and

granu le app l icators were improved and cal ibrated f or app l ications o f

inse ctic ides . The distr ibution o f granu les on and around corn p lants was

g iven f urther study .

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-202

a 12- inch str ip two to f our inches in f ront o f the p lanter gave better

resu lts than a cu lt ivator sweep in f ront o f the p lanter or di sking in f ront

o f the p lanter .

Cont inued studies in Iowa on compar isons o f l iquid and granular herb icidef ormulations app lied at p lant ing t ime in bands over the row and over the

ent ire area showed that l iqu ids wer e as e f f e ct ive as granu le s f or most

herb icides . Atraz ine and Simaz ine were the except ions ,and the re sults

showed that weed control was more errat ic with the granu lar f ormu lationso f these compounds . Str ip app l icat ions were near ly as e f f e ctive as broad

cast ; however , it was always necessary to cu lt ivate at least once where

chem icals were app l ied in str ips ,and only when the chem ica ls f ai led was

it ne cessary to cu lt ivate where overa l l app l icat ions were made .

Studies on me chanical cu lt ivat ions in Iowa showed that harrowing a f ter

p lanting did l itt le to improve stands , yie lds ,or weed contro l . However ,

when the rotary hoe was used with 3 cu lt ivations , harrow ing a f ter p lant ingshowed a s l ight improvement in weed contro l . A lthough three cu ltivat ionsgave substant ial ly better weed contr o l than two cu lt ivations ,

stand and

yie ld data showed that two were as good as three . Two cu lt ivat ionsresu lted in yie lds and stands that were as good as or better than var iouscomb inat ions o f rotary hoe ing and weeding w ith two and three cu lt ivations .

Shal low cu ltivations with rotary hoes ,dragg ing hoes ,

and spr ing - t inedweeders improved the weed contro l but not enough to mater ial ly a f f ectyie ld .

The e f f e ct o f varying the percentage f ormu lat ion and rates o f activeingredient o f granular herb icides was studied in Iowa . All pre

- emergencechem ical treatments gave better weed contro l and h igher yie lds than the

untreated che ck . Ten and 20 percent Atrazine were equal ly e f f ective . Ten

and 20 percent f ormulat ions o f - D at the 2 and 4 1b ./acre rates were

equa l ly e f f e ctive . The 4 1b . /acre rate o f - D did not improve weed

contro l and showed no visua l evidence o f damage ; however , yie lds were

s l ight ly lower than the 2 lb ./acre rate . The Atrazine f ormu lations gavebetter weed contro l than the other chem ica ls .

Spher ica l and regular granu lar f ormu lations o f 10 and 20 percent - D

were app l ied in Iowa w ith John Deere , Candy ,and Nob le boxes attached to

an e lectr ical ly dr iven car t that operated on a portab le track . Distr ibu

t ion as indicated by photographs o f granu les caught on a p last ic sheet

showed l ittle or no di f f erence among mach ines . The number o f granules per

square inch var ied cons iderab ly and there was no indicat ion that patterns

o f spher ical and regu lar granu les were mater ial ly di f f erent . Spher ica lgranu lar f ormu lat ions o f the mesh s ize gave better weed contro l than

equa l amounts o f regular granu les .

A number o f commerc ia l ly avai lab le or exper imenta l herb ic ides were

eva luated in Iowa f or pre- emergence weed contro l in corn and soybeans .

Atraz ine , Randox and Randox T at recommended rates again resu lted in best

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weed contro l in corn . Amiben and Randox gave the best resu lts in soybeans .

Directed post- emergence spray app l ications o f DOWpon and - D combina

t ions resu lted in some crop damage but improved weed contro l . Sim i lartreatments with Lorox showed promising resu lts .

A study o f samp l ing procedures f or est imating yie lds o f mature weed

in f estations was carr ied out in Iowa . Pre c is ion indice s were calcu lated

f or var ious samp l ing methods invo lving di f f erent f ract ions o f the entireexper imental p lot . Loss o f pre cision did not exceed 25 percent when as

l itt le as 40 percent of the p lot was harvested in random segments . Thesete chniques wi l l permit e f f icient harvest ing o f mature weed inf estationsfrom. herbic ide tests and crop -weed e co logy exper iments .

Fie ld studies were made in Missour i to determ ine the e f f ect of row Spac ingon Clark soybean yie lds with and without pre

- emergence treatments o f

Amiben at a rate o f 3 lbs ./acre . Abnormal ly h igh var iab i l ity caused byuneven so i l moisture conditions made the study very di f f icult to analyze .

Because o f th is h igh var iab i l ity there were no signi f icant di f f erences in

yie lds o f soybeans due to mechanical or chem ical treatments .

Studies o f the e f f e ct o f three t i l lage methods on three weed contro lmethods were conducted in Missour i f or the f i f th and last year . Corn

yie ld was signi f icant ly lower in p lots where the so i l was prepared byconvent ional methods than plots where the so i l was prepared by m in imumt i l lage methods . There were no s ign i f icant di f f erences between any o f the

three weed control methods ; (a ) cu lt ivate as needed , (b ) pre - emergence- D and cu lt ivate as needed ,

and ( c ) pre - emergence Atrazine . Th is indicates that the condit ion or smoothness o f the so i l sur face has no e f f ecton the act ion o f the herbic ides as determined under f ie ld condit ions . The

resu lts indicate that a f u l l season chem ical weed contro l program is

essent ia l when us ing min imum ti l lage methods o f soi l preparation f or cornproduct ion .

Fie ld tria ls to determine the e f f ect o f rain fal l ( or irr igat ion ) on weed

contro l with granu lar and l iquid f ormu lat ions o f - D were conducted in

Missour i f or the second year . Ear ly app l ications o f one and one - ha l f incheso f water immediate ly af ter pre

- emergence app l icat ion increased the weed

yie ld signi f icant ly and caused the corn yie ld to be s igni f icant ly lessthan the treatments where no water was app l ied . The pre

- emergence app l ications o f both l iquid and dry f ormu lat ions o f - D suppressed the number

of weeds . The corn yie ld was h igher in p lots rece iving the granu larf ormulation o f - D .

Studies were made in Missour i to determine the e f f ect o f directed post

emergence app l icat ions o f dalapon on corn . Four degrees o f lea f protect ionwere emp loyed with two nozz le he ights . The lea f prote ctions used were

(a) none , (b ) leaves t ied up , ( c ) sh ie ld lea f l i f ter ,and (d) w ire lea f

l i f ter . A mechanica l sh ie ld type leaf l i f ter was very e f f ective in

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minimizing the da lapon damage to corn . Wire type lea f l i f ters wi l l have to

be improved be f ore they can be recommended f or th is app l ication . Evenwhen maximum protection was used by tying the leaves , there were visualdamage to the corn p lant , but th is did not reduce the yie ld s ignif icant ly .

With the 3 -

pound rate o f dalapon there was no apparent corn yie ld reduc

t ion when adequate leaf protection. was provided .

A spe cial long - boom sprayer was des igned and constructed in cooperationwith Crops Research Div ision , Southern Great Plains Fie ld Stat ion , Woodward ,

Oklahoma . The Sprayer was constructed by using the chassis o f a used se l f

propel led combine . A 100 f oot boom is supported by a moveab le frame in

f ront o f the combine . The Spray tank was mounted in the center o f the

comb ine chass is . Modi f ications to the combine chassis inc luded ( 1) movingthe eng ine down and to the rear o f the combine , (2 ) rep lac ing the tires

with Air Force B- SO bomber tires ,and ( 3 ) increas ing the tread width to

about 10 f eet . The sprayer can eas i ly spray an acre per m inute and is

des igned f or use in open range areas too smal l f or aer ial app l ications .

A study was made in Missour i to determine the m inimum mixing rates f or

applying severa l dry- f ormulat ion herb ic ides . A spec ia l spray stand was

constructed to evaluate the per f ormance o f standard Sprayer components when

applying herb icides at dif f erent concentrat ions . The results o f th is study

indicate that the f o l lowing herb icides and minimum. volumes o f app l ication

are required f or satisf actory Sprayer per f ormance when using a j et hydrau l ic

agitator in a 55 ga l lon tank; Propazine 8 gal lons per acre ,

Atrazine 12 GPA ,

NaPcP 15 GPA , Simazine 18 GPA and Linuron 20 GPA .

E . FORAGE HARVESTING EQUIPMENT

1. Fie ld- curing studies o f Coasta l bermudagrass indicate that hay cu t wi thro tary mower wi l l dry f aster than that cut wi th a sickle - bar mower , even i f

crushed or tedded. Due to many o f the f ine ly chopped par tic les no t beingpicked up ,

the r ecovery yie ld f or hay cu t with the ro tary mower was signif i

cantly lower than f or that cu t with the sickle - bar mower . Hay cut with the

sickle - bar mower and crushed gave the f astest drying rate without a sacri f icein yie ld.

drying rate showed that a lo- f oo t swath o f f orage , yie lding tons o f drymatter per acre

,raked into a conventional windrow wou ld dry more s lowly

than when le f t in the swath . At dry matter yie lds o f one ton per acre or

less , the drying rate was not material ly reduced when this prac tice was

f o l lowed. Laboratory tests showed that f orage given a severe mechanica ltreatment dried more rapidly than untreated f orage . These mechanica l treat

ments expo sed more moist surf aces which gave a very rapid drying rate f or a

brie f per iod, th en s lowed to a norma l rate .

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A t bo th Clemson , Sou th Caro lina , and Corva l lis , Or egon , research is underwayon the deve lopment o f a ver tica l ro tating screen separator . I f successf u l ,the machine wi l l have an improved separation e f f ic iency and a higher capacitythan that o f a f lat screen o f the same size and ar ea . The separat

ing f orcecan be regu lated f rom zero up to 15 or mor e times that o f the pu

l l o f

gravi ty by adju sting the revo lving speed o f the screen . Pre liminary test

r esu l ts look promising ,however there are many problems yet to be so lved

bef ore it is ready f or genera l use . One o f the maj or prob lems seems to be

that o f keeping the screen c lean .

In a S ix -

year study in methods o f harvesting lo tu s or birdsf oot tr e f oi l usingmany methods , windrowing the cr0 p on c lear p lastic , then combining , gave the

best re su lts . The average yie ld by the several harvesting methods are as

f o l lows : 55 percent when windrowed on c lear p lastic , then combined. The yie ldwas on ly s light ly less f or whi te p lastic , kraf t paper , and b lack p lastic ;

percent when pu t in very loo se ba les and later threshed through a combine ;percent when windrowed and thr eshed by using a combine with a suc tion

a ttachment ; perc ent when windrowed, shocked and later threshed witha combine ; percent when windrowed on the ground and later thr eshed witha combine ; percent when de f o liated and combined; perc ent when

combined dir ect wi thou t de f o liation ; percent when combined direct witha suction attachment ; and percent when the cr0 p was windrowed, ba led and

later threshed with a combine .

3 . Optimum M0 isture Content f or Se ed Harvesting . At Corva l lis , Oregon ,

time o f harvest research was continued wi th lo tus and ini tiated with bluegrassand orchard grass . In lotus , the produc tion o f pure live seed per acreincr eased each time the cr0 p was harvested unti l approximate ly 10 percento f the pods had shattered where percent o f the cr0 p was saved; then the

quantity o f seed decr eased unti l the entire crop had shattered. In the

b luegrass harvesting r e search over a 26 - day span , the b luegrass was harvestedseven times . The highest per centage o f pur e live seed percent ) was

obtained on the f irst cu tting . This compares to an average o f percentf or the f armer . Orchardgrass was harvested six times over a l9 - day per iodwith pure live seed ranging f rom perc ent at f ir st cu tting up to 68 per

c ent , and then down to percent on the last cu tting . This compar es to

a perc ent pur e live seed check over a f armer 's two -

year harvestingstudy . A battery

- Operated mo i stur e meter was used to take r eadings on

{

samp les at each cutting and dup licate samp les wer e oven - dr ied f or corre lationwi th the meter r eading . These data wi l l be u sed in p lo tting a curve f or eachcr0 p f or u se wi th the meter in making on - the - Spot moisture tests to be used

as a guide to harvesting .

Corva l lis , Oregon , prob lem seed m ixtures were processed through the laboratory and reports and re commendat ions were made to the seed processors on how

to handle them . The scientif ic method o f microscopica l ly measuring seed was

used to de termine the type of machine and the sizes of indent pocke ts or

screens to use in order to exp loit any dimensiona l dif f erences in making a

separation . Screen dams were successf u l ly used to re tard the f low o f seed

across a screen and to or ient e longated seeds so that they wou ld up- end and

go through a round- ho le screen . Some typica l screen - dam separations were

ye l low star th ist le f rom a lf a lfa ; A lta f e scue f rom Chewings f escue ; wheat

f rom saf f lower ; quackgrass f rom. bromegrass ; ryegrass f rom f ine f escue ; and

bar ley f rom lenti ls . The vibrator separator that separates materia ls by

sensing the ir shape and surf ace texture cont inued to give high ly satisf actoryresu lts . It wi l l concentrate quackgrass in ryegrass ,

orchardgrass ,and f ine

f escue mixtures . It wi l l separate cur ly dock f rom bluegrass ; s i lver hairgrass f rom bentgrass ; and mu ltip le f lorets f rom sing les in f ine f escue grasses .

2 . Centrif uga l - Pneumatic Separator . There was no research conducted on the

centrif uga l -

pneumatic separator during this reporting period . The p lan f or

f uture work is to use a vacuum in lieu of air pressure as a means o f removinglighter seed f rom the revo lving screen .

3 . Modif icat ion o f Seed- Length Separators . .At Corva l lis , Oregon ,Specia l

indent cylinders are be ing constructed to correspond to the m icroscopicmeasurements of seeds so that the cylinder w i l l make a spe cif ic lengthseparation o f a seed and its contam inant . These spe cia l cylinders have been

successf u l in making many separations wh ich were rmm possib le with existingequipment . Some of the separations using Spe cia l indent cylinders were pigweed f rom a lf a lfa ; ye l low cress f rom High land bentgrass ; big mouse - ear f rom

Astoria bentgrass ; cocklebur f rom cottonseed ; and sandspurry f rom Seasidebentgrass .

Handling Mach inery; At Corva l l is , Oregon , numerous f eeding and me ter ingdevices are needed to f eed severa l dozen prototype seed processing mach ines .

The e le ctric -

powered pu lsat ing magne t v ibrator f eeders are idea l f or the

purpose but are expens ive . Inexpensive mechanica l vibrator f eeders were de

ve loped which can be shOp- constructed at about one - e ighth the cost of cum

mercial v ibrator f eeders .

D . GRAIN DRYING

1. Studies are underway at Ames , Iowa , f or determining the f actors that enter

into rational de sign o f drying equ ipment and f or deve loping quantitative de

scriptions o f their re lation to economic design . For example , dur ing in

storage drying , overdrying and reabsorption o f moi sture puts excessivestresses on the drying bin . Co st ly f ai lures can be avoided by e ither modif ying the drying procedure or by modi fying bin design . Equipment was setup to expose corn samp les to constant temperature , constant humidi ty , and a

I

constant air ve loc ity . The samp le s were weighed periodical ly to determinethe pattern o f moi sture loss . So f ar 10 te sts have been made . Each te st

inc luded f our initial grain moistures and f our air ve loci ties , 16 samples in

each test . Some tests have been cont inued f or as long as f our weeks . Eachsamp le we ighed about 50 grams at the start . The resu lts so f ar seem to f o l

low near ly the same pattern as f ound previous ly f or grain sorghum . If thispattern is con f irmed , it wi l l lead to a better understanding o f the mechan d

isnl by which the moisture leaves a grain kerne l during drying . No f urther

observations were made on pressure s in bins due to expansion o f rewetted

corn . From. previous observations such studies wi l l have to wait f or equipment in which the ef f ect o f f lexibi li ty o f the bin can be taken into account .

2 . Drying in Mode l Bins : Tests o f drying she l led corn. with various degrees

of heating Show a consistent re lation between traver se time and depth o f the

drying zone . Four bins o f corn. with an initial moisture content o f 22 percen:were dried at various temperatures . The dewpoint was 45° F . f or all f our .

The heated air temperature was such that the air temperature drop in going

through the grain was approximate ly and 84° F . in the re spec

tive bins . The air in each bin dropped to approximate ly a constant tempera

ture bef ore it reached the top layer o f grain during the ear ly part o f the

drying period . The depth of the drying zone , the region in which the graintemperature is not constant , remains about constant unti l the top layerstarts to dry . The depth o f the drying zone in all bins was observed to be

the distance the air moved in seconds . Thi s suggests that the depth o f

the drying zone is independent o f the entering air temperature . It can be

computed f rom this that the drying zone extends the entire depth of the bin

when an airf low o f 22 c . f .m . per bushe l is used throughout the range of

temperature used. If the vo lume o f air f low is less than 22 c . f .m . per bushe l ,the bottom wi l l be dried near ly to equi librium be f ore the upper layers start

to dry.

dictated by grain deterioration. which is caused primari ly by the growth of

mo lds and bacteria . Of secondary importance may be the respiration or

growth o f the seed itse l f . The f actors which in f luence the rate o f growth o f

the mi cro f lora are grain moisture , temperature , and the amount o f physicaldamage of the grain . At Ames , Iowa , studies are underway toward evaluatingthe inf luence o f these f actorS

“

on the rate o f growth o f the mi cro f lora and

subsequent ly the rate o f deterioration . In 196 2 , the laboratory Studies o f

carbon dioxide production was expanded to 96 samp le s . The range of

temperatures was increased to f rom 35°to 110° F . and the range o f mo istures

was f rom 16 to 28 percent . A pattern s imi lar to that o f last year was ob

served . That is , at mo isture s o f 22 percent and above it appears that the

grain respiration can be distingui shed f rom the mo ld respiration . At lower

mo isture s no consistent pattern has been detected. Some f ie ld - she l ledsamples and some hand- she l led samples were tested. The f ie ld- she l ledsamples had had mechanical damage comparab le to corn f rom the usual harvest

operations . The hand- she l led corn was f ree or near ly f ree of mechanicaldamage but otherwise l ike the f ie ld- she l led samples . The rate o f C02 produc

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there was no signi f icant di f f erence in the pe l leting energy . When the

pe l let ing and grinding energy f or these hybrids were added , there was no

signf icant di f f erence .

Systems o f uti l ization o f Coastal bermudagrass showed that more pounds o f

bee f cou ld be produced by dehydrating and pe l leting than by any other method

te sted. Dehydrated and pe l leted Coastal bermudagrass f ed to steers in dry

lot produced 472 pounds o f gain plus tons o f pe l lets (dry matter basi s )per acre . Continuous graz ing produced 451 pounds o f gain and no surplus hay

per acre . Rotational grazing produced 3 79 pounds o f gain and tons o f

poor qual ity hay per acre . Chopped , dehydrated hay produced 3 64 pounds o f

gain and tons o f hay per acre . Strip grazing produced 268 pounds o f

gain and tons o f poor quality hay per acre . Green chO p produced 193

pounds o f gain and tons o f hay per acre . Had all pe l lets and dehy

drated hay been f ed , and the same f eed conversion rate maintained , the gainsf rom these two systems wou ld have been 783 and 764 pounds per acre , respec

tively . These re su lts indicate that the value o f 3 32 pounds o f bee f couldbe appli ed toward the costs o f dehydrating and pe l leting and the value o f

3 13 pounds o f bee f cou ld be applied toward the cost «o f dehydrating only .

Kl CrOp Storage S tructures

prevented economical ly by l ining with aluminum sheets . A combination of

glue and bl ind riveting appears to be a satisf actory app l ication method.

Plain lap seams sealed better than handmade lock seams . Af ter two years ,the lining showed some ac id etching and scattered punctures f rom silagef orks . Smal l amounts of Spoilage that occurred along some unsealed seams

the f irst year were e liminated by resealing them with the neoprene -base

glue used to app ly the sheets .

RadioisotOpe determination of density at Be ltsvil le , Md. , continued with

corn si lage , rather than with grass silage , as in 1961. The point at

which the silage was de livered in the silo was of f center to determine

if a dense pi l lar wou ld be f ormed. At the point of de livery, as measured

by gamma energy, the silage density was 161 more than the density at the

Opposite side of the silo . This change occurred at a very unif orm rate .

Potential sensitivity of the method was indicated by its detection of an

increase in density of 3% due to tramping the si lage . However , instrument

stability is stil l troub lesome , and at the greatest densities measured,45 p . c . f . (pounds per cubic f oot ) , possible error due to backgroundradiation is large .

At Athens , Os . , work was started on measuring the gaseous transf er rate

of silo staves . The oxygen transf er rate has been measured on a smallnumber of concrete staves and additional work is p lanned f or measuring the

air and carbon dioxide transf er rates through many concrete staves and

possibly other materials .

At East Lansing , Mich . , studies of corn silage pressure s in large diameter

upright si los were continued. Pressures in a 30 x 60 f t . tower silo were

measured f or the third year by means of suspended pane ls . With poor

silage distribution in 1962, maximum wal l pressures were 630 p . s . f .

(pounds per square f oot) hor izonta l , and 300 p . s . f . vertica l . The sepressures were substantial ly greater than those of 1961 (400 and 150

and occurred with near ly identical crop conditions and distribut ion . In

1960 , with more unif orm distribution , the pressures were 700 and 120 p . s . f .

In 1961 and 1962 with poor distr ibution , horizontal pre ssures were lessthan in 1960 with unif orm distribution . The position of the suspended

pane l s was direct ly Opposite the point of greatest S ilage depth , and

pressures at that point may be much greater than those where the depth

is unif orm . Average moisture content of the silage has been near ly the

same f or the three years ; however ,distribution of the silage having

dif f erent moisture contents may have contributed to the wide variationin pressures . Data such as these are essential f or engineers to predictpressures deve loping in silos .

2 . Heavily wilted si lage storage . At Be ltsvil le , Md. , 2 years‘te sts of

storing heavily wilted silage in two 10 x 40 f t . tile stave silos showed

that high dry matter a lf alf a D.M . ) can be saf e ly stored in

conventional silos . Total losses ranged f rom to These comparatively smal l losses indicated that a strip of l4- pound asphalt f e lt or

p lastic is as ef f ective as gaskets or calking compound in sea ling the

silo doors . The only apparent requirement is that the f e lt or p lasticbe kept in contact with the silo wal l . The variation in the above lossesal so shows less Spoilage occurred when p lastic covers on the top of the

si lage were we ighted with a f oot or more of green f orage , which was high

in the center to maintain a tight seal between the p lastic and the silowal l . Average temperature s in the 4 tria ls ranged f rom 89° to 93°F . ,

with peak temperatures of and 112°F . The se temperatures

indicate good air exc lusion . Feeding trials indicated the f eed value of

the silage was equal or superior to good quality hay.

3 . Bunker si lo tests . At Be ltsvil le , Md a bunker silo was loaded to

silo was thoroughly sealed by l ining the p lank wal ls with p lastic f ilmwhich was f o lded in af ter cramping the edges and covered with a separate

piece of p lastic . The cover was then we ighted with a 3 - inch layer of

sawdust . A lthough the amount of p lastic used was twice that f or a coveralone ,

loss by Spoilage was insignif icant . Temperatures were higher

c lose to the surf ace , but none were excessive ly high . As an indicationof microbio logical activity, this may be signif icant nutritional ly . The

average density of the stored dry matter was p . c . f . Wa l l pre ssure s

were obtained by means of suspended pane l s , and yie lded the se pertinent

valueS per f oot length of wa l l 3 f eet high - lateral f orce : maximum 240 lb

sett led 150 lh . ; overturning moment : maximum 275 f t . lb settled 150 f t .

The se data contribute to knowledge of requirements f or de signing bunker

silos to economical ly store the se si lages .

Another bunker silo was f il led to a depth of 8 f eet with corn silage .

Pre ssures on the side wal l were measured during f i l l ing and settl ing .

The maximum measured horizontal pressure was 170 p . s . f . and values per

f oot length of wal l were - latera l f orce : maximum 890 lb sett led 600 lb . ;overturning moment : maximum 2850 f t . lb sett led 1600 f t . lb .

4. Coastal Bermuda grass si lage . At Athens , Ga . , work was started duringthe year on a basic study of f actors inf luenc ing the Storage qual ity of

Coastal Bermuda grass si lage . In the laboratory, 588 one -half gal long lass jars were f il led with this silage . Moisture content , density,

leve l of corn additive , stage of maturity, exposure bef ore seal ing , kind

and leve l of additive , air inf iltration rate ,and length of time of air

inf i ltration were observed. All treatments were rep l icated and the

resu lts analyzed statistically. Dry matter loss and pH were determinedf or all samp le s and a chemical analysis made of 16 composite samp les .

S i lage with 40 and 50% dry matter showed superior qual ity to silage with

301 dry matter . The Optimum leve l of corn additive was about 100 lbs ./tonalthough improvements were made by the addition of more corn . Silagequal ity was improved with a 24-hour de lay in sealing the jars when

compared to jars sealed immediate ly af ter f il l ing . Qual ity a lso improvedwith stage of growth as the stage increased f rom three weeks to sevenweeks . These results f rom both the exposure time and stage of growth

are contrary to previous reports . The ef f ects of air inf i ltration rates

were signif icant but not as pronounced as origina l ly expected . Additional

studie s of this type wil l be needed to f ul ly determine and evaluate the

f actors inf luenc ing storage quality of Coastal Bermuda grass si lage .

5 . Hay waf er storage . At Be ltsvil le , Md. , Storage of hay waf ers was

studied in a variety of p lain and f orced air bins . Storage densitie s

up to p . c . f . ( 20 p . c . f . dry matter ) occurred with we l l conso l idatedal f a lf a waf ers , but with poor crop and waf er ing conditions this was

reduced to as low as p . c . f . ( 12 p . c . f . Saf e storage moisturecontent f or a lf a l f a waf ers under Be ltsvil le conditions was 142 .

It was not possible to contro l the movement of the se waf ers f rom storages

with bottom doors or trenches . Dif f icu ltie s experienced indicate the need

f or addit ional study to determine the de sign requ irements f or bins that

can be unloaded with mechanical equipment .

of microf lora on the storage process of high moisture she l led corn . Six

of the e ight 200 -bushe l airtight storage tanks were f i l led with 3 3 % moisture

she l led corn . The other two with 29% moisture she l led corn . The oxygen

in the tanks was dep le ted within 6 to 8 hours af ter the tanks were’

sealed.

The carbon dioxide concentration increased to about 971 in about 70 hours

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Work wi l l be continued on insect contro l and seed treatment studies withemphasis on learning basic exp lanations f or Observed ef f ects due to RF

e lectric f ie ld exposure .

Tests on seed lots of several al f al f a varieties showed that germination was

ef f ectively increased by RF e lectrical treatments which reduced the percentage O f hard- seeds . Ef f ectiveness of treatment in lowering hard- seed contentincreased as seed moisture content decreased . Germination response at

f requencies of 5, 10 , and 39 megacycles appeared to be about the same .

Treatment increased the rate at which the seed ab sorbed water . Mi croscopicstaining tests revealed no cracks in the seed coat due to treatment .

Qual ity of RF treated seed he ld up as we l l as untreated seed af ter 4 years

in f avorab le storage . Quality of treated al f al f a, red clover , and ladinoclover seed remained as good as untreated seed when tested af ter 2 years

in uncontro l led storage , and hard- seed content was lower in treated samp les .

Treatment was not ef f ective in lowering hard- seed content of sweetcloverseed lots unless they were dried to very low moisture leve l s .

Radiof requency, inf rared,and glow- discharge e le ctrical treatments of Ranger,

Narragansett , and DuPuits al f al f a seed lots were equally ef f ective in

reducing hard- seed content , increasing water sorption, and increasing the

seed respiration rate . The latter treatment produced acce lerated emergencef or some samp les in greenhouse sand emergence tests .

RF treatment appeared to improve germination and emergence of three Kentuckyb luegrass seed lots tested during the year . Emergence of treated sampleswas higher f or a lot exhibiting a high degree of dormancy . The number of

seeds sprouted at 5 days was signif icantly higher f or treated samples in

the two other seed lots .

Studies wil l continue to evaluate ef f ectivene ss of RF energy f or improvinggermination and emergence characteristics of seed

,and ef f orts wi l l be made

to learn the basic reasons f or Observed ef f ects of RF seed treatment .

on ef f ects of electri c glow- di scharge radiation on seeds and p lant productshave been continued at Knoxvi l le , Tennessee , in cooperation with the Departments o f Agricultural Engineering and Nutrition of the Tennessee Agri culturalExperiment Station and the Cr0ps Research Division , ARS . In Oooperativete sts comparing glow- discharge , radiof requency , and inf rared treatment of

three al f al f a seed lots containing high percentages of hard- seed, all three

type s of treatment were equal ly ef f ective in lowering hard- seed contentand producing a corresponding increase in germination . Methods were developedf or measuring the conductivity of leachate solutions f or al f al f a seed samples .

Leachate conductivity, water sorption, and oxygen uptake were increased byall three types of treatment . In addition , glow- discharge treatment acce lerated emergence of one variety in greenhouse sand emergence tests .

-215

At Pullman , Washington , in cooperation with the Departments of AgriculturalEngineering and Agronomy of the washington .Agricultural Experiment Station ,

glow - discharge radiation was also e f f ective in reduc ing the hard- seed per

centage of red c lover at both ihgh and low moisture contents . Hard - seed

percentages in sweetc lover seed lots , however, were lowered only when seed

moisture content was very low .

Samp les of Kentucky bluegrass seed exhibiting a h igh degree of dormancy were

sub jected to ultraviolet and heat treatments in a hot water bath , as we l l as

glow - discharge radiation , at'

Knoxville , Tennennessee , in cooperative studieswith Crops Research Division personne l at Be ltsville , Maryland . A 180° F .

heat treatment signif icantly increased emergence at both 11 and 27 - day

counts . These studies wil l be continued in 1963 .

In experiments to he lp explain changes in soybeans caused by exposure to an

e lectric glow- discharge , Ogden soybeans were ground into meal and used as

the protein supplement of a diet f ed to rats in an experiment conducted in

cooperation with the Nutrition Department of the University of TennesseeCo llege of Home Economics . The animals f ed the treated bean meal showed

a 15 percent higher gain than the anima ls f ed the untreated meal . The experi

ment is to be continued using di f f erent leve ls of treatment intensity .

Research continued in cooperation with. crops Research Division and the‘

Washington Agricultural Experiment Station to determine e f f ects of glowdischarge e lectrical seed treatment on wheat . Fie ld trials on spring and

winter wheats have shown no signif icant dif f erences in emergence or p lantheight due to treatment , except where the treatment was damaging . A smal lincrease in emergence rate was noted in one spring wheat variety .

3 . Electrostatic Seed. Separation . At Corval l is , Oregon , a study was con

ducted with the electrostatic machine to determine if seed. mixtures that could

not be separated with the conventional mach ines (which sense only the S ize ,

shape , length , and density of seeds ) could be separated by the ir dif f erencesin electrical conductivity . The pro ject was terminated in 1962 but the

e lectrostatic machine was used on some twenty problem seed samp les , f our

of which were considered successf ul . Witchweed seeds were removed f rom

two types of sandy soil ; inert matter and seed heads were removed f rom

onion seeds; and pink bo l lworms were removed f rom cotton gin trash .

1 . Electri c Equipment f or Soil'

Warming and P lant Growth . Investigations were

begun in Indiana to determine the f undamental requirements f or instal lationand. management of electric soil heating cab le systems to maintain suitab legrowth conditions f or turf in heavy- use areas . This is in cooperation withthe Purdue University Departments of Agronomy and Agricultural Engineering .

Pre l iminary trials showed that temperatures of 65°F . deve loped through

under - turf heating using e lectric heating cab les produced vigorous bluegrass

growth in excess of that desired in a ten - day period in early March 19 62,whi le unwarmed turf remained dormant .

-216

A turf heating installation , 20 x 60 f eet , was made in late October . Pre

l iminary results Show that , while b luegrass sod remained dormant on unheated

soil , root extension was 3 5 inches by December 31 on heated areas . Top

growth. was Observed where a plastic cover was used in addition to supple'

mentary heat and in uncovered areas having 10 watts per square f oot or'

more

of heat applied . Rooting was more unif orm in the plastic covered areas withwintertime desiccation of leaves reduced so that turf remained essentiallya normal green even at extreme low temperatures .

2 . Solar E nt f or Grain D The results of three years (1960 , 61 ,- storage ests of sorghum grain have shown

v

that a

solar supplemented system. resulted in a saving of 55, 77 , and 48 percent,respectively, in energy costs as compared to the natural air dryingj system .

No additional heat was needed by the solar supplemented system . However ,the natural air system. required added heat f rom. 1iquef ied petroleum sourceduring the 1961 tests .

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Current Program and

reliminary Report of Progress

of the

United States Department of Agricultureand cooperative agenc ies

Section B

This progress report of and cooperative research is,pri

marily a too l f or use of scientists and administrators in program

coordination, deve lopment and evaluation; and f or use of advisorycommittees in program review and deve lopment of recommendationsf or f uture research programs .

The summar ies of progress on and cooperative research in

clude some tentative results that have not been tested suf f ic ientlyto justify general release . Such f indings , when adequate ly con

f irmed will be re leased promptly through establ ished channe ls .

Because of th is , the report is not intended f or pub l ication and

should not be re f erred to in literature citations . Copies are

distributed only to» members of Department staf f , advisory committeemembers and others having a special interest in the deve lopmentof pub l ic agricultural research programs .

Th is report also inc ludes a l ist of pub l ications reporting resultsof and cooperative research issued during the lastyear . Current agricultural research f indings are also publ ishedin the monthly pub l ications , Agricultural Research ,

.Agricultural Marketing, and The Farm Index .

U. S. DEPT. OFAGRWULTURE

NATWRALAGRiCULTURALUBRARY

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREwash ington , D . 0 .

De cember 31 , 1963

Section B

NUTRITION, CONSUMER .AND INDUSTRIAL USE RESEARCHCereal Starches Industrial Util izationWheat Industrial Util izationCorn , Sorghum, and Other Feed Grains Improved Industrial ,Feed and Food Products

High -Amylose Corn Industrial Uti l izationWheat and Corn Fermentative Convers ion to New Industrial ,Feed and Food Products

Wheat and Bar ley Food and Feed Products and ProcessingForages and Feed Process ing and ProductsForages and Feed Processing and ProductsRice Processing and ProductsRice Processing and Productsm an Nutrit ion and Consumer USe Research

III . MARKETING AND ECONOMIC RESEARCHGrain -

.Market Qual ityRice Market Qua l ity

Marketing Fac il ities , Equipment and. Methods

Cooperative MarketingEconomics of MarketingConsumer Pre f erence and Qua l ity Discrimination Household

Economic and Statistical Analys is

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The Department conducts a continuing , long- range program of research

invo lving analytical , organic and phys ical Chemists and chemical engineersengaged in. basic , applied and developmental studies on the chemistry of

cereal starches and their conversion to usefu l industrial products .

The Federal scientif i c ef f ort f or research on cereal starches totals

prof essional man-

years . Of this number are devoted to chemical compo

Research at Peoria , I l linois , on chemical composition and physical properties prof essional mane

years ) invo lves fundamental research on reactionsof starch and dextrose in nonaqueous so lvents . Research contracts under

this subheading prof essional man-years ) are in ef fect with the University of .Arizona , Tucson , Arizona , f or

'

basic studies on the reaction of

starch with. mercaptans prof essional manr

year ) and with acetyleneprof essional man- year ) ; and with The Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore ,

Maryland , f or basic research on the reactions of starch in f luid dynamicmedia

Resear ch at Peoria , I l l inois , on new starch chemical der ivatives and theirevaluation prof essional manr years ) invo lves basic and applied studieson various types of chemi cal products derived f rom starch and dextrin and

in evaluation of these products f or various industrial uses such as pu lpand paper products , p lastics , coatings , organic chemicals and stab le vis

cosity agents . During the reporting period research was discontinued on

production of hydroxymethyl furfural f rom starch and on use of dialdehydestarch as a raw material f or new chemical products . Research contractsunder this subheading (ll .h prof essional man- years ) are in ef f ect with the

University of Minnesota , St . Pau l , Minnesota , f or studies on reactions of

dialdehyde starch in so lution ( .A prof essional manr year ) ; with Ohio StateUniversity , Co lumbus , Ohio , f or research on synthesis of amino

_

derivatives

of starch prof essional mane years ) ; with the State University of New

York, Syracuse , New Yerk , f or evaluation of crosslinked hypoch loriteoxidized starches in papermaking prof essional man—year ) ; with Batte l leMemorial Institute , Co lumbus , Ohio , f or evaluation of allyl dialdehydestarch in coatings and resins prof essional man—

years ) and f or deve lopmental research on starch and other cereal grain xanthides prof essionalman-

years ) ; and with Stanf ord Research Institute , Men lo Park, Calif ornia ,

f or research on graf t copo lymers of cereal starches with vinyl— type monomers

prof essional man-

years ) .

The Department also sponsors research on cereal starches conducted by

f oreign institutions under grants of PL h80 funds . Research on chemicalcomposition and physical properties involves grants to the Institute of

Fibres and Forest Products , Jerusalem , Israe l , f or research on hypOhalite

oxidation of cereal starches (5 years , 1958 University of Birming

ham , England , f or research on starch structure as revealed by interactionof starch and enzymes (5 years , l959— l96h ) ; National Institute of Hygiene ,

Paris , France , f or research on proteolysis inhibiting ef f ects of cerealstar ches and f lours (5 years , 1961 National Institute of AgronomicResearch , Paris , France , f or research on changes induced in starch by

gamma irradiation (h years , 1961 and Scienti f ic Institute f or

Chemistry and Biochemistry , Mi lan , Italy , f or research on g lucopyranoserings in starches and dextrins (5 years , 1962 New starch chemicalderivatives and their evaluation invo lves grants to the Arthur D . Litt leResearch Institute , NMsselburgh , Scot land , f or research on g lucose- derivedpolymers (h years , 1959 Hebrew University , Jerusalem , Israe l , f orstudies of methods f or preparing f luorine derivatives of starch (B

’

years ,

1961 Institute of Industrial Chemistry , Bo logna , Italy , f or studieson f atty chemical derivatives of starch dextrins (5 years , 1960National Institute of Techno logy , Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , f or research on

phosphorus and sul f ur- containing cationic starches (5 years , 1962

and Ahmedabad Textile Industries Research Association ,.Ahmedabad , India ,

f or research on starch- gum copolymers prepared by codextrinization (5 years ,

1965

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA .AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

.A . Chemical Composition and Physical Properties

theory . The procedure was shown c to be generally applicab le to a ldoses .

Preliminary cost estimates f or disorbitylamine suggest a se l ling price of

about 50 cents per pound (without provision f or recovery and sale of bye

products ) . A survey of market potential conducted by the ERS representa

tive at NU indicated a potential market f or organic che lating agents of

about 50 mi l lion pounds per year . In view of its probab le se l ling price ,

disorbitylamine appears to merit f urther consideration f or end uses suchas textile sequestrants and biodegradab le detergents . Derivatives of

disorbitylamine of particu lar interest are those combining sequestrationand surf ace activity . Another product , isomaltol , has attracted the

attention of a commercial f irm , which has indicated intention to produceth is product under NU patents .

Further study of complexes of carbohydrates and alkali metal hydroxidesshowed that in the nonaqueous solvent , Nemethyl- 2-

pyrro lidone , such com

p lexes are at least 85 percent in the alcoho late f orm, whereas when these

comp lexes are f ormed in aqueous media , they are not alcoholates but rather

simple adducts . Studies on f ormation of comp lexes of alkali metal saltsand carbohydrates in alcoho lic media have c larif ied the ef f ects of saltconcentration and of the presence of water . Comp lexes of the metal saltwith two carbohydrate mo lecules are f avored by anhydrous conditions and

low salt concentration . With higher salt concentrations and up to 5 per

cent O f water , the ratio of salt to carbohydrate in the comp lex increased .

In the presence of water , alkali hydroxides behaved like salts ; e . g .

comp lexes ranged f rom 1 sucrose -3 NaoH to 2 sucrose o l NaOH .

2 . Reactions of starch with acetylene and mercaptans . In contract researchat the University of Arizona , statistical analysis of experimental datarevealed optimum conditions f or f ive variab les (time , temperature , pressure ,

proportion of KOH , and so lvent ratio ) in the reaction of acetylene withstarch .

Starches were Observed to dif f er in reactivity to acetylene . For best

resu lts corn and sorghum starches required an activation treatment which

was not necessary f or wheat , waxy corn or waxy sorghum , h igh— amylose corn

starch , potato starch and corn amylose . Vinyl starches of to

degree of substitution were so lub le in methano l , acetone , dioxane and tetra

hydrof urane but not in water , ether , benzene and carbon tetrach loride .

Films f rom polymers O f vinyl amylopectin and O f vinyl h igh - amylose cornstarch were britt le .

Other contract studies at Arizona on g lucose—mercaptan reaction productsyielded dark- co lored materials showing some promise as adhesives .

3 . Reactions of starch in f luid dypamic systems . Early resu lts of con

tract studies at Johns Hopkins University indicate that reactions O f starch

with propylene glyco l or dimethylsulf oxide at temperatures above 100° C .

merit further study in f luid f low systems .

A . Hypohalite oxidation of starches . At the Institute f or Fibres and

Forest Products Research , Jerusalem ,Israe l , a chemical equation has been

deve loped on the basis of kinetic data that describes the oxidative reao

tion , and the inf luence of dif f erent process conditions on the rate of

reaction has been determined . Analyti cal determinations on oxidizedstarches have revealed the amount of starch polymer c leavage and the number

and type of new functional groups that resu lt f rom oxidations under dif f erent conditions . This work is providing a basis f or the corre lation of

chemical structure with usef ul physical and chemical properties so that

products of unif orm quality can be routine ly made , and so that products of

improved quality f or specif ic end uses can be obtained by altering processconditions . This research , which was perf ormed under a PL A80 grant , has

been comp leted .

of Birmingham, England , under a PL A80 grant , reversib le reactions between

large mo lecules are being investigated by sedimentation and e lectrophoresismethods with the aim of interpreting the interaction of starch with its

associated enzymes . Procedures were deve loped f or successfu l enzymaticsynthesis of mode l starch mo lecules of exceptionally unif orm. molecu1ar

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. 223

metal ion catalyst is needed and the oxidant requirement is c lose to

theory . An automatic system. f or contro l l ing and recording pH and redox

potential during oxidative coup ling of xanthate was devised .

Xanthates may be added in so lution to a wood pu lp suspension and then

crosslinked to insolub le xanthides (in situ f ormation ) or they may be

separately inso lubi lized and added to the pu lp ( gx situ f ormation ) . In

laboratory studies , addition of xanthide prepared ex situ gave variab leresu lts . However , exp loratory experiments have provided leads to techniques that may resu lt in consistently good wet and dry strength increasesby gx situ f ormation of xanthide . In use of xanth ide f ormed in situ ,

f reshness of xanthate and presence of alum f avorab ly inf luenced retention .

wet strength of xanth ide papers was improved by heating or extended low

temperature equi libration .

A contract , covering development of a practical process f or continuousproduction of cereal xanthate and f or optimum use in paper of xanthidef ormed

_§x situ , has been negotiated with Batte l le Memorial Institute .

2 . Eva luation of dialdehyde starch (DAS ) and derived products . Extensiveevaluation studies on DAS- betaine hydrazones ( cationic DAS ) showed that

percent of cationic DAS produced a wet- strength increase equal to that

Obtained with percent each of ordinary DAS and cationic- starch retentionaid . Addition of more than percent of cationic DAS gave greater in

creases than were possib le with DAS p lus retention aid . .All of the

desirab le properties imparted to paper by DAS p lus retention aid are alsoimparted by cationic DAS . S imu ltaneous cationization and dispersion of

DAS were readily ach ieved by heating brief ly at 92° C . a suspension of DAS

to which th e betaine was added . Large- scale trials of cationic DAS in bag

paper and towe ling were made at Forest Products Laboratory . The resu ltswere very successf u l . Retentions of 8A— 90 percent of the cationic DAS‘

were achieved .

Birch plywood adhesives prepared by reacting casein and DAS had rapid co ldset and good dry strength . Dry shear strength and wet strength (af ter A8hours soaking in co ld water ) exceeded values f or commercial case in glue .

The DAS- casein g lue bond also resisted de lamination in boiling water . Howa

ever , poor‘

bonding was Obtained with Doug las f ir , presumably because pene

tration was decreased by the resins present in. the wood . light sandingwas f ound to improve greatly adhesion with Doug las f ir , and pre liminarytests of isopropano l as an additive to the g lue to promote penetrationappeared promising . For this development to achieve success it wi l l benecessary to solve the prdblem. of adhesion to Doug las f ir , wh ich repre

sents the major portion of the potential market . In 1960 , about 270 mi l lionpounds of adhesives were used by the plywood industry . Casein adhesives ,

if crosslinked by DAS , may be suitab le f or exterior use . Such use wou ldrepresent a substantial new market f or DAS . Present resu lts a lso indicate

-22A

that DAS has potential f or improvement of animal b lood and soy f lour

adhesives , which together make up the bulk of the 120 million pounds of

protein adhesives now used in plywood .

Studies at the University of Minnesota were continued on partially oxidizedcorn starch in an e f f ort to determine the mode of attack of periodate on

starch . Borohydride reduction with subsequent hydro lysis of 29 percent and

A3 percent periodate— oxidized starch yie lded glycerol , erythrito l , 2— 0—OPD

glucopyranosyl- D—erythrito l , and a series of erythrito l glucosides of

h igher o ligosaccharides . Two dif f erent disaccharide f ractions were also

Obtained which are being characterized .

At Batte l le Memorial Institute , allyl DAS was f ound to have the so lubilityand viscosity properties and compatibi lity with p lasti cizers required f or

commercial lacquers . Fi lms cast on tin p late and cured f or 30— 60 minutes

at temperatures f rom. lA0°

to A00°

F . , were hard but had inadequate strength

when unsupported . A . molded product Obtained by copolymerization of al lylDAS and polyethylene glyco l dimethacrylate had promising properties .

Studies on chemicals f rom DAS were discontinued , except f or preparation of

materials f or use in the contract work at Batte l le .

In contract research at the State University of New York, hand sheets were

prepared with two leve ls of addition of dialdehyde wheat starch , 90—93

percent oxidation , and dialdehyde corn starch , 10 percent oxidation . Tests

of the products as wet end additives are , however , not yet complete .

Standard dress shoes with so les of experimental DAS—tanned leather (preparedduring contract research by Armour Leather Company ) were manuf acturedaccording to Quartermaster Corps specif ications in September 1962 . Thesewere cross- matched with standard dress shoes and are being given servicetests at the Quartermaster Fie ld Evaluation Agency at Fort Lee ,

Virginia .

.A f ina l report on the perf ormance of the experimental shoes should be

avai lab le by the middle of l96A.

3 . Chemical products f rom starch and dextrin . Several new acetals of

starch , amylose and glucose were prepared . They showed a very wide range

of properties depending on the carbohydrate and the degree of substitution .

Low D . S . (degree of substitution ) starch - dihydropyran acetals appeared to

have good properties as warp sizes f or synthetic yarns .

So f ar , attempts to improve the . coagulant properties of starch by introducing dif f ering amounts of acrylamide groups into cationic starch havenot been successfu l .

'

Very low D . S . (be low cyanoethylated starchesand dextrins had promising properties as paper

- coating adhesives and gavebetter bonding than commercial starch adhesives f or coatings containinglow (AO percent ) so lids content .

Po lyo l glycosides ( f rom reaction of starch and a glyco l ) were polyetherif ied

by reaction with propylene oxide . Rigid urethane f oams , made f rom the

-225

polyethers by the prepolymer method , had densities of to pounds

per cubic f oot and dimensional stab ility and compressive strengths

suf f iciently good to justif y more extended study and evaluation . Rigidf oams based on polyethers of starch po lyo l g lycosides appear to havecommercia lly acceptab le properties . Cost estimates indicate that they

cou ld be produced at competitive prices . Since the world market f or rigidf oams is expe cted to exceed 110 mil lion pounds by 1965, success in th isdevelopment cou ld lead to a signif icant new market f or starch .

In contract research at Ohio State University , several aminated amylose

derivatives have been prepared .

.At the Hebrew University , Jerusalem , Israe l , several mode l compounds such

as B—tetraacetyl g lucose- 6—bromchydrin. have been prepared-

and exchangereactions between the halogen in these models and various inorganicf luorides are being studied to provide guide lines f or introducing f luorineinto starch . In studies at the National Institute of Techno logy , Rio de

Janeiro , Brazi l , starch was reacted with thioglyco l ic acid in the presenceof su lf ur ic acid catalyst to obtain starch thiog lyco late . This product

was reacted with ethy l iodide to yie ld the su lf onium derivative whi chappeared to have cationic properties . Scientists at the Institute of

Industrial Chemistry , Bologna , Italy , have made many f atty ester and some

f atty amine derivatives of f ractions of corn dextrin . The results are

promising f or locating a possib le source of biodegradab le detergentsuti lizing waste f ats and surp lus cereal grains . These studies are beingconducted under PL A8O grants .

on new chemical products f rom starch is supported by evaluation studies to

determine the quality and perf ormance of these products in app l ications in

the pulp , paper and paperboard industry . Dur ing the reporting period tests

were conducted , f or examp le , with starch xanthates and xanthides , cationi cdialdehyde starch , and cyanoethylated starch . Results of the evaluationstudies are reported in conjunction with the general discussion of research

on the specif ic starch product .

5 . Po lymers based on carbohydrates . Investigators at the Arthur D . LittleResearch Institute , Musse lburgh , Scotland , have prepared a neW

'

water

so lub le glucose polymethacrylate as wel l as the f irst known h igh mo lecu larweight polymer of a glucose- derived vinyl ether . Other nove l polymericproducts synthesized inc lude a series of polyphenyl esters derived f rom

bispheno l A and carbohydrate diacid chlorides and a series of nylon~6 ,13type polyamides Obtained by reaction of brassyloyl ch loride and carbohyb

drate diamines . Several of the nylon - type polymers reported previouslyare being evaluated by British industrial f irms f or use in f ibers and as

adsorbents f or removal of protein tannin. haze in. beer . This work is beingconducted under a PL A8O grant .

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Hof reiter , B . T . , Hamerstrand , G . E . , and Meh ltretter , C . L . Nov . 6 , 1962 .

Wet- strength paper containing po lymeric dialdehydes . U . S . Patent

Hof reiter , B . T . , Hamerstrand , G . E . , and Mehltretter , C . L . Dec . A , 1962 .

Process f or making h igh wet- strength paper containing polymeric dialde

hyde . U . S . Patent

Hof reiter , B . T . , Hamerstrand , G . E . , and t ltretter , C . L . .Apr . 30 , 1963 .

Cationi c polymeric dialdehydes and their use in making wet strength paper .

U . S . Patent

Kay , D . J . , Hamerstrand , G . E . , and Hof reiter , B . T . 1962 . Rapid photo

.metric determination of dialdehyde starch in paper . Tappi A5(l2 ) ,pp . 9A3- 9AA.

t ltretter , C . L. , Yeates , T . E . , Hamerstrand , G . E . , Hof reiter , B . T . ,

and Rist , C . E . 1962 . Preparation of cationic dialdehyde starches f or

wet- strength paper . Tappi A5(9 ) , pp . 750- 752 .

Naf f ziger , T . R . , Hof reiter , B . T . , and Rist , C . E . 1962 . Upgrading

insulating board and mo lded pu lp products by minor additions of

dialdehyde starch . Tappi A5(9 ) , pp . 7AS- 750 .

Otey , F . H . , t ltretter , C . L. , and Rist ,C . E . 1963 . Po lyoxyethylene

ethers of some polyol glycosides and th eir f atty esters . J.Am. Oil

Chemists ' Soc . AO (2 ) , pp . 76- 78 .

Otey , F . H . , Wilham , C . A . , and Meh ltretter , C . L . Ju ly 2A, 1962 .

Process f or making erythrito l and ethylene glyco l f rom. polymeric

dialdehydes . U . S . Patent 3 ,OA6 ,3l2 .

Schaef er , W . C. , Maurice , J . J . , Russe l l , C . R . , and Rist , C . E . 1962 .

Intrins ic viscosity of dialdehyde starch in alkaline urea af ter reductionwith borohydride . Cereal Chem . 39 (A) , pp . 30A- 310 .

schaef er , W . C . , Russe l l , C . R . , Maurice , J . J . , and Rist , C . E . 1965 .

Thineboiling starches f rom. the reaction of corn starch with ch lorinein methano l . Cereal Chem . uo(2 ) , pp . 101- 109 .

Wagoner , J . F . ,1 Stemoroski , J . C . ,

1 Windus , W . ,2 and Witham, W . C .

( !Armour Leather Co . , Wi l liamsport , Pa . ;2Eastern Uti l . Res . Devlpmt .

Div . , Agr . Res . Serv . , U.S . Dept . Agr . , Phi ladelphia , 1962 .

Dialdehyde starch as a pretanning agent f or vegetab le- tanned so leleather . J . .Am . Leather Chemists ' Assoc . pp . 302- 317 .

Weakley , F . M; L. , and ehltretter ,C . L . 1963 . Casein

dialdehyde starch adhesive f or wood . Forest Prod . J . l3 (2 ) , pp . 51- 55.

~228

Northern Uti lization Research and Deve lopment Division , ARS

Prob lem . Wheat traditionally commands a higher price ~than corn . Since the

starch content and starch properties of these two cerea ls are

similar , new industrial uses f or wheat must re ly on advantages to be Obtainedf rom other components . Wheat f lour is a mixture of starch , protein , gums ,

f iber , and f at . Because of the simultaneous presence of these basic ingredients , opportunities are promising f or deve lopment of a wide variety of

industrial products f rom wheat f lour that wou ld be expected to have proper

ties and uses dif f erent f rom those of re lated products derived f rom re f inedstarch . The prob lem is to f ind means f or economical modif i cation and reao

tion of these ingredients with each other and with other chemicals in order

to realize the potential of the combinations .

Basic research now being conducted by the Department points to new potentia lindustrial uses f or cereal starches and f lours that cou ld consume over200 mi l lion bushe ls of grain by 1975 . Among potential out lets f or Wheat

f lour are sizes f or many special grades of paper , cereal pulps that wou ldf orm an integral part of such papers , and p lastic or f oamed compositionsf or hardboard and insu lating boards . The Opportunity f or successful

realization of these possibi lities is enhanced by recent ly deve loped f inegrinding and air- c lassif ication mi l ling techniques that permit the composition of f lour to be varied over wide ranges . These

‘

techniques are now

satisf actory f or sof t wheats , but ways must be f ound to adapt them to hard

Wheats which constitute 93 percent of the wheat remaining af ter current

needs have been met .

Wheat f lour cou ld achieve its share of potential new markets more rapidly,and discovery of additional new uses under both pub lic and private research

programs wou ld be f aci litated , if more inf ormation were avai lab le on the

basic physical properties and chemi cal reactions of f lour and its components ,

on tempering and mi l ling techniques , and on processing methods f or economical conversion of f lour to desired end products .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department conducts a continuing long- range program of researchinvo lving analytical , organi c and physical chemists , chemical engineersand structural bio logists engaged in basic studies of th e chemical and

physical properties of wheat , f lour , f lour f ractions , and protein coma

ponents and in app lied research leading to new and improved Wheat productsf or industrial use .

The Federal scienti f ic ef f ort f or research on industrial uti lization of

wheat totals A7 . 2 prof essional mane years . Of th is number lA.A are devoted

to hemical co osition and h sice l ro erties ; to industrialchemical roducts ; and to processipg techno logy .

Research at Peoria , I l linois , on chemi cal composition and physicalproperties prof essional man-

years ) inc ludes separation , characteri

zation and chemical reactions of the component proteins of Wheat g luten .

Research contracts ( 2 .A prof essional man-

years ) are in ef f ect at Purdue

University , Laf ayette , Indiana , f or fundamenta l studies of the alkalinedesu l f urization of gluten prof essiona l mane year ) ; and Armour Research

Foundation , Chicago , I l linois , f or investigation of methods f or contro l ledhydro lysis of g luten prof essional man—

years ) .

Investigations on industrial chemical products conducted at Peoria ,

I l linois , prof essional man—years ) involve preparation and evalu

ation of new types of water- so lub le and water- inso lub le f lour derivativesf or industrial use . During the reporting period laboratory studies on

hydroph i lic f lour derivatives , such as su lf ated Wheat f lour , was p lacedin abeyance to permit strengthening of the research e f f ort on xanthates

and xanthides of starch , wheat f lour and other cereal products . Research

contracts prof essional man—years ) are in ef f ect with Stanf ord Research

Institute , a lo Park, Cali f ornia , f or basic research on graf t copolymersf rom Wheat f lour and starch (1 .A prof essional man-years ) ; and Iowa StateUniversity , Ames , Iowa , f or studies on deve lopment of improved adhesivesf rom Wheat gluten by reaction with dialdehyde starch prof essiona l man

year ) and f or engineering studies on use of pneumatic f luidization to

ef f ect acid modif ication of f lour prof essional man—year ) .

Processing techno logy research at Peoria , I l linois , prof essionalman-

years ) involves studies on conditioning and mi l ling of wheat , air

c lassif ication of f lours , and reduction of viable microorganisms in wheat

f lour . A research contract prof essiona l man-

year ) with Kansas StateUniversity , Manhattan , Kansas , is concerned with study of the me chanismof enzyme f ormation dur ing wheat malting and re lationship of the inf ormationdeve loped to contro l of enzymes and their action during mi l ling and processing of wheat .

The Department also sponsors research in th is area conducted by f oreigninstitutions under grants of PL A8O funds . Research on chemical composition and physical properties invo lves a grant to the We izmann Institute of

Science , Rehovot , Israe l , f or synthesis and study of po lypeptides havingamino acid compositions re lated to wheat g liadin and corn zein (A years ,

1960- l96A) . Research on processing techno logy invo lves a grant to the

Research Association of British Flour Mi llers , St . Albans ,England , f or

investigations on quantitative measurement of properties of wheat that

change signif icantly dur ing conditioning (A years , 1961

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-231

more rapid than the rate of its reaction with the amino group of B- alanine .

Cyanoethylation of a mixture of these compounds resulted in comp lete reao

tion of SH groups accompanied by reaction of 10 percent of the NHg groups .

Reoxidation in di lute so lution of either reduced g lutenin or g liadin gavea f inal product resemb ling the original gliadin . In concentrated solution ,

cohesive partic les solub le only in ureaAbisulf ite solutions were Obtained .

The research on cyanoethylation of sulfhydryl and amino groups is part of

a broader study designed to throw l ight on the kinetics and other characteristics of reactions of vinyl compounds with se lected chemical groups of

amino acids f ound in wheat protein . These reactions are important to

chemical modif i cation of protein f or industrial purposes . The inf ormationObtained in th is study , as we l l as that resulting f rom characterization of

individual protein components and f rom other basic research on compositionand properties of wheat protein , is essential to the development of new

products f rom either wheat prote in , f lour , or f lour f ractions .

In contract research at Armour Research Foundation , hydrolysis of gluten in

f ormic , trich loracetic or hydroch loric- acetic acid solutions yie lded prod

ucts shown. by sedimentation to be nonunif orm in molecu lar size . At Purdue

University , contract research on desulf urization. has been concerned withestab lishment of methodo logy and pre liminary experimentation .

3 . Sypthetic polypeptides related to wheat gliadin . Modif ied g liadinsso lub le in water at neutral pH were prepared by graf ting either polyalanyl

or polyaspartyl side chains to the g liadin . The so lub i lity of wheat g lutenin water was enhanced considerab ly by graf ting polyalanyl side chains to

gluten . Signif icant progress was made in re lating so lution properties of

polypeptides to their structure . This research is being conducted by the

Weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot , Israe l , under a PL A8O grant .

1 . id- modif ied f lour (AMF ) and hydroxyethylated

acid- modif ied f lour prepared in the pi lot p lant of the Northern

Division , were used in. machine trials at the Forest Products Laboratory .

Running characteristics of both were acceptab le although protein enrichment of recyc led s ize solutions of both materials took p lace . Improvementsin paper properties ef f ected by both experimental materials were simi lar to

those ef f ected by the contro l , which was a high-

grade , commercial. hypo~

ch lorite- oxidized starch . Despite variations in. the paper sized with the

control , AMT appears to be a satisf actory product although this conclusioncannot be drawn categorically; Demonstration of essential equivalence of

HEAMF and the control appears to be def inite .

Laboratory studies on AMF indi cated that unextractab le prote in (e itherbound to starch or denatured ) is the most likely cause of se lective uptake

of carbohydrate and accompanying lack of penetration When AMF is used as

a paper size . Brightness of c lay coatings made with AMF or hydroxy

ethylated AME had previously been reported to be signif icantly h igher than

f or coatings made with commercia l starch products . Observations of stored

samples showed that th is superiority has persisted f or a 2-

year period .

Rheo logi cal properties and adhesive strength of the coatings equa led or

exceeded controls .

Engineering studies on the process f or producing AMF sh owed that satisf actory products can. be made by using gaseous HCl , f lour dried to 10 percentmoisture , and a reaction time of about 3 hours . This gas

-

phase process is

kinetically equivalent to that using dry f lour and AN aqueous HCl , and the

products of the two procedures have chemically similar characteristics .

Reaction time can be shortened to less than 30 minutes by Operating at 110°

F

Cost estimates indicate a cost- to- make of about 2 cents per pound exc lusiveof f lour cost f or the AN HCl process . For the gas

- phase process at h ighertemperatures , cost—to- make is reduced to about cents per pound . Calcu

lations assumed a p lant making 12 mi l lion pounds of AMF annually .

xanthides ( see Area No . 1 , Part B- l ) , the analogous derivatives of Wheat

f lour , bran , ground Wheat and re lated materials produce advantageousimprovement in properties when incorporated into pulp and paper products .

A mixer- kneader is being used successf u l ly f or continuous production of

cereal xanthates in the absence of inert diluents . Studies to estab lishconditions f or Optimum results are sti l l in progress ; however , present data

show that f or degrees of substitution in the range of to 87 to

80 percent , respectively , of the added\

carbon disu lf ide reacts to f orm

xanthate with a residence time in. the mixer of 2 minutes . Data f rom all

runs were submitted to Biometrical Services f or statistical analysis to

Obtain inf ormation on the ef f ects of conditions in production of xanthates

with the mixer—kneader . .A continuous 6 . 54hour"

production run"

of xanthate

was accomplished successf ully .

Insu lating wal l boards were prepared containing f lour xanthate crosslinked

and insolubi lized with zinc . Boards containing 10 percent of f lour zincxanthate were l ighter but stronger than commercial boards . The best experi

mental boards were 1 to 2 times as strong as commercial boards of

simi lar density . Drainage time in preparation o f the boards was signif i

cantly shortened . Industry has expressed much interest in this deve lopment .

Other studies are providing much new inf ormation on the chemistry of cerealxanthates . Some of the more important resu lts inc lude : (1 ) Discovery of

conditions f or xanthation. by a method requiring no so lvent ; (2 ) improvedtechniques f or crosslinking with zinc ion ; and (3 ) demonstration with mode lcompounds that the xanthate- xanth ide redox system. is apparently reversib lein the presence of certain so lvents and inorgani c salts .

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3 . New aopolymers f pom Wheat starch . In contract research_

at Stanf ordResearch Institute , new techniques have been deve loped Whereby starchgraf t copolymers such as the f o l lowing can

'

be obtained : starch with up

to AO percent add- on of methyl methacrylate , graf t dens ity up to l branch/65 AGU; starch with up to 25 percent add- on of styrene , graf t density upto l

'

branch/52 or 100 AGU at same add- on ; starch with about 16 percentadd- on of butyl acrylate or 17 percent add- on of methyl acrylate , graf t

density f or both about It was shown f urther that oil- in

water emu lsion systems can. be used ef f ective ly f or graf ting of styrene to

starch . Inso lub le acrylonitri le graf t copolymers cou ld be so lubi lized bypartial hydrolysis of the CN groups , showing that these copolymers are not

crosslinked as previously supposed .

The new and improved techniques f or preparing these graf t copolymers make

it possible to prepare a wider variety of products and thus greatly enhancethe opportunities f or deve loping commercially usefu l materials . Studieshave been initiated to evaluate graf t 0 0polymers f or various app licationsin paper , such as wet- end additives , sizes , adhesives and f loccu latingagents

paper industpy . Research on chemically modif ied wheat f lour and re latedproducts is supported by evaluation studies to determine the quality and

perf ormance of these products in app li cations in the pulp , paper and paper

board industry . During the reporting period tests were conducted , f orexamp le , with wheat f lour xanthates and xanthides , acid- modi f ied f lour ,

and wheat starch graf t copolymers . Resu lts of the evaluation studies are

reported in conjunction with the general discussion of research . on the

specif ic wheat f lour product .

5 . .Adhesives from gluten and dialdepyde starch (DAS ) . In contract researchat Iowa State University , inf ormation. is being deve loped on Optimum conditions f or the preparation and use of the g luten—DAS adhesive with regard

to both workab i lity and perf ormance as an adhesive f or wood and to the

economy of adhesive production . Calcium hydroxide was the best so lvent of

seven systems studied f or solid mixtures of DAS and gluten . Best strength

of adhesive bond was obtained f rom a mixture of AO parts of gluten. with 2

parts DAS - 800- 900 p . s . i . Studies of aging the reactants , the reactionproducts , and the adhesive joints have been initiated to provide optimization of larger- scale studies .

C . Processipg Techno logy

1 . Fine grindipg and air c lassif i cation of wheat f lours . Investigationof f ine-

grinding and air- c lassif ication properties of f ive f lours f rom

varieties of Oklahoma HRW Wheat grown at seven f erti lizer leve ls showed

that individual variety and c limatic conditions af f ected prote in sh iftduring f ractionation of the f lours to a greater extent than did variations

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. 235

ma lting of wheat appears to be due to the state of the embryo as we l l as

to the presence of inhibitory substances in the seedcoat and/er endosperm .

Formation or re lease of QA amylase in the endosperm. was f ound to be stimu

lated by gibberellic acid and also by materials apparently coming f rom

the germinating embryo . The ef f ects of gibbere l li c acid seem. to involveoxidative activity , since SR- b locking agents inhibited activation .

Metabo li c activity of the aleurone layer was also stimu lated by gibbere l licacid and by material f rom the embryo . Growth of the embryo appeared to be

stimu lated in turn by material f rom the endosperm or other parts of the

seed .

h a NHcrObiology of f lour . Research has been initiated on examination of

the microf lora of wheat , f lour and f lour products . The u ltimate Objectiveof the work is the deve lopment of methods and processes to reduce viab lemicroorganisms in Wheat f lour as it is produced in the mi l l .

5 . uantitative measurement of wheat conditioni variab les . In studiesunder a PL A8O grant at the Cereals Research Station , Research Associationof British Flour Mi l lers , St . A lbans , Eng land , ef f ect of deep f reezin

both continuous and intermittent , at high kerne l moisture (25 percent was

investigated as a means of increasing endosperm f issuring . The treatments

increased f lour yie ld up to A percent without loss of color grade in

Menitoba (hard) wheat . Pre l iminary treatments of th is type on sof t whiteU .S . wheats gave simi lar resu lts with possib ly a s light increase in proteinre lease . Deep f reezing increased endosperm f issuring , which might beregarded as a step toward increased protein re lease . However , the f issuresdo not occur se lectively along the starch protein interf ace , as might be

hoped , but rather between individual endosperm ce l ls . Macro-wave heattreatment of wheat in Which the temper moisture was concentrated in the

bran resu lted in deterioration , rather than in improvement , of mi l lingquality .

PUBLICATIONS AND PATENTS REPORTING RESULTSOF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Chemical Composition and Phyaical Properties

Berger , A . , and Yaron , A . (The weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot ,Israe l ) . 1962 . Multichain poly

- Od- amino acids . In " Polyamino Acids ,

Polypeptides , and Proteins ,"

ed . M . A . Stahmann . Proc . Internl . Symp

Madison , Wisconsin , June l9- 2A, 1961 , pp . 13Dimler , R . J . 1962 . New deve lopments in the chemistry of Wheat gluten .

Proc . 2nd Pacif ic Northwest Wheat Uti l . Conf . ,Spokane , wash ington ,

Oct . 30- 31 , 1961 , pp . 53— 60 .

Jones , R . W., and Dimler , R . J . 1962 . Electrophoretic composition of

g lutens f rom air— c lassi f ied f lours . Cereal Chem . 39 (A) , pp . 336- 3h0

* Research supported by PL A8O f unds .

Sela , ML, Lupu , N . ,and Berger , A . (The Weizmann Institute of

Science , Rehovot ,Israe l ) . 1962 . Water- so lub le polypeptidyl gliadins .

Biochim . Biophys . Acta pp . 59A

Anderson , R . A . , and Gri f f in , E . L. , Jr . 1962 . Gluten and starch f rom

wheat f lour . .An improved process . Die Stfirke 1A (6 ) , pp . 210- 212 .

Lancaster , E . B . , Pope , and Grif f in , E . Lf , Jr . 1963 . Preparationof acid- modi f ied f lour f or tub sizing . Cereal Chem . AO ( 3 ) , pp . 269- 276 .

Naf f ziger ,T . R . ,

Swanson ,C . L. , Hof reiter , B . T . , Russe l l , C . R . , and

Rist , C . E . 1963 . Crosslinked wheat f lour xanthate—wood pu lp b lendsf or insulating board . Pub lished in part in .American Paper ConventionDaily , Feb . 20 , 1963 , pp . 22- 23 .

Rankin ,J . Russe l l , 0 . R . , and Sama lik, J . H . , Sr . Jan . 15, 1963 .

Process f or preparing improved sizing agents f rom cereal f lours .

U . S . Patent 3 ,073 ,72A.

Russe l l , C . R . , Buchanan , Rist , C . E . , Hof reiter , B . T . , and

Ernst , A , J . 1962 . Cereal pu lps . I . Preparation and app li cation of

c

ggss— linked cereal xanthates in paper products . Tappi AS(T) , pp . 557

5Smith , H . E . , and Russe ll , 0 . R . Oct . 9 , 1962 . Process f or preparingpolysaccharide sulf ates . U . S . Patent

Smith , H . E . , Russe l l , 0 . R . , and Rist , C . E . 1962 . Preparation and

properties of sulf ated wheat f lour . Cereal Chem . 39 (A) , pp . 273- 281 .

Smith , H . E . , Russe l l , C . R . , and Rist , C . E . 1963 . Note on the prepar

ation and use of polya 2- vinylpyridine

- su lf ur trioxide as a su lf atingagent f or starch . Cereal Chem , AO (3 ) , pp . 282- 285 .

Processing Techno logy

Dimler , R . J . , and Pf ei f er , V} F . 1962 . Fine grinding and air classif i

cation of wheat f lour . Proc . 1961 Wheat Uti l . Conf . , sponsored byWashington .Association of Wheat Growers in cooperation with WashingtonAgricu ltural Experiment Stations , Spokane , Oct . 30- 31 , 1961, pp . 39- A6 .

F leming , J . R . ,1 Johnson , J . A . ,

1 and Mi l ler , B . ( lKansas State Univ . ,

AES , Manhattan ; 2USDA Crops Research Div . Manhattan , Kansas ) . 1962 .

Wheat ma lting . Ef f ects of gibbere l lins and certain synergists on enzyme

production dur ing the malting of wheat . J . Agr . Food Chem , lo(A) ,pp . 3oA- 3o8 .

Grif f in , E . L. , Jr . 1962 . More versatile wheat f lours by air c lassif ication . Proc . First Natl . Conf . Wheat Uti l . Research , sponsored byNational Association of Wheat Growers ; western and Northern Uti lizationResearch and Deve lopment Divisions and other agencies of the U . S . Department of Agriculture ; the Nebraska Wheat Commission , Wheat Growers , and

State Experiment Station ; Western Wheat Associates ; and Great PlainsWheat , Inc . , Linco ln , Neb . , Oct . 29- 31, 1962 , pp . 109— 120 .

* Research . supported by PL A8O f unds .

Stringf e l low , A . C . , Pep linski , A . J . , and Grif f in , E . L. , Jr . 1963 .

Fractionation of Gaines wheat f lour f rom the Pacif ic Northwest .

Northwest . Mi l ler 268( l3 ) , pp . 374- 36 .

Stringf e l low , A . C . , Pf eif er , V . F . , and Grif f in , E . L. , Jr . 1962 . Air

c lassi f ication mi l ling resu lts f or wheat and other cereal f lours .

Baker 's Dig . 36 (A) , pp . 38—AO , A2 , 76 .

General

Dimler ,R . J . 1962 . Gluten - the key to wheat '

s uti lity . Proc . FirstNat l . Conf . Wheat Util . Research , sponsored by National Association of

Wheat Growers ; Western and Northern Uti lization Resear ch and Deve lopmentDivisions and other agencies of the U . S . Department of Agriculture ; theNebraska Wheat Commission , Wheat Growers , and State Experiment Station ;Western. Wheat Associates ; and Great Plains Wheat , Inc . , Linco ln , Neb . ,

Oct . 29— 31 , 1962 , pp . 88- 95 .

Dimler , R . J . 1963 . Glutene — th e key to wheat 's uti lity . Baker '

s Dig .

pp . 52—57 .

Mi l ler , D . L. , and Grif f in , E . L. , Jr . 1962 . Bridging uti lizationengineering deve lopment to industria l usage . North . Uti l . Res . Devlpmt .

Res . Serv . , U . S . Dept . .Agr . ARS - 7l- 20 , 2A pp .

Senti , F . R . 1962 . Cereal products in papermaking . Proc . First Natl .

Conf . Wheat Uti l . Research , sponsored by National As sociation of Wheat

Growers ; Western and Northern Uti lization Research and Deve lopmentDivisions and other agencies of the U . S . Dept . Agr . ; the Nebraska Wheat

Commission ,Wheat Growers , and State Experiment Station ; Western Wheat

Associates ; and Great Plains Wheat , Inc . , Linco ln , Neb . , Oct . 29- 31 ,1962 , pp . A9- 6A.

Senti , F . R . , and Koh ler , G . O .

I ( lWestern Uti l . Res . Devlpmt . Div . , Agr .

Res . Serv . , U . S . Dept . Agr . , A lbany , 1962 . Cereals . In"Yearbook of Agricu lture U . S . Dept . Agr . , pp . A6O- A65 .

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. 239

The Federal scientif ic ef f ort f or research in th is area totals pro

f essional man-years . Of this number A.A are devoted to chemi cal compos'

tion. and physical propertiea and to processipg technology .

Research on chemical composition and physical properties is conducted at

Peoria ,I l linois , and invo lves investigations of physio logically active

nonprotein nitrogen substances in corn and of carotenoid pigments of corn ,

corn mi l ling f ractions , and ye l low endosperm sorghum , A portion of the

ef f ort on carotenoid pigments is cooperative with Crops Research Divisionand is directed to deve lopment of corn and sorghum. varieties having h ighcarotenoid content . Such varieties are needed f or improved f ood and f eed

products and to enhance the competitive position of U . S . corn in international trade .

Processing techno logy research , also conducted at Peoria , I llinois ,

invo lves pi lot- p lant studies of conditions and methods f or increasing theyie ld of oil and grits by dry

- mi l ling processes . Ef f ects of processingvariations on industrially and bio logically important components of cornare determined . During the reporting per iod research on dry mi l ling of

corn was redirected to emphasize studies on tempering , i on improved processing of old or artif icially dried corn , and on deve lopment of improved

degermination equipment .

also sponsors research in this area conducted under grants

to the f o llowing f oreign institutions: Research Associationof British F lour Millers , St . .Albans , England , f or studies of antioxidantsoccurring in oats (5 years , 1960 National Institute of .Agronomic

Research , Paris , France , f or basic studies of the physi cal chemical properties of corn zein (A years , 1961 Weizmann Institute of Science ,

Rehovot , Israel , f or research on synthetic polypeptides with amino acidcompositions re lated to zein and Wheat gl iadin (A years , l96o— l96A) ; and

Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore , India f or research on separationof grain sorghum proteins (5 years , 1963 These lines of work are

under the subheading chemi cal composition and physical properties .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Chemical Composition and Physical Properties

1 . Nonprotein nitrogen substances of corn . New basic inf ormation has

been Obtained on the composition of corn and corn steep liquor . Quantitative estimation of heterocyc lic nitrogen bases in corn steep liquor showed

high leve ls of cytidine , ur idine , xanthine , guanosine and . adenine . Certainof these substances were not present in the original corn and others were

present in steep liquor in larger amounts than anticipated f rom the composition of the original corn ,

indicating enzymatic degradation of nuc leicacids and modif i cation of bases during steeping .

Four previous ly unidentif ied amino acids f ound in corn extracts were

characterized as .homoserine , B—alanine , oeaminObutyric acid and oeamino

adipic acid . Comparison of dif f erent batches of corn steep liquor revealedsignif icant dif f erences in amino acid composition , espe cially arginine and

ornithine . This type of inf ormation is potential ly important to the proc

essing and uti lization of corn and derived products . For example , the kindand concentration of heterocyc lic nitrogen bases may explain the stimulatingef f ect of corn steep l iquor on growth of microorganisms . Another possibility is that certain of these bases Hey be related to so- cal led unidenti

f ied growth f actors said to occur in corn steep liquor .

2 . Corn and sorghum carotenoids . Work was continued on investigations of

carotenoid pigments in corn and sorghum to provide basic inf ormation needed

in studies of the ef f ects of processing on these bio logically importantconstituents . Comparison of carotenoids in "

normal- ye l low" and " lemonye l low" types of corn showed that the normal corn contained f our times as

much carotenoid pigment as did the other type and that QA carotene , Bcarotene , zeinoxanthin and cryptoxanthin were present only in. the normalcorn . However , the lemon-

ye l low type contained f ive times as much zeta

carotene as did normal corn .

In cooperative research with Crops Research Division designed to assist in

deve lopment of new varieties of corn and sorghum containing increasedamounts of carotenoid pigments , some ASO hybrid corn samples were analyzedf or xanthophyl ls and carotenes . Indi cations were Obtained of the presenceof gene modif iers in the Wh ite parent of ye l low by White crosses .

Carotenoid analyses of nine neW'

yellow- endosperm sorghum grains (protectedf rom weathering ) gave a range in carotenes f rom to ppm. and xantho

phylls f rom to ppm , These dif f erences in the carotenoid leve lsof the yellowe endosperm sorghum. grain samp les are signi f icant and indicatethat several of the strains shou ld be considered in f uture breedingprograms .

3 . Sypthetic po lypeptides re lated to corn zein prote in . Good progress

is being made in re lating so lution properties of polypeptides to theirstructure . For examp le , Opti cal rotatory dispersion properties of he licalpolypeptides indicate that their unf o lding by acids and bases is due to

repu lsion of e lectrical ly charged groups in side chains rather than to any

ef f ects of hydroxyl or hydrogen ions on hydrogen bonds in the Okhelix .

Synthetic work pertained to the wheat gliadin phase of th is research , whichis being conducted under a PL A8O grant at the weizmann Institute of Science ,

Rehovot , Israe l .

A . Prgperties of corn zein protei At the National Institute of AgronomicResearch , Paris , France , initial studies on commercial zein using columnf ractionation , rotatory dispersion , determination of mo lecu lar shape and

weight by u ltracentrifugation and light scattering , and amino acid composition. have provided a f oundation of techniques and inf ormation needed f or

-2A1

continuation of the research . The commercial zein. showed a weight averagemo lecular weight of about and evidence was Obtained that the

mo le cu le is re latively elongated . .A new approach to protein f ractionationwas initiated using a column procedure with a gradient of both solvents and

temperature . This work is being conducted under a PL A8O grant .

B . Processipg Techno logy

1 . Corn dpy mi l ling . Studies on. milling of old corn showed that time and

moisture leve l of tempering strongly inf luenced degerminator throughput and

characteristics of the products . Best overal l resu lts were Obtained with a

2—h our temper at moisture leve ls of 18- 2A percent . Hot tempering decreaseddegerminator throughput . Other studies showed that f or both 1960 and 1961

crop corns , vacuum. tempering gave a h igher throughput than did conventionaltempering of equal time (2 hours ) . With a 0 .A—hour vacuum temper a s lightlybetter oil recovery was achieved . The improved hu l l re lease Obtained withvacuum tempering of corn. may reduce or e l iminate the need f or a secondtemper , thereby increasing the ef f iciency of commercial operations . In

processing old corn , mi l ls experience dif f icu lty in Obtaining adequate

tempering and germ recovery .

'

Vacuum tempering may prove advantageous in

this operation .

.A prototype brush- impact corn mach ine (designed and bui lt at the Northern

Division ) , When run as a dehuller , gave essentially Whole dehulled kerne ls( 12 percent had attached hu l ls ) with no germ re lease . When the mach inewas run as a dehuller- degerminator the product was comparab le to that pro

duced by the Beal l degerminator except that the grits had a h igher oil

content . Sorghum gave very good germ. and hu ll re lease in the experimentaldegerminator . Horny and f loury endosperm f lours f rom. six sorghum varietiesresemb led hard wheat f lours in response to air c lassi f ication . These

resu lts with corn and sorghum appear to point the way to signif i cantimprovement in dry mi lling technology .

PUBLICATIONS AND PATENTS REPORTING RESULTS

Chemical Composition and Phyaical Properties

B lessin , C . W . , Dimler , R . J . , and webster , O . J .

1(lUSDA Crops Res . Div . ,

Lincoln , 1962 . Carotenoids of corn and sorghum . II . Carotenoidloss in. yellowa endosperm sorghum. grain. during weathering . Cereal Chem .

PP . 389- 392 .

B lessin , C . W . , VanEtten , C . H . , and Dimler , R . J . 1963 . .Ah examinationof anthocyanogens in grain sorghums . Cereal Chem . AO (3 ) , pp . 2Al- 250 .

Christianson , D . D . , wal l , J . S . , Cavins ,J . F . , and Dimler , R . J . 1963 .

Chromatography of quaternary nitrogen compounds on‘

buf f ered cationexchange resins . J . Chromatography lo(A) , pp . A32- A38 .

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Northern Uti l ization Research . and Development Division, ARS

Prob lem . Varieties of corn. have been ach ieved genetically that containgreatly increased amounts of amylose . Amylose , the linear

f raction of starch , possesses f ilm and f iber- f orming properties not

avai lab le in ordinary starch which contains only about 27 percent of

th is component . Because the unique properties of amylose open areas of

uti lization c losed to ordinary starch ,the potential industrial value

of th is new crop is very h igh . Several prOblems must be so lved , h owever ,

to real ize this potential .

For h igh - amylose starch to have substantia lly improved properties as a raw

material in comparison with ordinary starch , it should contain at least80 percent of amylose . .A f ew breeding samples have recently been Observedthat contain over 80 percent of amylose . However , only varieties containing 50 up to about 70 percent have so f ar been commercial ly avai lab le .

Even at this amylose leve l , however , over A mi l l ion pounds of high- amylose

starch f rom f irst commercial p lantings were uti lized by industry in 1961 .

Although breeding is the task of the geneti cist , uti lization research is

needed to provide inf ormation on amylose content , on Changes in quantitiesand properties of the amylose , amylopectin , and other components such as

oil and protein , and on mi l ling characteristics of breeding samples in

order to insure avai lability of satisf actory varieties .

A second prob lem is development of methods f or economical iso lation of

pure amylose f rom h igh- amylose starch . For some anti cipated uses , nearly

pure amylose may be required f or Optimum, properties .

“

A lthough achievementof 80- percent high - amylose starch appears certain , it may not be possible

to Obtain much h igher leve ls through breeding . Success in devising ef f icient f ractionation methods wi l l depend upon availabi lity of adequate

basic inf ormation on f reeing and separating amylose f rom. remaining starchcomponents .

Final ly , to insure uti lization of the potentially large vo lume of h ighamylose starch that cou ld eventually

'

become avai lab le , more inf ormationis needed on the chemical and physical properties of amylose and h ighamylose starch and on methods f or converting them economical ly to desiredproducts . Success in th is research could lead to an estimated consumptionof over 600 mi l lion pounds of h igh- amylose starch by 1975 in f i lms , f ibers ,

p lastics , coatings , and re lated products to which the linear character of

amylose cou ld make contributions .

The Department conducts a long- term , continuing program of researchinvolving analytical , organic and physical chemists , structural bio logists ,

and chemi cal and mechanical engineers who are engaged in. basic and app lied

-2AA

research designed to increase knowledge of the properties and reactionsof amylose and other components of h igh - amylose corn and to uti lize th isknowledge in deve lopment of attractive industrial app lications f or amylose

and h igh - amylose starch .

The Federal scientif ic ef f ort f or research on utilization of h igh- amylosecorn totals prof essional man-years . Of th is number lA . 7 are devotedto chemical composition and physical properties and A. 6 to industrialuti lization .

Research at Peoria , I l linois , on chemical composition and physical properties (lA. 5 prof essional man-

years ) invo lves study of amylose content of

breeding samp les , starch and starch granu le composition , structure and

properties ; and composition and properties of proteins and other componentsof h igh- amylose corn . Studies on amylose content of breeding samp lesassist geneti cists in deve loping varieties of h igh - amylose corn. having

increased amylose content . Cooperation with Fie ld Crops Research Branch ,

CrOps Research Division , is maintained in conducting these studies . .A

research contract prof essional man- year ) is in e f f ect at ArizonaState University , Tempe , Arizona , f or basi c research on the interactionof "V"

amylose with small organic molecu les . Research on industria luti lization , which is conducted at Peoria , Illinois , is devoted to studieson separation of amylose f rom h igh- amylose starch , and f ormation and

properties of amylose f i lms (A.6 prof essional man-

years ) . Initial phasesof research on amylose f i lms were completed during the reporting period .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA .AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Chemical Composition and Physical Properties

1 . Amylose content of breedipg samples . During the reporting periodsamples of high- amylose corn were analyzed . These were supp lied

under Memoranda of Understanding by the Bear Hybrid Corn Company , by the

Nfi ssouri Agricu ltural Experiment Station and by Crops Research Divisionat the Missouri Station . Of the samp les analyzed in the last 6 months

of the period, nearly 12 percent contained 75- 80 percent amylose , thus

increasing the number in this range f rom. the previous total of 250 to a

total of to date . In addition , a total of 10 samp les containingover 80 percent of aml Se have now been f ound . The highest value was

percent . ( In th is report percentages of amylose ref er to apparent

values determined by iodine titration . True amylose content , measured

by quantitative f ractionation , averages about 80 percent of the apparent

value . ) These resu lts indicate that the deve lopment of h igh- amylose cornis proceeding to the ob jective in a satisf actory manner . Reports indicatethat moderate quantities of h igh - amylose starch containing 70 percent of

amylose are now availab le commercia lly .

2 . Properties pf components of h igh- amylose starch . Studies on structureof amylose and amylopectin ( f rom. 52- 70 per cent h igh- amylose corn ) show a

number average chain length f or amylose of A9O AGU . (The term .AGU ref ers

to the g lucose units of whi ch starch is composed.) Average branch lengthof amylopectin was 36- A2 compared to 27 f or that f rom. ordinary corn starch .

For the h igh- amylose corn amylopectin the length of the inner segment was

about the same as that f or ordinary amylopectin'

but the chain length of the

external branches increased with increase of amylose in the starch . Improvements in techniques f or separation and mo lecu lar weight determination gaveincreased values compared to those previously reported . Present resu ltsf or weight average mo le cu lar weights are A70 ,000 f or dent corn amylose and

f or amylose f rom 70- percent h igh - amylose corn .

Mere comp lete studies on neutral so lvent systems revealed that a mixture

of lithium. thiocyanate and guanidinium. thiocyanate wi l l comp letely disso lveh igh- amylose starch at room temperature . Discovery of ef f ective neutralsolvents f or starch is an important advance because use of these so lventsminimizes chemical changes in starch and thus permits more accurate deter

mination of molecu lar weights and other signif i cant properties .

Whereas iodine sorption indicates 25- 27 percent of amylose in. dent corn ,

ultracentrifugal sch lieren patterns indicated 32- 33 percent in. the mo lecu larweight range of amylose . The h igher value was shown to be due to the

presence of a low- mo lecu lar-weight (A00 ,000 ) material. having a degree of

branching of A. l percent , a value simi lar to that of normal dent cornamylopectin . Discovery of a low- mo lecu lar- weight aml pectin- like componentin starch is important f rom

'

both the theoreti cal and practical points of

view . Further study and characterization of this "anomalous component" in

dent , high - amylose and other corns should contribute to our knowledge of

the f ormation of starch and starch granu les and increase our understandingof the chemical and physical properties of corn starches .

3 . Proteins of h igh- amylose corn . Examination by starch gel e lectrophoresis of various protein f ractions of waxy, normal dent and amylomaize

hybrid corns ( isogenic except f or mm. and,aa genes in the waxy and amylose

types ) revealed no dif f erences in number or re lative amounts of componentsdete cted in the zein , g lobul in and g lute lin f ractions . Gel e lectrophoreticstudies of reduced zein , g lobulin and glute lin preparations f rom normaldent corn showed that components in the reduced g lute lin had counterpartsin either the reduced zein or reduced g lobu lin preparations . No componentsunique to the g lute lin preparation were Observed .

Gel f i ltration on Sephadex removed pigments f rom corn g lobulins but didnot reso lve individual g lobu lin components . Chromatography on carboxymethyl and DEAE- ce l lu lose yie lded f ractions of much less complexity butagain did not resolve individua l components . An apparently homogeneous

component was , however , Obtained f rom the globul in f raction by'

a saltprecipitation technique .

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WHEAT AND CORN EERMENTATIVE CONVERSION TO NEW

Northern'

Utilization. Research . and Deve lopment Division, ARS

Prob lem . By f ermentation of cereal grain substrates , new products can be

Obtained that are not readily availab le by other means and havepromis ing potential f or industria l , agricu ltural , and f ood uses . Processesnow under deve lopment , if brought to successf u l conc lusion , cou ld lead to

increased consumption of an estimated AO mi l lion bushe ls of grain f or

f ermentative conversion to stable viscos ity agents f or secondary petro leumrecovery by f looding of spent oil we lls , to new organi c acids and enzymes

f or industrial use , to f eed supp lements , and to ef f ective bio logi cal insecticides and other pesticides that are harmless to man . In addition , there are

good possibi lities f or uti lizing f ermentation processes to produce new f ood

products that shou ld promote f ore ign use of U . S . grains .

To accomp lish these Ob jectives and to realize the f u l l potentia l of f erman

tative techniques f or increasing uti lization of grain , a broad program of

exp loratory research is required to f ind and identi fy through taxonomi cstudies species of organisms producing potentially valuab le products , to

iso late h igh-

yie lding strains or develop them by mutation , hybridizationor genetic se lection , and to deve lop basic inf ormation on cu lture media ,special nutrients , and other f actors required f or Optimum. growth of microorganisms and maximum yie lds of desired products . Continued maintenanceand expansion of a co l lection of pure cu ltures of we l l- characteri zedorganisms is necessary f or this research . For successf u l trans lation of

laboratory resu lts into commercially useful processes , more inf ormation is

needed on new techniques of f ermentation , on deve lopment of e conomica lmethods of growing organisms and handling f ermentation

l

processes on a largescale , and on spe cial pro cedures f or e f f icient iso lation and pur if icationof products f rom. f ermentative reaction mixtures . Finally , the most appro

priate end uses f or products must be identif ied and inf ormation Obtainedon product evaluation and deve lopment .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department has a long- range continuing program involving analyticaland organic chemists , b iochemists , microbiologists , systematic bio logists ,

and chemi cal engineers engaged in basic research on microorganisms and

microbio logical reactions and products and in . app li cation of both known

and newly discovered princip les to the deve lopment of practical f ermentationprocesses f or conversion of cereal grain substrates to usefu1. chemical ,biological , f eed and f ood products .

The Federal scientif ic ef f ort in this area of research totals pro

esticides ; and A. 9 to f eed and good products .

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Basic research on f ermentation processes conducted at Peoria , Il linois ,

prof essional manr years ) inc ludes study of taxonomy of mo lds , yeastsand bacteria; f actors af f ecting viabi lity of microorganisms ; and microbio logical reactions and products . Basic to these investigations and to

the Division 's entire research program. on f ermentation is assembly and

maintenance in pure culture of a large co l lection of agriculturally and

industrially important mi croorganisms . NMch. of the research on microb io logical reactions and products is conducted by the Pioneering Laboratoryf or .MicrObiological Chemistry. During the reporting per iod exp loratoryresearch on. micrObial amination of unsaturated f atty acids was discontinued .

Research on taxonomy of Pseudomonas is being held in abeyance to permitassignment of personne l to more urgent prOblems .

Research at Peoria, I l linois , on industrial chemicals prof essionalman-

years ) invo lves f ermentative production of micrObial gums , organi cacids , and other products f or use in the chemical industry . This work

inc ludes investigation and deve lopment of improved or new procedures f or

conducting industrial f ermentations . .A research contract prof essionalmane

year ) with the University of Arizona provides f or studies on polymeri

zation of se lected f ermentation acids and derivatives of f atty acids .

Research at Peoria , I l linois , on bio logical pesticides pro f essionalman-years ) is devoted to studies on. biological insecticides f or Japanese

beetle , other insect control agents and p lant antibioti cs . Investigationson bio logical insecticides f or Japanese beetle and on other insect contro lagents is cooperative with Entomo logy Research Division and Plant Pest

Contro l Division . Research on p lant antibioti cs involves cooperation withCrops Resear ch Division . During the reporting period research on insectattractants was comp leted . Research contracts prof essional manp years )covering various phases of research on Japanese beetle pathogens are in

e f f ect at Michigan State University , East Lans ing , Michigan , f or study of

f actors important to large- scale propagation of the pathogens prof es

sional. manr year ) and f or basi c research on enzyme activity in sporulationprof essional man-year ) ; at Kansas State University , Nhnhattan , Kansas ,

f or investigation of stabi lization of vegetative ce l ls of the pathogenicorganisms prof essional mane

year ) ; at the University of'

Nfi nnesota ,St . Pau l , Nfi nnesota , f or f undamental studies on the transf er of geneticdeterminants of sporu lation f rom. one mi croorganism to another pro

f essional man-year ) ; and at the Univers ity of I l linois , Urbana , I l l inois ,

f or research on the applicabi lity of a sporulation f actor produced bybacteria to Japanese beetle pathogens prof essional. mane year ) .

Research at Peoria , I l linois , on f eed and f ood products (k.h prof essionalmane years ) invo lves study of production of microbial carotenoids suitab lef or f eed supp lements and deve lopment of new f ermented wheat f oods that can

help increase export markets f or U . S . Wheat . A research contractprof essional mane year ) with Mi chigan State University , East Lans ing ,

Nfi chigan , concerns evaluation of bio logical availabi lity of f ermentativeB—carotene when f ed to pou ltry and swine .

The Department also sponsors research in the f ermentation area conductedby f oreign institutions under grants of PL h80 funds . Basic research on

f ermentation processes invo lves grants to the National Institute f or

Agronomic Research , Mhdrid , Spain , f or col lection of new species of yeast

(5 years , 1960 University of He lsinki , Fin land , f or basic studieson organic phosphorus compounds of yeast (5 years , 1960 Universityof Mi lan ,

Italy , f or basic studies on the metaboli c pathway to 2- ketoglu

conic acid in .AcetObacter species ( A years , 1960- I96H) ; University of

.A l lahabad India, f or col lection of new Mucorales species (5 years ,

1961- 1965 and studies on survival of lyoph i lized mi croorganisms (5 years ,

1962- 1967 University of Durham , Newcastle- upon- Tyne , Eng land , f or inves

tigations of sugar phosphate derivatives in molds (5 years , 1962

and Indian Institute of Science , Bangalore , India , f or basic research on

1962 Research on industrial chemi cals invo lves a grant to SuperiorInstitute of Health , Rome , Italy , f or studies on f oaming in anaerObic

f ermentations (2 years , 1961 Research on f eed and f ood productsinvo lves a grant to the " Giu liana Ronzoni " Scienti f ic Institute of Chemistryand Biochemistry , Mi lan , Italy , f or researOh on production of vitamin E13

(5 years , 1960

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

.A . Basic Research on Fermentation Processes

l . .ARS Culture Collection. maintenance and service .

’

As of January 1 , 1963 ,the ARS Cu lture Co llection contained permanent cu ltures , an increaseof over 1962 . During calendar year 1962 , 2 ,

h97 cultures were distri

buted , to domestic addresses and to f oreign countries .

In a re cent search of the records , the Culture Col lection reservoir was

f ound to contain representatives of on ly 8 genera of Tuberculariaceae out

of approximately 150 known genera in this f amily of Fungi Imperf ecti . Mest

of the isolates be long in 3 genera , namely Fusarium , Epicoccum , and myrgthecium . Since this Observation , 17 strains of 8 genera , including repre

sentatives of h genera new to the Col lection , have been added . Of these ,

a monospecif ic genus reported only once in the literature . The monospecif icgenus Yolutina has been reported only twi ce and the f ungus was not Obtainedin. pure cu lture in either case . We nOW

'

have 2 cu ltures , one that we iso latedand another that was sent to us by Wayne State University , Detroit . Thesepresumably are the only pure cu ltures of these organisms in existence

Re cent ly, 8 iso lates of Aspergi l lus f lavus were re ceived f rom the Commonwealth MWcological Institute (Eng land ) . These strains have experimentallyproduced substances toxic to ducklings . They were isolated in England at

the Central Veterinary Laboratories f rom. peanuts and peanut meal f romNigeria, Uganda , and Brazi l .

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. 251

been indicated . The same polymer is produced f rom either g lucose or xyloseas a substrate , but although starch , maltose and sucrose appear to be uti lized , no polymer is f ormed with these substrates .

’

Viscosity of so lutionsis not signif icantly af f ected by salts except borates nor by acid or alkaliat moderate temperatures . Polymer solutions have been autoc laved f or 2 hours

in the presence of calcium chloride without change . The polymer is comparatively inert to microbial attack.

Production of a polysaccharide by a cup f ungus is a phenomenon of unusualinterest since it is be lieved that heretof ore no product except ce lls was

known to result f rom. gross carbon turnover“y a. higher fungus . Both . the

f ermentation and the polymer have characteristics indicating potentialindustrial value . In addition , this discovery raises several questions of

fundamental scientif ic importance . For example , what is the mechanismwhereby either the 6- carbon sugar glucose or the 5— carbon sugar xylose are

converted to a g lucose polymer but no po lymer is produced f rom maltose ,starch or sucrose even th ough these carbohydrates yie ld g lucose on. hydrol

ysis? What structural f eatures of the polymer account f or its properties

in comparison with other f ermentation polysaccharides ? Answers to suchquestions would be signif icant contributions to basic science as we ll as

provide knowledge that cou ld be applied in our research program in severalareas .

Taxonomic research on. Mbcorales revealed three varieties (two of which are

new ) of Rhopalomyces e legans , the microorganism that parasitizes eggs of the

nematode genus Rhabditis . .A new species of Absidia , named A , califiornicg ,was discovered . .A surprising number of new taxa are being f ound in the

several hundred isolates of Absidia examined . The sexual stage has been

f ound in every species so f ar studied . IMOre complete taxonomi c inf ormationwas attained on .Absidia ramosa- corymbifera. This is undoubtedly the most

common. and economi cally important species of Absidia . It occurs in koji ,stored grains , heating hay , curing tobacco and sewage . Its study completeswork scheduled f or the genus Absidia .

5. MicrObiological procgsseg and prggucts . In the Pioneering Laboratoryf or Mfi crObiological Chemistry,

~ studies on the f ormation of D- arabitol'

bySacchargmyces me llis showed that the reduction in sugar alcohol productionObserved when phosphate is in the medium. was caused by repression of the

enzyme responsib le f or removal of phosphate f rom. the intermediary product ,D-ribulose—5- phosphate . Other steps in the conversion of g lucose to

D- arabito l were also e lucidated . Evidence has been Obtained that isolatedce l l particles from photosynthetic bacteria must undergo some physi calchange bef ore

“

becoming photochemi cally active in electron transport reao

tions . An. active hydrogenase unaf f ected by the presence of light or

calcium ion was Shown to be present in ce l l— f ree extracts of Rhodospiri l lum

Research on macromo lecu les respons ib le f or agglutination of Opposite matingtypes of the yeast Hansenu la wingei resu lted in isolation of a so lublef actor f rom type 5 that has properties simi lar to living type 5 cel ls . Thus ,

the f actor agglutinates ce l ls of the Opposite mating type 21, it is adsorbed

f rom so lution only by active mating type 21 , and , l ike the parent type 5cel ls , it is inactivated by agents that break disu lf ide bonds . This f actoris theref ore one , if not the only , specif ic agg lutinating f actor present

on the surf ace of type 5 ce lls . Purif i cation and Characterization of the

f actor are in progress .

Research is continuing on the characterizatidn of an extrace llu lar lipidproduced bn . cif errii , on. new aspects of f onsecin structure revealed bynuc lear magnetic resonance , and on the metal- che lating properties of

ramulosin . In the course of these chemical studies a new reagent , dicyclo

hexylethylamine , was f ound to give superior resu lts in the sma l l- scalef ormation of phenacyl and methyl esters of carboxyli c acid . These esters

are important derivatives that are widely used in characterization of

organic compounds .

In research under a PL A8O grant at the University of .Milan , Italy , stab lece l l- f ree preparations of .AcetObacter have been deve loped that have activityin causing specif ic conversions expected to be part of the pathway f rom

g lucose to 5—ketog1uconate . Of particular signif i cance is the abi lity of

the particu late f ractions of ce lls to f orm. 5- ketog1uconate . The work

shou ld u ltimately def ine the pathway and thereby provide a possible basisf or contro l of f ermentations done with who le ce l ls .

.At the University of He lsinki , Fin land , the major nuc leotide and sugar

phosphate components of Torulopsis ut i lis were identif ied and separated bya rapid two dimensiona l paper Chromatograph ic method . A. short—term radioactive tracer labe ling technique was deve loped , and pre liminary metabo licturnover experiments were conducted . These techniques are being applied to

the study of carbohydrate metabolism. in. yeast under various physio logicalconditions . This work is being perf ormed under a PL A8O grant .

Studies on mi crobial sugars , their phosphate derivatives , and related com?

pounds , which are conducted under a PL A80 grant by the University of Durham,

Newcastle- upon— Tyne ,

England , have revealed that the polymers of Penicillimm

griseofiulvum contain. mannose , g lucose and galactose as do other Penici l liumorganisms and that th ey also contain phosphates . Two of the polymers of

Streptomyces niveus had a repeating unit of g lucose and mannose , whereas a

third had glucose , g lucosamine and phosphate . The nuc leotide f raction of

the streptomycete is being studied i n order to provide a better understand

ing of the biosynthesis of antibiotics and polysacCharides .

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B . Industrial Chemicals

1 . Conversion of grains to fermentation madi laboratory process hasbeen developed f or enzymatic conversion of the star ch in ground grains to

g lucose- containing sirups that are economical media f or production of industrial chemicals and antibiotics by f ermentation . The method , which is based

on oeamylase and amylog lucosidase , is ef f ective f or ground sorghum, ground

corn , corn f lour and corn. meal . Yields of g lucose f rom. sorghuml and cornamount to 95 percent of theoretical . So lids remaining af ter enzymo lysis of

sorghum amounted to 23 percent and contained A percent nitrogen . About

one- f if th of the nitrogen. in the original sorghum was so lubi lized . For cornthe residue was 26 percent and contained 3 percent nitrogen . About one

third of the nitrogen in the original corn was solubi lized . Pre liminarycal culations indicate that on a sugar basis cost of the sirup f rom. oorn is

probably less than that of mo lasses products . Enzymatic conversion of

ground corn and sorghum and re lated materials to glucose sirups has e licitedmuch interest f rom. industry as evidenced by the large number of inquiriesby letter , te lephone , and personal visits by industrial representatives .

2 . Enzymatic modif ication of wheat f lour. Conditions f or a two- stepenzymatic conversion of wheat f lour to a preparation that could be used as

a surf ace size or coating f or paper have been worked out using pepsin and

bacterial subtilisin as the proteolytic enzymes and bacterial cx- amylase as

the amy lolytic enzyme . The gluten can be degraded to either large or smal lmo lecular- weight f ragments depending on the choice of proteolytic enzyme .

Study of f lour f ractions containing 2 to 2h percent prote in Showed that

those containing 2 to 5 percent required large amounts of amylase and longreaction times . The higher protein f ractions required less amylase and

time but yie lded sizing material of lower quality . By treating a f ractioncontaining 7 percent protein with amylase only , a product was Obtained thatcompared f avorably (as a tub size ) with Super~f ilm. h0 (a superior commercie l sizing starch ) . Production of an enzymati cally converted f lourf raction comparab le , as a tub size f or paper , to a leading commercialstarch product is encouraging . The contrasting resu lts with high and low

protein f lour f ractions point up the necessity f or evaluating the ef f ectsof enzymes originally present in the f lour .

3 . Fermentation agid Engineer ing studies on f ermentation of wheat

starch slurry ( f rom the batter process f or production of Wheat g luten ) tocitric acid , were continued with emphasis on scaling- up the process . As

previously reported , the microorganism. used f or the f ermentation consumes75 to 80 percent of the starch of the medium .A simi lar resu lt was Obtainedwith a synthetic medium. containing 10 percent g lucose . Comp lete sugar

uti lization was achieved by addition of enough calcium. carbonate to

neutralize one- half of the anticipated citric acid yie ld . Yie lds of Citricacid amounting to 65 percent by weight (based on g lucose ) have been achievedin 60- liter f ermentors .

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C . Bio logical Pesticides

1 . Biological insecticides for Japanesa beet le . .A maximum of l~2 percentsporulation of a se lected strain of B Ci llus o 1 1 has been cons istentlyachieved by 10 daytsincubation on a sugar

- f ree sol agar ) medium containing yeast extract and acetate ion . Further work conf irmed the abso luterepressive ef f ect of glucose and the necessity of acetate f or sporu lation .

Ef f orts to increase rate and/or extent of spore f ormation and to Obtainsporulation in liquid media have not yet been successfu l . A smal l number

of these spore structures withstood heat shocking and survivors grew invitro . They did not inf ect larvae , perhaps because of the smal l number of

spores in. the preparations . Several treatments have been f ound that

increase germination of B . popi lliae spores 19 vitro . The most inf ectiveavai lab le strains of B . popi l liae and

,B . lentimorbus have been identi f ied .

Nonvo lati le acids f ound in. bemolymph of Japanese beet le larvae includelactic , malic , succinic and glyco lic acids . The presence of several others

is indi cated but not conf irmed . Vo lati le acids f ound were acetic acid p lussmal l amounts of butyric , propionic and f ormi c acids .

One or more growth f actors f or Baci llus lentimorbus and B . popilliae havebeen f ound in tap water and agar . When grown in. media containing eitheror

'

both of these materials , B . lentimorbus withstands endless serial transf er whereas ih their absence lyoph i lized ce l ls survive only two transf ers .

Growth of B . popi l liae is more rapid in media containing these materials .

Pre liminary experiments indicate that the growth f actor or f actors may be

inorganic in nature . Po larographi c measurement of oxygen in growingcu ltures of B . popi l liae showed concentrations during the log phase of

growth ranging f rom 10 to 30 percent of saturation leve ls .

At Nfi chigan State University evidence has been Obtained f or metabolism. of

g lucose by _B. popi l liae via the tri carboxylic acid cyc le . .Acetate is

produced by growing ce lls and oxidized by resting ce l ls ; however , di f f erentstrains of

,B . popi l liae oxidize acetate at dif f erent stages of growth of

the cu ltures . For example , one strain wi l l not oxidize acetate in a

cu lture 2h hours old , Whereas another wi ll oxidize acetate at 2A hours and

not at 8 hours .

Much inf ormation pertinent to the prOblem of sporulating Japanese beetlepathogens is being accumulated . So f ar , however , a unifying princip le that

wi ll explain. the signif icance and re lationships of the various Observationsand lead to so lution of the prob lem has e luded investigators . The limitedsporulation on a sugar

- f ree so l id medium. containing acetate , the discoveryof the growth

-

promoting ef f ects of tap water and agar , and the variab leutilization of acetate by dif f erent strains suggest that additional emphasison nutritional requirements may prove f ruitf u l .

2 . Iaaect attractants . Research on screening f or insect contro l agents

has been completed . In all , a total of 810 cu ltures were grown on

grainr based media, and samples were sh ipped to co llaborators in EntomologyResearch Division f or evaluation at f ive locations . As a resu lt of thisdecentralized Operation and the varying activities of the co l laborators ,

all tests cou ld not be perf ormed as originally p lanned . The most extensiveevaluation of the cu ltures was as attractants f or two species of f ruit f lies .

Review of the tests with all of the co l laborators f ai led to e licit indications that any of the cultures had merit f or possib le commercial app lication .

Neverthe less , some cultures did perf orm better than. the standards in f ie ldtests , and one collaborator said he was considering restudy of two culturesin f ie ld tests th is summer with Drosoph i la spp . , which are nuisance pests

around f ruit and berry p lantings and processing p lants . It is unf ortunate

that tests on a wider range of insects and f or purposes other than attrac

tants were impracticab le . However , despite dif f icu lties encountered and

the f ailure to discover products with commercial potential , the resultsconf irm that f ermentation cu ltures do of f er possibilities for insect contro lagents .

3 . Plant antibioti cs . Of approximately 500 streptomycetes screened to

date via shakenp f lask f ermentations , 196 were f ound to show only moderate

activity against f ungi . Ultravio let absorption studies were conducted with

170 of these and stabi lity studies with 30 . Seventyb seven of the 170 were

nonpolyenic . Thus f ar seven strains producing stab le and apparent ly new

antifungal antibiotics have been detected .

of B—carotene and other carotenoid pigments f or use as animal f eed supple

ments have resu lted in discovery that dried mycelium. of Blakeslea trispora

f rom which carotene and lipid had been. extracted is an ef f ective rep lacementf or B- ionone in the f ermentation. medium. When diphenyl amine is added to

a B- carotene f ermentation , this metabolic blocking agent causes reducedB—carotene synthesis and accumulation of an intermediate , phytof luene . It

nay be possib le to convert this substance to lutein or zeaxanthin by treat

ment with other microorganisms . Xanthophyl l pigments could be extractedonly partial ly f rom ce l l pastes of Sarcina lutea and Nfi crgcoccus

lysodeikticu .An alga (YB— 3399 ) produced comparatively low concentrationsof three xanthophyl l compounds but no Chlorophyl l .

In engineering research , B— carotene has been produced successf ully in a

30-

gal lon pi lot- p lant f ermentation with the organism Blakeslea trispora .

.A practical recovery procedure f or the myce lium , suitable f or commercialapplication , was devised . Demonstration of successful pi lot- p lant production . and recovery of B— carotene shou ld assist in commercialization of the

process . .Although. yields were _ 1ower than achieved in the laboratory, theresults Sh ow that important engineering prob lems have been so lved , and

provide a sound basis f or f urther process development .

Results of initial f eeding tests at Nfi chigan State University showed that

f ermentation B— carotene appeared to be as ef f ective as vitamin. A in. promot

ing growth but somewhat less ef f ective in . rep1enishing the vitamin .A stores

of pou ltry and swine . Analyses perf ormed at the Northern. Division showed

that there was some loss of B— carotene in the f eed mixtures dur ing thetests . Considerable dif f icu lty was experienced in analyzing the comparisonf eeds , wh ich contained low leve ls of vitamin .A . Results of th is f irstseries of f eeding tests shou ld not be regarded as conc lusive , since the

inf luence of instabi lity of B— carotene and vitamin .A in the rations has not

been c learly e lucidated , in . part because of these analytical dif f icu lties .

A lso , the total data show a need f or more rigorous control of preconditioning of test animals and of dosage with materials under test .

2 . Vitamin. B13 . In research under a PL A8O grant at th e " Giu l iana Ronzoni "

Scientif ic Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry , Mi lan , Italy , a method

has been deve loped f or extracting and purifying a potent growth f actor f or

nuce f rom. distillers so lub les . Mevalonic acid is one of the components of

the f raction and appears to be responsible f or part of the activity of the

f actor . However , it is probably not the only active component . Evidencewas obtained that orotic acid , thought by some workers to be part of the

B 13 comp lex , was not a component of the f actor . The present resu lts may

constitute the f irst demonstration that mevalonic acid promotes growth of

the animal body ,

PUBLICATIONS .AND PATENTS REPORTING RESUDTS

OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Basic Research on Fermentation Processes

Benjamin , C . R “ , Hendershot , W . F . , and Hesse ltine ,C . W . Nov . 13 , 1962 .

Fermentative process of producing lactone of 2- oxo - hydroxypropyl )cyc lohexane carboxyli c acid . U . S . Patent

Benjamin , C . R . , Hendershot , W . F . , and Hesseltine , C . W} Feb . 26 , 1963 .

The lactone of 2- oxo- 6 —hydroxypropy l )— cyct exanecarboxylic acid .

U . S . Patent 3 ,079 ,A01 .

Ellis , J . J . 1963 . .A study of Rhopalomyces e legans in. pure culture .

Myco logie pp . 183- 198 .

Galmarini , O . L. , Stodo la , F . H . , Raper , K. B . , and Fenne l l , D . I . 1962 .

Fonsecin , a naphthopyrone pigment f rom. a mutant of Aspargillus fonsecaeus .

Nature 195(u8ho) , pp . 502- 503 .

Haynes , W . C . 1963 . Discussion II nZBn. the Organization of a Type Cu ltureShewan , Torry Research Station , Aberdeen , Scotland7.

In " Culture Co l lections : Perspectives and Prob lems ,"ed . S . ML Martin ,

University of Toronto Press . Proc . Specialists ' Conf . on Cu ltureCol lections , Aug . 1962 , Ottawa , pp . 36- 39 .

Hayne s , W . C . , and Rhodes , L . J . 1962 . Comparative taxonomy of crystallo

genic strains of Pseudomonas aeraginosa and Pseudomonas chlororaphis .

J . Bact . 8h(5) , pp . 1080- 108h .

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-259

Jeanes ,A . , and Watson , P . R . 1962 . Periodate- oxidized phosphomannan

Y-24A8 : Structural signif icance of its reaction with alkal i . Can . J .

Chem . ho(7 ) , pp . 1318- 1325.

Orentas , D . G . , Sloneker , J . H . , and Jeanes , .A . 1963 . Pyruvic acidcontent and constituent sugars of exocel lu lar polysaccharides f rom

dif f erent species of the genus Xanthomonas . Can . J. Nfi crObiol .

pp L27' h' 30 o

Shono , T . , and Marve l , C . S . (University of Arizona, Tucson ) . 1963 .

Polymers derived f rom. unsaturated esters of hydronopoxyalkanols .

J . Polymer Sci . (Part .A ) 1 , pp . 15h3- 1552 .

Shono , T . , and marvel , C . S . (University of Arizona , Tucson ) . 1963 .

Preparation and po lymerization of vinyl 12-hydroxystearate . J . Po lymerSci . (Part A ) , 1 , pp . 2067- 207h .

Slodki , M; E 1963 . Structure of Hansenu la capsu lata NRRL Y-l8h2 phosphomannan . Elconin . Biophys . .Acta pp . 96- 102 .

Slodki ,'

M; E . Apr . 2 , 1963 . Dispersants comprising phosphoric acidmonoesters of mannose polymers . U. S . Patent 3 ,08A,105 .

Sloneker , J . H . , and Jeanes , A . 1962 . Exoce l lular bacterial po lysaccharidef rom Xanthomonas campestria NRRL IB- 1A59 . Part I . Constitution . Can . J .

Chem . A0 ( ll ) , pp . 2066- 2071 .

Sloneker , J . H . , and Orentas , D . G . 1962 . Exocellu lar bacterial poly

of the pyruvic acid . Can . J . Chem . A0 (ll ) , pp . 2188- 2189 .

Sohns , V . E . 1962 . Chemical engineering in f ermentative processing .

U . S . Dept . Agr . ARS- 71—21, October , 20 pp .

Watson , P . R . , Pittsley , J . E . , and Jeanes , .A . 1962 . PrOblems involvedin dialyzing low concentrations of inorganic pyrophosphate . Anal .

Biochem . h(6 ) , pp . 505- 508.

Wiebe , R . , Kretschmer , C . B . , and McCloud , A . P . 1961 UVo lati lity of

alcoho l motor f ue ls . Phi lippine J . Sci . pp . 223- 237 .

Bio logical Pesticides

Shotwe l l , O . L. , Bennett , G . A . , Hal l , H . H . , VanEtten , C . H . , and

Jackson , R , W . 1963 . Amino acids in the haemolymph of Popi l liajaponica (Newman ) larvae . J . Insect Phys io l . pp . 35- A2 .

Feed and Food Products

Lagoda , .A . A . , Sohns , V . , Hall , H . H . , and Jackson , R . W .

1963 . Beta- carotene production in 20- 1iter f ermentors . Bacteriol .

Proc . 1963 , p . 22 .

Ciegler , A . , Nelson , C . E . N . , and Hall , H . H . 1963 . Enhancement of beta

carotene synthesis by C itrus products . App l , Microbiol . ll (2 ) , pp . 128

131 .

Nelson , G . E . N . , and Hal l , H . H . Feb . 26 , 1963 . Extractionof a substance f rom dry Citrus meal which increases B— carotene productionby Blakeslea trispora . U . S . Patent

Ciegler , A . , Ne lson , G . E . N . , and Hal l , H . H . 1963 . Stimu lation of

carotenogenesis in Blakeslea trispora by essential citrus oi ls .

Nature l98(u887 ) , pp . 1305- 1306 .

Ciegler , A . Pazola , Z . and Hal l , H . H . 1963 . Stimu lation of carotenogenesis by microbial ce l ls . Bacterio l . Proc . 1963 , p . 22 .

Densi , A . Dal Pozzo , A . Rotta , L . and Zanini , C . (Scienti f ic Instituteof Chemistry and Biochemistry , Milan , Italy ) . 1962 . Sui f attorisconosciuti di crescita dei Disti ller '

s dried so lub les . I . Accertamentodell ' assenza dell ' acido orotico ne l la " Vitamina B 13 " . Bo l l . Ch im . Farm .

PP . 380- 38A.

Dans1 , A . , Dal Pozzo , A . Zanini , C . and Rotta , L . (Scientif ic Instituteof Chemistry and Biochemistry , Milan , Italy ) . 1962 . Studio pre liminaresulle prOprieta del f attore di crescita denominato ”Vitamina B 13 "

Ch im . Ind . (Mi lan ) M M8 ) , pp . 839- 8hh.*

Hal l , H . H . 1962 . App lied microbio logy in animal nutrition . Advan .

Microbiol . 4, pp . 77- 99 .

* Research supported by PL f unds .

Development Division, .ARS

Problem, In recent years huge stockpi les o f wheat and bar ley have accumu

lated , depressing the agricu ltura l economy through restrictedgrower incomes and expensive government contro l programs . The most

promising so lution lies in great ly expanded exports to meet the urgent f ood

needs of large segments o f the wor ld ' s popu lation and to secure an increasedshare of do l lar markets for these grains . Know ledge and ski l ls do not now

exist to reach these goa ls . Ways must be found to adapt U . S . winter wheats

and f lours to the speci f ic use requirements in Western Europe , a largepotentia l do l lar market . New food products f rom wheat must be created to

f it specif ic needs and pref erences o f individua l countries throughout the'

wor ld . Simp le , inexpensive methods must be devised f or use in deve lopingcountries to process U . S . wheats into products apprOpriate for their socioeconomic structures . Great ly expanded scientif ic know ledge o f the composirion and processing properties o f wheat and bar ley is necessary . More

comp lete knowledge o f the chemica l and physical proper ties o f both the

ma jor and minor constituents o f the grains , and o f the changes that occuramong them. during processing , is needed to po int the way to the new food

and f eed products and to new processing techno logies . A thorough exp loration must a lso be made o f the inherent versati lity o f th ese grains as f ood

and f eed substances to achieve the utmost o f their wide use potentia lities .

USDA PROGRAML

The Western Utilization Research and Deve lopment Division conducts a

broad program. o f basic and app lied research on wheat and bar ley at A lbany ,

Ca lif ornia ; under contract at Pu l lman , wash ington ; Laf ayette , Indiana ;Corva l lis , Oregon ; Kansas City , Missour i ; Chicago , I l linois ; and

Manhattan , Kansas ; and under P .L. 480 research grants in. Eng1and , France ,

Po land , Ita ly , and Israe l .

Basic studies are concerned with characterizing the so luble proteins (a lbu'

mins and g lobu lins ) , g luten prote ins , l ipoprote ins and l ipids in Wheat and

f lour , identi fying interactions in and between these substances , and

characterizing the bio logica l ly- active compounds present in bran. and germ .

Di f f erent varieties and c lasses o f wheat are being studied to determine

intrinsic dif f erences between the scarce high -

qua lity bread-baking wheats

and those surp lus wheats which require chemica l treatments or aging of

f lour for bread production . App lied research is be ing conducted on new

and improved f ood and f eed products and processes , with emphasis on the

deve lopment o f products to he lp f i l l the f ood def icit in overseas countries ; microbia l contaminants o f f lour and the ir e l imination as a spoi lagesource f or f ormu lated foods ; and on the extension o f basic research f indings to the improvement of manufacture o f bread and other baked foods .

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content had to be decreased to a critica l leve l s light ly be low one -ha l f the

origina l content to give a large permanent increase in extractable protein .

2 . Wheat F lour Dough Rheplogy . Basic studies toward re lating f low characteristics (rheo logy ) to the properties o f wheat f lour dough , are beingconducted under Public Law 480 in the Rheo logica l Laboratory o f the Israe lInstitute o f Techno logy at Hai fa . Standardized testing of f lour f or bread

making qua lity includes the use o f equipment such as th e Farinograph and the

Extensograph . However use fu l this equipment is , their resu lts have not

provided unequivoca l predictions o f baking qua l ity . Research under this

pro ject seeks to identify the basic mechanica l parameters which changebread qua lity , and work out ways o f measuring such parameters . A searchof the literature was conducted , and eX ploration. made into research con

ditions and techniques used to study the rheo logica l properties o f bread

doughs . Equipment was insta l led , and , in some casca ,

‘

re -designed to be

more appr0 priate to the study o f wheat f lour doughs . In pre liminarystudies , measurement o f dough samp led from the three characteristic stages

o f the Farinograph cyc le is yie lding inf ormation on typica l h igh -

qualitywheat f lour . EXperimental conditions are be ing de f ined . For examp le ,

research must be limited to a very narrow temperature range if uni formresu lts are to be obtained . Furthermore , partia l ly-mixed dough wi l l recoversome of its origina l characteristics when a l lowed to rest and such rest

periods may obscure data on rheo logica l properties f or the state o f the

dough being investigated . The characteristic so f tness o f wheat f lour dough

has made it di f f icu lt to measure pieces o f extruded dough in typica l rheo

logica l measurements . Consequent ly , equipment is being modif ied . This

investigation shou ld improve our understanding o f changes in the physica lnature of dough during the mixing process .

3 . Ana lysis and Characterization o f Wheat Pro te ins . The dif f erencesbetween f lours saem. to depend in large part on proteins and their changesduring the deve lopment o f bread doughs . Consequent ly , ref inement o f meas

urement o f types and kinds o f protein constituents and changes o f proteins

during dough deve lopment are under intensive study . Pioneering researchon immunochemica l techniques is being carried out under P .L. 480 at the

Pasteur Institute in Paris , France . The techniques of immunochemistry and

gel e lectrophoresis were combined to give an exceptiona l ly good ana lytica lseparation of proteins . The separated proteins are identif ied by the immuno

logica l reaction occurring Wh en the antigenic protein combines with a

spec if ic antibody present in immune anima l sera introduced into the gel .

I f any separated proteins are enzymes , th eir activity can be detected in

the gel by means o f Speci f ic co lor tests . Signif icant progress has been

made in separating and identifying a number o f wheat proteins and studies

are in progress to re late the amounts and properties of these componentsto dif f erences in baking properties o f dif f erent varieties o f wheat .

Resu lts o f this work are being applied. without de lay in the Department's

research laboratory at A lbany . E lectrophoretic separations into bands o f

protein constituents identi f ied by immunochemica l reactions can indicatethe comp lexity o f proteins in Wheat f lour . Po lyacrylamide gel e lectrophoretograms have separated a larger number o f components than were detectedon agar ge ls in pre liminary immunoelectrOphoretic examination o f f lourextracts . Possibly some compounds separated by the f ormer method have

identica l immunochemica l response or may be po lymers representing two or

more separated components all having the same response . A procedure com

bining the reso lving capacity o f po lyacrylamide or starch ge ls withfavorable dif fusion characteristics o f agar ge ls has been deve loped and

is being evaluated . Two - dimensiona l ge l e lectrophoresis has a lso been

undertaken to conf irm the identity o f component bands in one- dimensiona lseparations . Research is p lanned in which individua l proteins wi l l beseparated out and added back to bread doughs to determine the ir contribu

tion to qua lity . Pre liminary large - sca le preparations , up to 35 to 40

grams of protein at a time , have been undertaken using co lumn chromatography .

The deve lopment of quantitative measurements f or speci f ic prote ins is be ingconducted under contract at washington State University . A sing le extraction using a luminum lactate bu f f ers at pH 3 has given the most satisfactoryresu lts to date . Such extraction f o l lowed by separation with disc e lectrophoresis appears to be a f ruitfu l approach to quantitative determination o f

wheat f lour prote ins .

Another approach to investigating the chemical and physica l properties of

wheat g luten is being made by carefu l study o f the a lterations induced byu ltrasonic vibration in research conducted under P .L. 480 at the Institut

Nationa l de la Recherche Agronomique in Paris . At this stage of the

research , it is not c lear that reproducible contro l lable changes in g lutencan be ef f ected by the treahment . Further resu lts and eva luations wil l beconducted , inc luding investigations on g luten extracted f rom. f lour by dif

f erent procedures . When and if contro l lable changes can be induced, other

work wi l l be undertaken to learn of the e f f ects o f treated g luten on bread

making .

Research on so lubi lity o f wheat g luten prote ins is be ing conducted under

P .L. 480 at the Centre Rationale de la Recherche Scienti f ique in

Montpe l l ier , France . These studies , intended to provide knowledge o f the

foaming and sur factive properties o f g luten proteins and of the means of

increasing and decreasing so lubi lity o f these proteins in neutra l so lution ,

have been interrupted because o f dif f icu lties in obtaining equipment . No

progress has been reported yet , and the grant has been extended f or two

years to enable the research group to comp lete the work.

In addition , basic research on nitrogenous compounds o f wheat germ. is being

supported by a P .L. 480 grant at Universita di Bo logna , in Ita ly . Data on

protein and f ree amino acids con f irmed previous published reports . Sig

ni f icant amounts o f po lyamines were f ound in Wheat genm . Because po lyaminescan form comp lexes with nuc le ic acids and have physio logica l sign i f icance ,

they are current ly o f considerable sc ientif ic interest .

4 . Chemica l Basis for Cohesiveness in G luten . Basic research on the prop

erties of g luten which contribute to the usefu lness o f wheat f lours in f ood

and industry and to a greater understanding o f how new app lications may be

devised is being conducted by contract with the M idwest Research Institutein Kansas City , Missouri . This pro j ect has just recently started . StO CkS

o f crude g luten and purif ied g luten and g lutenin have been prepared. Pro

cedures f or chemical modif ication , such as acetylation , esterif ication ,

breaking o f disu l f ide bonds , and b locking o f su l fhydryl groups , have been

app l ied to g luten and some modi f ied. materials have been prepared . Ana lytica l procedures f or determining degree o f modi f ication a lso have been worked

out . A procedure f or rehydrating the protein specimens with good contro lo f water content , pH ,

and sa lt content , and the preparation and mounting o f

rehydrated g luten strips in an Iustrou tester has been successfu l ly con

ducted . Tensi le strength , stress , and re laxation determinations wi l l bemade on the dehydrated protein str ips . A statistica l design f or thisresearch , covering se lection o f treatments and modif ications of g lutensamp les , has been submitted and revised on the basis o f comments f rom the

subj ect matter specia l ist .

5 . Enzymes in Wheat and F lour . Studies are under way to iso late and

characterize amylase , proteinase , and l ipoxidase enzymes known to occur in

wheat and wheat f lour . Enzymic action is invo lved in the. modif ications that

take p lace during the mixing in deve lopment o f bread doughs . It is alsoalmost certain ly invo lved in the maturation o f wheat f lours . A. systematicstudy o f the enzymes in wheat and the di f f erences in activities o f wheat

samp les may provide some he lpfu l guidance f or better means f or convertinghard red winter wheat into improved bread f lour . Four distinct componentbands , which have amylo lytic activity , were separated by electrOphoresis .

The standard method for determining proteo lytic activity in f lours was

shortened by severa l modif ications in a new analytica l procedure . Sulfhydryl blocking reagents caused a partia l inhibit ion o f the proteo lyticenzymes and introduction o f disu l f ide and su l fhydryl containing substancesinto the reaction did not restore the activity .

Studies o f f lour proteinase indicated that about 25% o f the enzyme required

a f ree su l fhydryl group to be reactive , whereas the remainder did not .

Lipoxidase activity was f ound in water extracts f rom f lour , but no activityhas yet been f ound in f ractions separated by ion exchange chromatography .

Lipoxidase activity was comp lete ly lost by boi ling the extracts , but

sequestering reagents caused no diminution .

Basic studies on the re lation of su l fhydryl groups to the amylo lytic and

proteo lytic enzyme s in wheat , f lour , and ma lted wh eat are being carriedout under P .L. 480 at the University o f Poznan in Po land . Research there

con f inmed the importance o f ma intaining the integrity of su l fhydryl groupsin preserving the activity of amylo lytic and proteo lytic enzyme s in wheat .

Such enzyme activity is important , and supp lementa l additions o f enzymes to

f lour are common ly made during mi l ling and formu lation o f ingredients for

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the lipids o f hard red spring and hard red winter wheat f lours , a sma l l butde f inite quantitat ive di f f erence was observed . Hard red spr ing f lours con

tained h igher percentages o f simp le l ipids than did the hard red winterf lours . The compound l ipids o f hard red spr ing f lour contained more

lecithin and ester groups and less sugars than did the compound l ipids o f

hard red winter f lours . The association o f l ipids with prote ins was found

a lmost exc lusive ly with in th e g lutenin f raction o f the proteins . Fractionation o f g luten by severa l methods consistent ly resu lted in concentrationo f l ipid in the less so luble g lutenin f raction . Lipid appears to preventsome chemica l asso c iations o f prote ins . When g luten lipids were extractedwith water - saturated , norma l butyl a lcoho l , the g luten exh ibited decreasedso lubility in di lute acetic acid . A decrease in so lubi lity appeared to

re f lect an increased association tendency among the glutenin components in

the absence o f lipid rather than an irreversib le denaturation o f the pro

tein . Based on th is in f ormat ion ,more extensive eva luations o f dif f erences

in f lour l ipid compositions and l ipoprote in characteristics are p lanned .

Se lected l ipid materia l wi l l be prepared and compared with natura l components by studying e f f ects on dough properties . A lthough on ly a sma l lamount o f lipid materia l exists in wh eat , it seems to have a very important ef f ect on baking qua lity .

Work in th is area is strengthened by two research grants under P .L. 480 .

A basic study o f the composition o f l ip ids o f who le wheat has been under

taken at the Eco le Francaise de Meunerie in Par is ,and another grant on

studies o f phosphorous compounds in f lours at the Inst itut Nationa l de la

Recherche Agronomique ,a lso in Paris . Research in the f irst o f th ese

pro j ects is concerned with evidence that certain types o f fatty materia lsin wheat are important in determining the properties o f f lour and thus o f

a loaf o f bread . Lipids undergo changes during preparation o f the dough

and during yeast f ermentation . The resu lts o f these changes are beingidenti f ied .

In the second pro j ect , extens ive compos itiona l studies have been conducted ,

comparing 10 United States wheats o f di f f erent processing character isticswith three French grown wheats representing two o f the genera l types o f

U .S . wheat . The re lationship between tota l protein and sedimentation va lueo f wheat seems to invo lve th e amount o f lipid avai lable . The ratio o f

tota l protein to tota l l ipid para l le ls the sedimentation value . The ratioo f lipids lef t unextracted a lso seems to para l le l th e baking characteristics o f the f lour samp les .

8 . Bread F lavor . The importance o f understanding the chemi stry o f bread

f lavor l ies in the problem o f preserv ing the aroma o f fresh ly baked bread .

By understanding What f lavor is , and how to measure it , we start toward

f lavor enhancement and f lavor stabi lity . The exceeding ly painstaking task

o f determining minute components o f bread that create its de l ightfu l f lavorinvo lves deve lopment o f e legant and sophisticated equipment and pro ceduresto measure nerve - stimu lating mater ia ls in fractions o f a part per mi l lion .

-268

The ingenuity demanded is mat ched or exceeded by that required f or the

second task of corre lating compositiona l data with f lavor and aroma

responses . Organo leptic evaluations and corre lation of sub jective response

to individua l components wi l l be emphasized . Eigh ty to 100 components o f

bread have been iso lated and identif ied in vo lati le f orms . These vo latilesare extracted f rom. cooked breads , or captured f rom the oven vapors whilebread is being cooked . One f raction , wh ich has a characteristic f resh

bread f lavor , was iso lated f rom. the oven vo latil es . When exposed to air ,

it deve loped a typical stale aroma . A part of the investigation is directedto the vo latile components produced in pre

- f erments , such as are used in

the continuous mix manuf acture of bread . z Nine dif f erent keto acids were

f ound to occur in signif icant quantities in pre- f erments used f or bread

production . Tentative identity of these nine compounds has been made and

analytical methods are being deve loped to measure them quantitative ly in

pre- f erments of various composition and history. With the knowledge being

gained ,each keto acid can be added in various amounts to pre- f erments under

contro l led conditions and its ef f ect on f lavor and aroma determined .

Re lated contract studies at Massachusetts Institute of Techno logy have been

completed . In this contract research the ef f ects were measured o f modif ying the composition of pre

- f erment bread doughs on the vo lati le f lavor and

aroma components of breads baked theref rom . Taste pane l comparisons were

made o f pre- f erment breads that had been prepared wi th additions of indi

vidual amino acids . Several of the amino acids produced signif icantchanges in f lavor and aroma . However , pro line was the on ly additive whichproduced a bread pref erred over contro ls . Quantitative comparisons were

conducted on vo latile materials co l lected f rom f resh ly baked samples o f

contro l bread and bread made wi th pro l ine added to the pre- f erment . The

addition of pro l ine increased the total oxidizable material of the vo latileconcentrates . The increase in vo lati le concentrates was , within l imits of

measurement , accounted f or by increase in ethyl al coho l in the vo lati lematerial co l lected . Concentrates prepared f rom. volatile disti l lates of

the contro l bread and pro line containing bread were not f ound signif icantlydif f erent in chemical composition despite the organo leptic dif f erences that

had been f ound . Forty- one compounds were iso lated f roml bread vo lati les

and 24 of these were identif ied , including 9 which had not been f ound in

bread bef ore .

There have been many signif icant advances in re cent years in the chemistryof bread f lavor and the too ls of research have advanced so that progress

should acce lerate . However , there is sti l l a long way to go bef ore the

chemistry of bread f lavor is so well‘

understood that we can adjust the

ingredients and processes of bread-making to obtain products of superiorf lavor that are resistant to sta l ing .

B . New and Igproved Food Products and Processing Techno logy

1 . Bu lgur and Re lated Wheat Food Products . Bulgur , or parbo i led wheat ,has been continuous ly used as a diet stap le s ince post

- neo l ithic times in

the Near Eastern cradle of civi l ization .

’

A lthough not a substantial comr

'

mercial item. in the United States unti l a f ew years ago , bulgur is amongthe most important agricul tural exports of the government donation pro

gram. In 1963 about 300 mi l l ion pounds were shipped under Publ ic Law' 480 .

In a pi lot program of the domestic schoo l lunch distribution pounds

were used . Obviously as bu lgur becomes more wide ly known , sales of wheat

in this f orm wi l l increase . A commercial venture in bulgur manuf actureinitiated dur ing the past year , util izes a process deve loped by the

Department o f Agriculture . This p lant can produce 10 mi l l ion pounds of

bulgur per month and brings additional capacity to meet the rapidly grow

ing demand f or this product . The Department- deve loped process invo lves

continuous conditioning and cooking at atmospheric pressures . The processuses either red winter wheat or white c lub . Bulgur obtained f rom both

wheats was high ly satisf actory judged by mi l l ing yie ld , organo lepticqual ity , and nutrient content .

Severa l canned bu lgur products were produced in 150 to 200 can lots to

evaluate f ormmlations and processing , and to provide suppl ies f or demonstra

tion purposes . Cracked and who le kerne l bulgur general ly perf ormed more

satisf actorily than pee led raw wheat in canned products, but s l ight changesin f ormu lation were necessary in rep lacing the raw

'

wheat with the bu lgur .

Pre l iminary trials with rotating or tumbl ing pressure retorts indicate that

it wi l l be f easib le to f i l l cans with the dry materials and blend the

ingredients by agitation during processing . Products made this way were

more unif orm than mixed products cooked in a sti l l pressure retort .

Quick- cooking bu lgur was deve loped that provides f or a wide variety of

instant consumer products f rom wheat . Hot air puf f ing of who le kerne lbulgur transf onms it to crisp , expanded structures , wh ich quickly absorb

hot l iqu ids so f ormu lations can be made that are ready- to - serve in a matter

of minutes . Instant soup , salad , desserts , and other mixtures were made to

demonstrate the puf f ed bulgur .

A wide var iety of attractive and nutritional wheat f oods has been developedand recipes prepared and wide ly distributed . Demonstrations of many of

these f oods have been made to interested asso ciations of wheat growers and

pro f essional and social organizations . Assistance has been given in the

deve lopment o f recipes suitab le f or the use of bu lgur in the schoo l lunch

program .

products that uti l ize wheat are being investigated . Studies inc lude work

on techno logy to modif y structural and textural properties of products made

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-271

extreme ly ef f ective in acce lerating the changes measured by gas- liquid

chromatographic patterns . If the hexana l produced is used as an indication of change , samp les of ground pu f f ed bu lgur exposed to u ltravio letlight in air showed increases o f about 25- f o ld in eight days , 50

- f o ld in

nine days , and 75- f o ld in ten days . Exposure in oxygen in the dark,

showed on ly a 3 to 4- f o ld increase in ten days .

Waf ers have been made with substances reported to protect against radiationor radioactive fa l lout . Cal cium carbonate , tr ibasic calcium phosphate ,

ascorbic acid , L- cysteine hydroch loride , potassium iodide , yeast , fo licacid , methionine , and sodium. calcium. citrate have been added and th e leve lsdetermined at wh ich there is no adverse e f f ect on f lavor , texture , or

genera l appearance . Shou ld such additions be indicated , the qua lity o f

the waf er wou ld not be a f f ected . Possible in f luence of these additives on

wa f er stabi lity is yet to be discovered .

Foods that wou ld be use fu l with emergency supp lies o f bu lgur wa f er were

se lected for extended storage tests . Such tests were initiated by a secondcontract with th e Oregon State University at Corva l lis .

Considerable success has been achieved with co ld wat er ge ls as food adjunctsf or bu lgur wa f ers . Further improvement in the c larity , f lavor , and ease o f

mixing is being sought . Such products cou ld be stored dry f or stabi lity ,

mixed with co ld water , and used as f lavored Spreads f or the wa f er to pro

vide variety . Investigations have been undertaken a lso on a high ly stab lefat spread resemb ling margarine that cou ld be used with the waf er . Pre

liminary work is we l l under way on a di f f erent package f or dry mixes whichmay be reconstituted with co ld water spreads , co ld water ge ls , and

icings ) . The dry mix wou ld be packaged in an oversized p lastic bag withina tin can . The bag can be removed f rom. the can , co ld water added , and'

mixing e f f ected by kneading the bag . The adjunct cou ld be extruded from

the bag through a ho le produced by cutting o f f a specially des igned tip .

Adjuncts packaged th is way wou ld require no equipment f or preparation and

wou ld go direct ly onto the waf ers .

4 . Baking Qua lity . Baking qua lity o f wheat f lour , as re lated to compositional factors , is under continuing investigation . Air - c lassif iedfractions are now avai lab le over a wide range o f protein content from. f ive

hard red winter wheat varieties . Bread baking and physica l mixing tests

o f dough are in progress to study re lationsh ips o f protein quantity and

qua lity to baking qua lity . Unc lassi f ied f lours are being sought which are

simi lar in protein content to the various air - c lassi f ied f ractions . Thesenatura l f lours wil l a lso be eva luated f or baking qua lity to see if resu ltsobtained are the same as those in the separated fractions .

The e f f ects upon baking o f variation in wheat f lour l ipids are being inves

tigated under P .L. 480 at the Br itish Baking Industries Research Association in Chor leywood , Eng land . Representative samp les o f U . S . grown wheat

are being ana lyzed f or fat , eva luated f or baking qua lity , and studied with

f ormu la modi f ications to determine the ro le o f f at in bread loaves .

Because varieta l and cu ltura l factors in f luence qua l ity o f samp les , sev

era l years o f investigation must be eva luated be fore conc lusions can be

drawn . However , even at th is stage in the research , evidence is accumu

lat ing that certain fats are indeed important to the behavior of dough ,

the loaf vo lume , and crumb f irmness o f bread .

Continuous~mix bread manu facture has brought up a new problem in makingbread doughs . Some f lours to lerate non f at dried mi lk to a greater extent

than others . Research was initiated to study What components in f lourlimit th e use o f non fat dried mi lk in continuous~mix bread manufacture .

To lerant and non - to lerant f lours were se lected for this study ,and research

was in itiated to determine the re lationsh ips between mi lk so l ids and individua l components o f these f lours . By cooperation with the Eastern

Uti l izat ion Research Division ,m i lk so lids that have been treated in

various ways are avai lab le f or dough f ormu las to study their e f f ects on

baking qua lity . Speci f ic changes occurring in the f lour dur ing mixing and

baking wil l be examined . The obj ective is to deve lop methods f or se lectiono f f lours with h igh to lerance , to determine mi lk treatments wh ich wi l lovercome the shortcoming , and to deve lop variations in baking proceduresthat wi l l permit the usua l amounts o f mi lk so l ids in bread formu las .

manufacture o f bu lgur and other wheat products , raises the question o f

nutrient retention . However , vitamin losses were f ound minima l f or a range

o f conditions representing commerc ia l operations . Pre liminary chick growth

experiments indicate that bio logica l protein va lues are as good as or

better than those o f f lour made f rom th e same wheat . Leach ing o f proteinf rom the bran into the endosperm may make amino acids more avai lab le . The

nutrient qua lity o f bu lgur is approximate ly that o f who le wheat f lour , withthiamine losses less than 152 . Thiamine losses dur ing the canning o f wheat

and the pu f f ing o f bu lgur were signi f icant , and the pu f f ing Operation some

what impaired bio logica l protein va lue . The processed products are nevertheless f air to good sources o f severa l B-vitamins ,

inc luding thiamine .

The losses do not exceed the losses that occur in toasting and cooking o f

many common wheat products .

Studies aimed at rapid chemical methods for assay o f nutritive va lue o f

proteins during processing o f wheat products are being conducted under

P .L. 480 at Cambridge University in Eng land . Compositiona l studies re latethe e f f ects o f heat to amount o f lysine , methionine , and leucine in wheat

products . This in formation is being re lated to the bio logica l value o f

proteins containing these amino acids . These studies corre late data f rom

rapid chemical ana lyses with those f rom the time - consuming an ima l assays .

If these chemi ca l tests corre late adequate ly with nutritive va lue , it wi l lbe possib le to monitor industria l processes used in the production o f wheat

f ood products .

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6 . The recentgrowth of convenience f oods , such as f rozen and c ducts and pre

mixes with f lour , has brought attention to micro- organisms that f requentlycontaminate f lour but that are adequate ly contro l led when f lour is used in

commercia l bread or other bakery products . Sanitation requirements are

becoming more stringent in f rozen f oods ,4 baby f oods , and other products

and have caused f ood manuf acturers to l imit wheat f lour in many products .

Ref ined starch , purif ied vegetable gums , and other thickeners are used in

p lace of wheat f lours f or better sanitary contro l . Contract research at

the American Institute of Baking in Chicago has been negotiated to deter

mine the nature and extent of contamination that would be detrimental to

f lavor , qual ity , and saf ety of f oods containing f lour and to develop methods

to e l iminate contamination f rom. f lour during pro cessing . Future researchwil l inc lude studies on the viabi l ity of organisms in f lour f or various uses

and the ef f ects of pro cesses to reduce mi crobia l contaminations to a neg

l igib le leve l . Research on this contract wi l l begin r in the very near f uture .

C . New and Ipproved Feeds and Feed Proce ssing Techno logy

1 . Ipproved Feeds f romfl Wheat and Wheat Fractions . Research on f eed utilization of wheat has been l imi ted during the period of this report byunavai labil ity of personne l . Chick f eeding tests were conducted to deter

mine the ef f ects of bulgur processing on the nutritive value of wheat .

Studies were made of both hard red wheat and Northwest club wheat . The

bu lgur process does not reduce lysine availabil ity. Research in this area

'

wi l l deve lop toward new f eeds based on the high-

protein wheat mi l lingbyproducts . These materials contain. higher leve ls o f protein than the

f lour or the who le of the starting grain . Furthermore , the middlings ,

shorts , and other parts of the mi l l run have protein that is of greater bio

logica l value than that ih the f lour . Representative samples o f mi l l run

wi l l be separated and f ractions characterized f or amount and bio logicalqua l ity o f protein .

‘

Wet and dry separation and combinations thereof wi l lbe used to prepare protein- rich f ractions , wh ich because of concentrationand bio logical va lue , wou ld be usef u l to the f eed mixing industry.

Contract research on estrogens in wheat bran and germ. conducted at Iowa

State Un iversity , Ames , has been conc luded . Oils f rom wheat bran and germ

were f ractionated . Various f ractions were assayed biometrica l ly f or

estrogen- like activity. Such activity had been previous ly reported in the

hydrocarbon f raction and was conf irmed . Another f raction appeared , in

pre l iminary b ioassay procedures , to be o f higher activity than the mixed

hydrocarbons and obtainab le in good yie ld . Research concentrated on thisapparently homogeneous pheno l ic substance . On detailed study , it was f ound

to be a homo logous mixture o f f ive compounds varying sl ightly in the number

of carbon atoms on the side chain of an alkyl - dihydroxy benzene . Subsequent

bioassay of the purif ied components did not bear out the original f indingof estrogenic activity . It must be assumed that impurities not yet revealedbut removed in the pur if ication were responsib le .

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Ju i l ly , Marce l E Kau fman , Vern F . , O lson , Robert L and Taylor ,

E leanor C . 19 62 . Foods f or f a l lout sh e lters . 11 . Food storage ,

packaging and survei l lance . Food Techno l . pp . 25- 27 .

Ku lp , K . and Bechte l , W . G . 1962 . Frozen f ruit pies . Food Techno l .

pp . 104- 106 . (Contract )

Olson , Robert L. ,Kau fman , Vern F . , and Taylor , Eleanor C . 1962 . Foods

f or fa l lout she lters . I . The problem . Food Techno l . pp . 21- 24 .

Taylor , Eleanor C . , Jui l ly , Marce l E . ,and O lson ,

Robert -L. 1962 . Foods

f or f a l lout she lters . III . Food se lection and ration concepts . Food

Techno l . pp . 39 -45 .

Western Uti lization Research and Deve lopment Divis ion. 1962 . Proc . FirstNationa l Con f erence on Wheat Uti lization Research ,

CLinco ln , Nebraska ,

148 pp .

Western Uti lization Research and Deve lopment Division . 196 2. Proc . Con

f erence on Ro le o f Wheat in Wor ld ' s Food Supp ly ,A lbany , Ca l if ornia ,

148 pp .

FORAGES AND FEED PROCESSING AND PRODUCTSNorthern Utilization. Research. and Deve lopment Division, ARS

Eyeblem. Fresh f orage crops are the richest natural sources of a wide

variety of nutrients essential to f arm animals . The bulk of

these crops , however , is preserved by such inef f icient processes (haymaking and ens i ling ) that 10 to 50 percent of the original dry weightand much larger amounts of certain valuable nutrients and growth

promoting f actors are lost bef ore the anima l consumes the products .

Dehydration is currently the only practical means f or preserving a h ighpercentage of the value of f orage crops . Pou ltry and swine producers ,aware of the value of dehydrated f orage in f eeds , neverthe less restrictthe use of this product because of its high f iber and growth

- inhibitorcontent . The livestock producer needs , and theref ore the f orage deby

drator needs to produce , f eed ingredients f rom. f orages tai lored to

specif ic classes of f arm animals . Intensive basic and app lied uti lization research are needed to deve lop new methods f or processing f orages

to produce : ( l ) high- value , f iber- f ree juice or lowe f iber products f or

nonruminant animals ; (2 ) lowa cost products , riCh in f iber treated to

make it h ighly digestib le , f or ruminants ; and (3 ) a growth - stimulatingsupp lement f or ruminants , taking advantage of the presence in f orages

of such growth-

promoting compounds as the recently discovered coumestrol .

Forage products f or ruminant f eeding wou ld be specif ically designed f or

the mechanized f eeding operations which wi l l be essential f or the MS

percent increase in livestock production to meet the projected 1975requirements . Deve lopment of new processes and improved f orage productswould stimulate the production of large tonnages of f orages as cash cropson. bigh- value land now being used f or crops currently in surplus .

USDA PROGRMM

The major part of the Department ' s research program. on f orages is maintained at the Western Utilization Research and Development Division ,

.Albany, Calif ornia . .At the Northern Division , Peoria , I l linois , theDepartment has a short- term program invo lving one organic chemist engaged

in research to isolate and identify the toxic component (s ) of tall f escuegrass responsible f or a cattle disease known as

" f escue f oot .

" Th isresearch is c00perative with the Kentucky State Experiment Station whichfurnishes toxic and nontoxic f escue grass f or chemical study and conductsbioassays of f ractions and components iso lated f rom f escue at the Northern

Division . Liaison is maintained with the f escue breeding program of the

Fie ld Crops Research Branch , ARS , through the Agronomy Department of the

University of Kentucky and with the Department 's Pharmacology Laboratory

at .Albany, Calif ornia .

The Federal program at Peoria , Ill inois , totals prof essional manr year ,

all of whi ch is devoted to chemical composition and physi cal properties .

~277 r9

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA .AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

.A . Chemical Composition and Physical Properties

1 . Fescue toxi city . Tests at Kentucky AES with. their new'

bioassay technique indi cated toxicity f or crude alkaloids , aqueous residue and so lidsf rom. the hexaneawater interf ace encountered in extraction of lipids . The

lipid f raction was cons idered nontoxic . These resu lts contradict previousreports that only the aqueous residue showed toxicity . Evidently muchadditional work wi l l be needed to standardize and to interpret properlydata furnished by the new bioassay technique . It is quite possible that

f escue alka loids wi l l prove to be imp li cated to a greater extent in

toxicity than the ear lier , cruder bioassay procedure indicated . About

ton of tal l f escue hay was extracted with 80- percent ethano l . The

extract was concentrated and shipped to Kentucky AES f or f urther study .

A. f raction'

believed to contain alkaloidal amine oxides was iso lated f rom

the aqueous residue obtained in conventiona l isolation of crude alkaloids .

This f raction amounts to percent of the hay or about twice the amount

of the crude alkaloid f raction . .A lkaloidal amine oxides have not been

previously isolated f rom f escue . Such compounds f rom. other plants havebeen reported to be toxic . It is signif icant that they o ccur in a f ractionpreviously associated with toxicity of f escue .

PUBLICATIONS AND PATENTS REPORTING RESULTSOF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Chemical Composition and Physigal Properties

Jacobson , D . R . ,

IMi ller , w. M . ,

1Seath , D . M . ,

1 Yates s. G . ,Tookey , H . L. ,

and Wo lf f , I . .A . (lUniversity of Kentucky , Lexingtons. 1963 . Nature of

f escue toxicity and progress- toward identif i cation of the toxi c entity .

J . Dairy Sci . pp . hl6—h22 .

Yates , S . G . 1962 . Toxi city of tall f escue f orage : A review . Econ .

Botany l6 (h) , pp . 295— 303 .

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-279

to new and ipproved f eeds and processing techno logy. In addition the

Division sponsors , under P .L. 480 , a research pro ject on f orage composition .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Chemical Cogposition and Phys i ca l Properties

1 . Pheno l ic Constituents o f Forages . A l f a lf a and ladino c lover are beingextracted to iso late groups o f compounds and individual compounds that

exhibit bio logical activity . (See paragraph Chemical identif icationsare made and suf f icient quantities of active compounds are obtained to be

used in f eeding studies . Under a service contract , 45 tons of alf al f awere extracted with acetone . From the extract , 1000 grams of pur if iedcoumestro l were obtained . The res idue was f urther studied

_

and separated

by countercurrent distribution . Twe lve components exhibiting intensef luorescence under u l travio let l ight were iso lated . These substances wi l lbe f urther characterized in f orthcoming studies . Pre l iminary f indingsindicate that they are pheno l ic and some are structura l ly similar to cou

mestro l . Bio logical activity wi l l be measured to discover whether or not

some of these components may contribute to the o ccasiona l unexplainedgrwo th in al f a l f a- f ed an ima ls .

2 . Pharma co logical Research on Forages . Bio logical activi ty of al f al f aand c lover is determined by assay with laboratory anima ls . Pharmacologi

cal tests are made on concentrates , extracts , and f ractions .\

Mnch atten

tion has been devo ted to coume stro l f rom. alf alf a , which exhibits estrogenicact ivity in mice . Re cently , severa l samples of a lf al f a have containedcoumestro l up to 200 to 500 p .p .m , with which it is possib le to measure

the activity of the al f al f a meal rather than an extract . Unexpectedly ,

‘

when these alf a l f a meals were f ed to mice , the ca l cu lated estrogeni cresponse based on chemical assays was no t real ized . However , if the ace

tone extract o f the mea l , wh ich also contains coumestro l , is f ed to the

mice , there is a three- f o ld increase in uter ine weight indicating estro

genic activity . Possibly an estrogen inhibitor may be a natural componento f the al f al f a mea l . In Austra l ian research the isof lavone f ormononetin

was f ound to exhibit considerable estrogenic potency in sheep . This p lantestrogen , when assayed in mice , indicated a re lative ly low bio logicalactivity . A re- eva luation o f the mouse assay as a cr iterion of potency in

ruminants must be initiated .

3 ; Interaction of Forage Antioxidants . A new contract was made with the

Univers ity o f Cal if ornia , Berke l ey , to f o l low leads uncovered under a

previous contract . Lip ids f rom. alf alf a wil l be studied , and the chemicalef f ects o f processing and antioxidants on l ip id oxidation wil l be eluci

dated . The investigation wil l be directed toward separating and characterizing l ipid components of a l f al f a , identi f ying changes that o ccur in them

as a resu lt o f dehydration and storage , and determining the e f f ects o f

various antioxidants and the chemical mechanisms by which the ir ef f ectiveness is accomp l ished .

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4 . Structure of A l f al f a Po lysaccharides . A structural analysis of al f al f apo lysacchar ides is being conducted under Publ ic Law 480 f unds at the

Edinburgh Univers ity , Sco tland . Research has been initiated a long two

l ines . An examination of the po lysacchar ide components of a l f al f a has

been started with extract ion procedures designed to obta in individual po lysacchar ide f ractions f or f urther identif ication and study . Secondly , a

survey of the enzyme carbohydrase activity o f extracts o f dormant and garmr

inating al f al f a seeds , stems , and leaves , has been init iated . Pre l iminaryexperiments gave evidence of several enzymes that are active on po lysacchar ide substrates . Large - sca le preparations of these enzymes wi l l bemade .

5 . Organic Ac ids . A study on the organi c acids in al f a l f a was initiatedin cooperation with the Ke l logg Foundation , whose grant program. enabled an

Engl ish biochemist , J . M; A . Til ley , to conduct research at A lbany ,

Ca l i f ornia . Special chromatographi c apparatus was obtained and detai ls o f

methodo logy have been worked out appropr iate to al f al f a . A Department

scientist wi l l continue independent study of the organic acids in f orages

based on the pre l iminary f indings o f Dr . Ti l ley .

B . New and Ipproved Feeds and Processing Techno logies

have continued into the third year using h igh and low- coumestro l dehydratedalf a l f a , screened f rom production lots at commercial dehydrating plants .

A lf al f a meal f or these studies has been obtained with f inancial help f rom

the Amer ican Dehydrators Association . A f ter three seasons , sheep f eedingexperiments at Oregon State University using a l f a lf a that is rich in coumes

tro l have indicated a ZOZ increase in gain and the production o f meat . Meat

qua l ity has been judged superior to that f rom. oontrols . Simi lar tests withbee f steers did not show pos itive resul ts at the coumestro l levels invo lved .

Samp les of coumestro l extracted by acetone f rom al f al f a have been sent to

the Anima l Husbandry Research Division f or cooperative studies on proteinba lance in cattle , and to the Oregon and Indiana Exper iment Stations f or

cooperative studies on lamb and steer growth .

2 . lpproved Al f a lf a Meal . .A l f al f a meal is being divided into low and highf iber products to provide specif ic components f or mixed f eeds . This researchis supported in part by the State o f Nebraska , Department o f Agricu ltureand Inspe ction , which provides the sa lar ies of two prof essional employees .

Air - classif ication of f ine -

ground al f al f a was not ef f ective . A more prom?

ising approach invo lves separation of leaf f rom. grit and stemmy portionsand then f ine gr inding and air - classif ication of the leaf f raction .

A lf al f a containing 26% protein and 17% f iber has been separated into two

components , one of which contains 29% pro tein and the other 302 f iber .

Research on the composition of the al f al f a p lant indicates 30% to 40% pro

te in in c lean leaf f ractions and 402 to SOZ f iber in pure stem f ractions .

Theref ore , some f urther enrichment appears possib le if more ref ined separa

tion procedures can be deve loped .

Stabil ity of dehydrated al f al f a has been improved by the antioxidant ethoxy

quin , as reported previous ly. A substantial export market f or ethoxyqu intreated dehydrated al f alf a has been deve loped . The long hot sh ipmentoverseas o f al f a lf a mea l requires a more stab le product than untreated

al f a lf a meal . Without an antioxidant , a l f al f a mea l impor ted into Japan

and western Europe would have l ittle of its Specif ic nutr ient va lue .

Recently the Food and Drug Administration has set a to lerance o f 5 p .p .m .

f or residues of f eed additive ethoxyquin in or on the uncooked f at o f meat

f rom anima ls , except pou ltry , and a to lerance o f a hal f a part per mi l l ionf or residues of the additive in or on uncooked musc le meat .

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'

Western Uti lization Research. and DevelOpment Division, ARS

Problem . The productive capacity o f U . S . r ice growers has increased faster

than domestic and export consumption over the past decade ,

limiting th e income potentia l o f th is ma jor wor ld f ood grain . Detai ledknow ledge o f chemica l compos ition and physica l properties , as re lated to

processing , is needed to guide mi l ling , processing , and product deve lopment o f U . S . rices so that they can. better meet the qua l ity requirementso f expanded markets . New and diverse f ood products f rom. rice that are easy

to prepare ,have f lavor and texture appea l , and are economica l to manu

facture , are needed to increase the tota l consumption o f rice both here and

abroad .

USDA PROGRAM

In the Western Uti lization Research and Deve lopment Division , basic and

app l ied research on rice is conducted at the Div is ion headquarters , the

Western Regiona l Research Laboratory in A lbany , Ca li f ornia . Basic studies

invo lve chemica l , physica l , and bioch emica l investigations o f r ice proteins

and o f process ing . The prote in work is concerned speci f ica l ly with iso lat ion and character ization o f the g lobu l in and g lute lin proteins of the

endosperm , E f f ec ts o f processing on qua lity o f cooked rice are beingstudied . Preparation o f high

-

protein r ice f ractions by means o f f inegr inding and air - c lassif ication is under exp loratory invest igation .

The Federa l program o f re search in th i s area tota ls pro f essiona l man

years . O f th is number are assigned to chemica l composit ion and phys

ica l prop erties ; to new and improved f ood products and processingtechno logy .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Chemica l Compos it ion and Phys ica l Propert ies

qua l ities o f ric e , leads repeatedly to questions concerning rice proteins .

Rice , as now ava i lab le , is a f ood that requ ires protein supp lementation to

su stain hea lthy human li f e , a lthough what protein is avai lable in r ice has

a very h igh bio log ica l va lue . The prote ins o f r ice a lso appear to a f f ectprocessing and cooking qua l ity . A s a consequence , fundamenta l research on

the protein constituents o f r ice is be ing conducted . Rice“

protein has been

extracted and separated by so lubi l ity di f f erences into g lobu l in , pro lamine ,

and g lute l in f ract ions , which ar e now being character ized . ElectrO pho

retic patterns o f r ice g lobu l in have indicated 11 or mor e components . Riceg lobu lin has been f ound to have an unusua l ly h igh su l f ur content , reminis

cent o f S-

g lobu lin o f bar ley . No such prote in has been f ound in other

cerea ls . Further characterization is underway , inc luding studies o f the

amino acid content o f individua l proteins .

1 . Cooking Characteristics o f Rice . Eva luation o f the cooking and

processing characteristics o f r ice is important in se lecting raw materia land deve loping new processes and products . An obj ective method to deter

mine degree o f ge latinization , and from. that the qua lity o f cooked rice ,

was deve loped using the Amylograph . Further studies on rice wi l l inc ludeuse o f the new procedure to eva luate means o f processing rice to improveits uti lity f or various markets .

2 . High -

prote in Rice Products . Rice cou ld be more use fu l , particu lar lyf or export to underdeve loped nations , if its norma l protein content cou ldbe enriched . Substantia l increases in r ice protein content have been

obtained by using high - leve l app l ications o f nitrogen f erti lizers at the

Ca l if ornia State Experiment Station . Three varieties o f r ice grown at the

Station , wh ich contained 9 to 10% protein , were used in process ing studiesto deve lop food products o f even higher prote in content . Turbo -mi l led and

air - c lassi f ied rice f lours were obtained with 16 to 17% protein in 82 o f

the f lour . The rema ining materia l yie lded another 5% o f f lour containing11 to l4% protein . In view o f the high bio logica l va lue o f rice protein ,

a r ice f lour containing in the neighborhood o f 14% prote in , wou ld be a

very nutritiona l f ood produc t and o f great va lue in the prote in de f icientareas o f the wor ld , i f th is process cou ld be made econom ica l . Pro f itableout lets f or the separated low protein f ractions must be found .

PUBLICATIONS AND PATENT REPORTING RESULTSOF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Chemica l Composition and Phys ica l Properties

Houston , D . F . 1962 . Rice proteins - II . The Rice J . p . 25 ;a lso in ARS - 74- 24 , p . 7 .

New and gpproved Food Products and Processing Techno logy

Kester , Ernest B . and Pence , James W . 1962 . Rice investigations at

Western Regiona l Research Laboratory . The Rice J . pp . 45-47 .

Wasserman , Theodore and Smith , George S . 1963 . A lternative samp ledrying procedure f or use in western rice dryers . The Rice J .

pp . 3 2 , 33 .

wasserman , Theodore and Ferre l , R . E .

'

May 14 , 1963 . Process f or

increas ing m i l l ing yie lds o f rice . U . S . Patent No .

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Studies o f the chemi cal and phys ical changes accompanying the aging o f

19 61- cr0 p Bluebonnet - 50 and Nato varie tie s o f rough rice stored at both

ambient temperature ( 77°F . ) and 40

°F . we re comple ted . In inves tigations

o f the native alpha and beta - amylase activity o f the ri ce s and the sus

ceptibili ty o f the s tarch to introdu ced alpha and be ta - amylases ,the two

varie ties close ly para l le led each o ther in overal l amylo lyti c su sceptibil

i ty and native amylase activi ty . Native alpha - amylase activity o f samplesaged at either temperature condition remained re lative ly constan t ,

whereas

be ta - amylase activity showed a de creasing trend . The ri ce starch be camemore su sceptible to amylo lytic action dur ing the aging process .

A f ter aging ,both varie tie s gave de creased losses in total so lids to

treating water at 90°C . The viscome tric characteristics o f the rices

progressive ly increased during the lO - month aging ,the lower aging tempera

ture yie lding the lower values . Improvement in the organo leptic characteristics f or the aged rices o f both varie tie s paral le led the we l l - de f inedchanges noted in hydration and viscometr ic propertie s . There were no sig

ni f icant changes in the gro ss chemical compos i tion ( starch , prote in and

sugars) o f the aged rough rices over the lO - month period , con f irming pre

viou s resu lts .

Pre l iminary re su l ts on simi lar exper iments conducted with a se cond year's

( 19 62) crop o f Bluebonne t - 50 and Nato rices are genera l ly conf irming the

ear l ier f indings . The same overal l pattern o f activi ty o f the nativeamylase enzymes upon aging o f the rice samples was observed . A f ter agingo f the r ice

,the s tarch became more su sceptible to the attack o f introdu ced

a lpha and be ta- amylase s . There have been no signi f icant change s in gross

chemical composition o f the rough ri ce s over the 6 - month aging period .

However ,water uptake and loss o f so l ids to cooking water have progre ssive

ly decreased at abou t the same rate f or bo th storage condi tions ; and

organo leptic propertie s , particu lar ly cohesiveness af ter cooking ,have

improved . These change s are paral le led by an increase in viscome triccharacteristi cs . These observations o f the di f f erence between f resh and

aged rice suggest physico - chemical changes in the nature o f the rice con

stituents , perhaps the starch , as evidenced by its progressive change in

viscometri c characteristics , af f in i ty f or water , and amylo lytic su scepti

bility . Sti l l unknown ,however , is the cau sative agent ( s) which brings

abou t such changes .

Observations resu l ting f rom a study o f the aging proce ss and previousinvestigations o f heat - vacuum treatments o f ri ce have led

Nto the deve lop

ment o f a method o f e f f e cting change s in f resh ly- harvested rice which bear

s triking simi laritie s to those f ound in aged ri ce . The me thod consis ts o f

heating rough or whi te mil led rice of 12- 13 per cent moisture content in a

c losed container at temperatures be tween 90° - 110° C . f or 3 to 8 hours

under control led conditions wh i ch preven t loss o f moisture f rom the grains .

Characteri sti cs o f the treated ri ce resemble those o f rice which has been

aged f or a period o f 10 months or longer . The produ ct has the hydrationproperties and pasting character i stics o f an untreated aged rice and cooks

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a white ,dry ,

f lu f fy consistency .

k is in progress on the compi lation ,review and analysis o f domestic and

eign in f ormation on rice phys i cal and chemical properties as recommendedthe USDA R i ce Research and Marketing Advisory Committee , and the Ricehuical Working Group . ( 51 4 - 12)

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

emical Com o sition and Pb sical Pro erties

gan , Joseph T . 19 62 . Biochemi cal studies o f rice at Sou thern Laboratory .

ice J o pp . 65 - 6 7 0

Consumer and. Rood Economics Research Division, ARSHuman Nutrition Research Division, ARS

PrOblem . The assortment and characteristics of f oods availab le to consumers

are constantly changing with the adoption of new production, processing, and marketing practices . Constantly changing a lso, as nutritionscience advances , is our understanding of the nutr itiona l needs of man and

the manner in which these needs can best be met by f ood . To he lp carry out

the Department 's responsib i lity to advise on the quantity and variety of

f oods that wi l l assure maximum'

benef it and satisf action to consumers , con

tinuous research is essentia l on the nutr itiona l requirements of persons of

all age groups, and on the nutrient and other inherent va lues of f oods and

how to conserve or enhance these values in househo ld preparation and processing . Per iodic examinations of the kinds and amounts of f oods consumedby dif f erent popu lation groups and individua ls a lso are essentia l f or evalua

tion of the nutritiona l adequacy of diets and to give the guidance needed

f or ef f ective nutr ition education . Such inf ormation provides assistanceneeded in market analyses f or dif f erent commodities and in the deve lopmentand eva luation of agricu ltura l po l ic ies re lating to f ood production , distri

bution, and use .

PROGRMM

The Department has a continuing program of research concerned with ( l ) nutritive and other consumer va lues of raw and processed f oods as measured. by

chemica l or physica l means and‘

by b io logic response ; (2 ) ef f ects of house

ho ld practices upon the nutr itive values and inherent qua lities of f oods,

and the deve lopment of princ ip les and improved procedures f or househo ld f ood

preparation, care and pre servation ; (3 ) surveys of kinds , amounts , and costsof f oods consumed by dif f erent popu lation groups and the nutritiona lappraisa l of diets and f ood supp lies ; and (h) deve lopment of guidancemateria ls f or nutr ition education programs .

The research is carried out by two divisions of the Agricu ltura l ResearchService - the Human Nutrition and the Consumer and Food Economics ResearchDivisions . Most of the work is done in Hyattsvi l le , Mary land, and at

Beltsville , Mary land ; some is done under cooperative or contract arrange

ments with State Experiment Stations , universities, medica l schoo ls , and

industry . The total Federa l sc ientif ic ef f ort devoted to research in these

areas tota ls man -

years . It is estimated that approximately man

years is concerned with studies re lated to grain and grain products .

Human metab olic studies and the re lated exp loratory and conf irmatory studies

w ith experimenta l anima ls and microorganisms concerned with def ining human

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_ 291

cerea l products made of whole grains contained 2 to h micrograms of vitaminB6 per gram, whi le other cerea l products such as all-

purpose f lour , white'

bread, precooked rice , noodles, macaroni , and spaghetti genera lly containedless than 1 microgram. per gram . Part of the loss in proce ssing may be

attr ibuted to ref ining as shown by the re lative ly large amount of vitamin3 6 in wheat bran (8 micro ams per gram) as

icompared to all- purpose f lour

micrograms per gram The studies are being summarized f or pub lication .

The nitrogen content of who le grains and cereal. products simu ltaneouslyanalyzed f or vitamin. B6 showed no re lationship to the content of vitamin B6in these products . Products which had been ref ined removing

‘

bran

f rom. whole wheat ) had much lower vitamin. B6 to nitrogen ratios than did

who le grains , indicating much greater losses of the vitamin than of nitrogen .

For instance , as an extreme examp le , the nitrogen content of bran was

percent, that of all-purpose f lour , percent, a lthough vitamin. B6 con e

tent of the bran was some 15 times greater than that - of f lour .

Research continued on procedures usef u l f or B - vitamin ana lyses to permitcharacterization of B - vitamins in f oods and their overa l l distribution in

the f ood supply. .A procedure has been deve loped f or the quantitative deter

mination of pyr idoxine (vitamin. B6 ) as pyridoxa l cyanohydrin . Studies wi l lbe continued to apply th is chemica l procedure to the assay of vitamin B6 in

f ood extracts and to verif y results by comparisons with those of the microb iologica l assay.

An improved. method f or thiamine determination has been deve loped . The con

ditions of the 6 -aminothymol co lorimetric reaction were changed so that a

stab le f luorescent compound was produced with thiamine . The f luorescencemade possib le measurements at much lower concentrations and appeared to be

simp ler than the usua l thiochrome reaction .

3 . Proteins and amino acids . A. manuscript was pub lished descr ib ing a

providing data f or M8 proteins and f oods, inc luding barley , corn germ, whole

germ, who le oats, brown rice , white rice , who le rye , who le wheat, wheat

f lour , and. wheat germ.

Prote in- rich mixtures of f oods f rom. plant sources are'

being deve loped and

their nutritive va lues determined in contract research using Pub lic Law h80

f unds at Jerusa lem, Israe l . Wheat f lour , bu lgur , soybean f lour , chick peas ,

sesame f lour , and sunf lowerseed. meal were analyzed f or content of tota l nitro

gen and of the three amino acids (lysine , methionine , and tryptophan )which limit the nutritive value of most p lant prote ins . The values Obtained

were used as a basis f or preparing eight mixtures expected to have rela

tively high'

biological va lues . The nutritive value of the eight mixtures,each prepared to contain 25 percent protein, was assessed on rats by deter

mining protein ef f iciency ratio, digestib i lity and‘

b iological value , and

net protein ratio .

- 292

l . F lour measurements . A. study was made of the we ight - vo lume re lationsh ipof sif ted and unsl f ted f lour and its signif icance in regard to qual ity of

home - prepared'

baked products . Recent changes and variance in recommenda

tions made by industry regarding methods of measuring f lour f or househo lduses made it necessary to Obtain inf ormation on f lour f rom. a number of

sources in order to make sound recommendations to consumers . Both all- pur

pose and cake f lour varied less among rep licates when the f lour was sif tedbef ore measuring than when it was measured without sif ting . Unsif ted f lourspooned directly f rom. the f lour container varied less in we ight per cup than

unsif ted f lour dipped. with a cup f rom. the f lour container . Unsif ted, spooned

f lour cou ld be adjusted to the approximate we ight of a cup of sif ted f lourby removing two leve l tab lespoons of f lour af ter measur ing . No dif f erencewas noted in the qua lity of baked cakes and. muf f ins made with sif ted and

unsif ted f lour when the vo lume of unsif ted f lour was adjusted in this manner .

When unsif ted f lour was used without adjustment in vo lume , muf f ins and cakes'

were less acceptab le than products made with sif ted f lour .

high qua l ity pastry with less than the usua l amount of f at were developed .

One of the mixing methods uses liquid cooking oil, the other uses solid. f at .

In the oil method water and oil together , both at room temperature , are

sprinkled into the dry ingredients whi le b lending with an e lectr ic mixer at

lowest speed, f or 3 minutes . The even distribution Obtained. by sprinklingthe oil and water into the dry ingredients resu lts in a tender, f laky pastry.

Corn, cottonseed, soybean, and saf f lower oil work equa lly we l l .

Even distribution of f at and water a lso is responsib le f or the success of the

solid f at method which a l lows the use of less f at than usua l . Room tempera

ture f at is b lended into the dry ingredients with an e lectr ic mixer at lowest

speed f or 2 minutes, then water is sprinkled in and b lended 1 minute .

Ho w- to - do- it instructions were re leased to the genera l pub l ic .

3 . Qua lities of f ore

domestic rices , which summar ized the research on rice by f our Divisions in

ARS (HN, SU, WU, and CR ) . Qua l ity characteristics of both raw and cookedrice f rom. 33 countries and the United States are reported .

Co lor of raw rice was assoc iated with comp leteness of mi l l ing; dif f erencesin l ightness and ye l lowness were a lso noted . The parboi led rices were

genera lly darker and more ye l low than the regular mi l led samp les ; samp lesf rom India were the darkest .

The starch granules in short - grain rices genera l ly had lower ge latinizationtemperatures and were a ltered more by heat than starch granu les in mediums

and long- grain var ieties . All samp les tested f rom. Australia , Chi le , Egypt,

France , Greece , Italy, Korea, Portugal , Spain, and Turkey, and. most of

those f rom. Japan had high heat a lteration values ; those f rom Colombia,Ecuador , Mexico, west Pakistan, and the Phi lippines, and all but one f rom.

India had low va lues and those f rom. the other countries were intermediateor varied .

Distinct dif f erences in the appearance of regular milled rices f rom variouscountries were noted af ter cooking . Dif f erences in appearance scores of

the rices were greater among individua l lots f rom dif f erent countries thanamong long mediums , and short- grained varieties . The long -

grain. kernels

tended to sp lit longitudinally and the short- grain samples to s lough . Most

of the regu lar mi l led rices had f uzzy edges and showed some s loughing.

Parboi led mi l led rices increased in volume, but otherwise changed littlein appearance during cooking .

Cooked kerne ls of parboi led mi lled rices were we l l - separated grains ; mostof the regular mi lled rice samp les were s light ly sticky and clumped . The

most and least cohesive samp les came f rom. India . Cohesiveness or sticki

ness increased f rom. long to medium to short - grain types of rice . Dif

f erences in cohesiveness were greater within a grain type f rom dif f erentcountries than among grain types with in a country .

Most of the cooked rice samp les were f airly tender and. f irm - of opahmnn

doneness . Parboi led mi l led rice samples were more f irm and chewy than the

regu lar mi lled rice samp les .

Pronounced f lavors , not typica l of domestic rice , were evident in the ricesf rom f oreign countr ies . The f lavors f ound in the cooked rices were attrib

uted to such f actors as : Storage conditions ; water us ed in cultivation,mi lling, or parboi ling ; and f ermentation dur ing the parboi l ing process .

The f lavors were described as musty, smoky, medicina l , oily, rancid, and

bitter .

C . Nutrient Functions

Proteins . Basic research using sma l l anima ls and microorganisms is con

tributing to an understanding of the inf luence of type of carbohydrate on

lipid and protein metabolism. and to our know ledge of f actors inf luenc ingthe physio logica l response to prote in - and carbohydrate - containing f oodssuch as the cerea ls . Prote in components in the b lood serum of rats, partie

ularly rapidly moving components (PA ) , varied with diet and with age . PA .

was present more of ten and in larger amounts with f asted rats f ed a sucrosecontaining diet than with rats of comparab le age on a starch - containingdiet . With e ither carbohydrate , more PA. was generally present in the serum

of 350 daym old. rats than in that of 150 day- old anima ls .

'

With glucose , PA'

was present in sma l l amounts in a larger percentage of rats , and no age

ef f ect was apparent . The percentage of 150 day- old sucrose - f ed rats with

serum containing PA was higher in nonf asted than in f asted rats ; the reverse

was Observed with glucose . Lipid mater ia l was f ound in the PA components .

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- 295

recommendat ions f or all nutrients (good and f air diets ) . The nutrientswhich f e l l be low the recommended al lowances most of ten were th iamine andcalcium.

The series of f ood surveys conducted in low- income areas to aid in the study

of the ef f ects of f ood distribution programs on diets of f ami lies has beenextended to inc lude a survey carried out in Choctaw County , Oklahoma and in

Pensaco la , F lorida . These were conducted cooperatively with the MarketingEconomics Division, Economic Research Service as were simi lar surveysreported previously .

A f ood consumption survey was carried out in the District of Columb ia that

wi l l provide inf ormation on the diets of househo lds and of individua ls .

The study was undertaken primari ly as a pi lot survey ih — deve loping procedures

f or the next Nationwide survey proposed in the Department 's long - range pro

gram.

The nutrient content of the per capita f ood supp ly is calcu lated and pub

lished each year, using data on estimated quantities of f oods consumed(retail-weight basis ) as deve loped by the Economic Research Service . Thisseries, with estimate s extending

'

back to 1909, is the only source of data

on year - to -year changes in the nutrient content of the U . S o per capitaf ood consumption .

A survey conducted. by the Census f or the Consumer and Food Economi cs ResearchDivision has provided inf ormation on quantities of enrichment ingredientssupp l ied to processors in f ortif ying such cerea l products as commerc ia l or

f amily f lour , ready- to - eat and hot cerea ls, and cornmea l and hominy grits .

The up - to - date f indings wi l l be incorporated in a comp lete revision of the

nutritive value of the nationa l f ood supply now in progress .

2 . Food management practices . The resu lts f rom three sma ll studies basedon records kept by the Homemaker on the kind, amount , and nutritive va lueof f oods used and discarded in househo lds have been prepared as a journa lartic le . In terms of tota l ca lories avai lab le f or consumption, discardededib le f ood averaged 7 percent in St . Pau l , Minnesota ; 8 percent in DeKalb

County, Ndssouri ; and 10 percent in Los Ange les , Ca l if ornia . A study usingreca l l questions ,

" instead of records, with a random samp le of 300 households

in Minneapo lis- St . Pau l in the winter of 1960 is currently being processed .

A. published report on household practices in handling and storing commercially f rozen f oods , based on surveys in two c ities, indicate that househo ld

practices alone wou ld not cause serious qua lity deterioration of f rozenf oods .

A new study has been initiated (under contract ) of the management practicesof urban and f arm. home f reezer owners in Fort Wayne , Indiana and a nearby

rura l area . The survey is designed to obtain inf ormation on such actua lmanagement practices of home f reezer owners as the kinds amounts, sources,prices , and. rate of turnover of f oods f rozen and stored in the home .

programs . The ongoing program of interpretation and app lication of nutrition research f indings to practical prob lems f or use by nutritionists ,teachers, hea lth workers, and other leaders concerned with nutrition education or nutrition po licies has involved the preparation or review of

artic les and pub l ications , ta lks , te levision interviews , and participationin various conf erences and committees .

'

With the pub lication of the report"Fami ly Food P lans and Food Costs the

technica l work on the deve lopment of the Department 's current low - cost,

moderate - cost and libera l f ood p lans was comp leted . The continuing phasesof the work on individua l and househo ld f ood. budgets consists in the regu larpric ing of the f ood plans f or pub lication in Fami ly Economics Review, and in

di ssemination of inf ormation concerning them through such popu lar pub lications as

"

Fami ly Food Budgeting f or Good Mea ls and Good Nutrition,"through

‘

f i lmstrips ("Food f or the Young and through correspondence , ta lks

and committees (such as the .Advisory Committee to the Bureau of LaborStatistics on the ir City Workers ' Standard Budget ) .

Progress on the revision of Handbook No . 16 ,"

P lanning Food f or Institutionshas f ocused primarily on the f ood purchasing guide section . Pub lications in

preparation that are designed f or the use of teachers, extension workers and

other leaders are ( l ) a semi- popular pub lication on nutrition in the seriesFacts f or Nutrition Programs ; (2 ) a report on f at and re lated components in'

U . S . diets ; and (3 ) a study of'

the re lative economy of f oods .

Nutrition Committee News , a b imonth ly periodica l prepared f or members of

one channe l f or disseminating pertinent inf ormation and f or reporting nutrition education activities . Examp les of sub jects of current interest covereddur ing the report period are :

"Nutrition Aspects of Selected Studies of

Cardiovascu lar Diseases - Imp lications f or Nutrition Education," "

P lanningNutrition Programs f or E lementary Schoo l Teachers ,

"and.

"Food Guides -

eA

Teaching Too l in Nutr ition Education .

"

PUBLICATIONS

Nutrient va lue of Grain and Grain Products

Toepf er, E . W . 1962 . Procedures f or chromatographic separation and microb io logica l assay of pyridoxine , pyridoxa l , and pyridoxamine in f ood

extracts . Paper given at Committee on Vitamin. B6, Food and NutritionBoard, NAS -NRC, Denver , Co lorado .

Toepf er , E . W . and Z ook, E . G . 1962 . Prob lems in the microb io logica l assay

f or pantothenic acid . Paper given at the Nationa l Meeting of the AmericanSociety f or Microb io logy, Kansas City, Missouri .

- 297

Po lansky, M; M ; and Toepf er , E . W . 1962 . va lues f or vitamin. B6 components

in grains and cerea l products . Paper given at meeting of the Associationof Of f ic ial Agricultura l Chemists, Washington, D .C .

Hewston, E . M; 1963 . Resu lts of co l laborative investigations of the thiamine determinations appeared in

"Internationa l Z e itschrif t f ur Vitamin

f orschung"

33 ( l ) , pp . l—l7 . Zur Standardisierung der Vitamin —BlBestimmung

'

i'

h Getre ide and Getre ideprodukten -EH . Gassmann, B .

Janicki , J ., and Kamanaki , E .

Z ook, E . G . 1963 . Results of pantothenic acid analyses of diets and f eeds

acknow ledged in Pantothenic Ac id Requ irements of Swine f or Reproduction,R . J . Davey and J . W . Stenvenson , Anima l Sci . 22 , pp . 9— 13 .

Matthews , R . H . , Murphy, E . W . , Marsh , A . C . , and Dawson, E . H . 1963 .

Baked products : Consumer qua lity, composition , yie ld, and preparationtime of var ious market f orms . Home Economics Research Report No . 22 .

Warren, Horn, M ; J . and. Rlum, A . E . 1963 . Microb io logica l determination of a lanine in proteins and f oods . Analytica l Biochem , 5( l ) , pp . 70 - 77.

Matthews , R . H. and Batcher , o. M . 1963 . Sif ted vs . unsif ted f lour : weightvar iations and results of some baking tests . Jour . Heme Econ .

Pp o 0

1963 . How to make pastry with less f at in an e lectric mixer . CA 61- 16,USDA , ARS , HN . 3 pages .

1963 . Who le - wheat (graham) f lour rec ipes . CA 61- 15 Revised, USDA , ARS .

EN .

1963 . Bread and ro l ls . Agency f or Internationa l Deve lopment, Departmentof State . Human Nutrition Re search Division cooperating . 1h pages .

1963 . Corn and cornmea l . Agency f or Internationa l Deve lopment, Department

of State . Human Nutrition Research Division cooperating . 10 pages .

1963 . Wheat and wheat products . Agency f or Internationa l Deve lopment ,Department of State . Human Nutrition Research Division cooperating .

10 pages .

1963 . Bu lgur and trigor . .Agency f or Internationa l Deve lopment , Departmentof State . Human Nutrition Research Division cooperating . 7 pages .

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_ 299

Consumer and Food Economics Research Division . 1963 . Food consumption and

dietary leve ls of househo lds of dif f erent sizes , United States -by region .

‘

Household. Food Consumption Survey 1955, Rpt . No . 17 . 168 pp .

.Ade lson, S . F . and Keys, A . 1962 . The diet and some hea lth characteristicsof 123 business and prof essiona l men and methods used to Obtain the

dietary inf ormation . ARS 62 - 11 . 280 pp .

Consumer and Food Economics Research Division . 1962 . Nutrients avai lab lef rom civilian consumption per capita per day 1935- 39 and 19A7 - h9 averages,1960 , 1961, and pre liminary estimates f or 1962, with percentage compari

Consumer and Food Economics Research Division . 1962 . Fatty acids avai lab lef rom. oivilian consumption, 1930 , 1962 . Tab le 6 . Nat . Food Sit . Oct .

p . 2b.

Redstrom, R . 1962 . Consumer practices in handl ing and storing of commercially f rozen f oods . Family Economics Review, ARS 62- 5. Sept . pp . 3 - 7 .

Programs

Consumer and Food Economics Research Divi sion . 1962 ..Estima ted cost of

l week 's f ood . In Fami ly Economics Review , ARS 62- 5. (UkS .A . average

issued quarterly, estimates f or f our regions issued annua l ly ) .

Consumer and Food Economics Research Division . 1962 . Food f or the young

coup le . Home and Garden Bul . No . 85. 16 pp .

Cof er , E ., Grossman, E . and C lark, F . 1962 . Family f ood p lans and f ood

costs, f or nutritionists and other leaders who deve lop or use f ood p lans .

Home Economics Research Rpt . No . 20 . 5h pp .

Consumer and Food Economics Research Division . 1962 . Proc . of nutritioneducat ion conf erence , Jan . 29 - 31, 1962 . Muse . Pub . No . 913 .

Nutr ition committee news (periodica l , 6 issues ) : Julye Aug . 1962, Sept .- Oct .

1962, Nov .-Dec . 1962, Jan .

-Feb . 1963 , Mar .—Apr . 1963 , May—June 1963 .

bargains . Economics Review, ARS 62 - 5.

0 diet and nutrition f rom the U . S . Dept . of

icine 75- 78 .

62 . Meeting nutritiona l needs through f ood .

Research . 3l- hh.

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I II . MARKETING .AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH

GRAIN MARKET QUALITYMarket Qual ity Research Divis ion, AMS

Pr ob lem .

Grain and cereal products are sub je ct to damage or de ter iorat ion in

qua l ity whi le in marke ting channe l s through norma l me tabo l ic change s ,

by the act ion o f micro - organ isms , and by the attack o f more than 50

Spe c ies o f stored-product in sects . Saf e storage o f gra in , f lour , and

cerea l products f or extended per iods is a problem. o f immediate con

cern to m i l itary and c iv i l ian de f en se agenc ies . To maintain the

qual ity o f the se products , more pre cise in f ormat ion is needed on the

changes that occur in handl ing , storage , and transportat ion o f the se

mater ials and o f the products manuf actured f rom. them . To insure un i

f orm and standardized products in the market ing channe ls and more

equ itab le pr ices to all concerned , new and improved methods and te chn ique s f or measur ing qual ity f actor s need to be deve loped f or use in

the in spe ct ion , grading , and standardization procedure s . There is

urgent need f or more e f f e ct ive methods f or‘

preventing in se ct damage

and contam ination dur ing storage , handl ing , ptocess ing , packag ing ,

transportat ion , and reta i l distr ibution . The need is cr itica l f or

e f f e ct ive pe stic ides and app l icat ion methods that can be used in the

market ing channe l s without leav ing obje ct ionab le res idues . Even more

de s irab le is the deve lopment , wherever poss ib le , o f e f f ect ive pre

ventive and contro l measure s ut i l iz ing bio log ica l , phys ical ,mechan ica l or other nonchemica l means that wou ld reduce or complete lye l im inate the app l icat ion o f pestic ida l chem ica ls

USDA PROGRAM

The Depar tment has a cont inuing program invo lving chem ists , engineers ,

and plant patho logists in basic and app l ied re search on the qua l ityeva luat ion , qua l ity ma intenance and deve lopment o f obje ct ive methods

f or qual ity eva luat ion o f cereal grains . The re search is conductedat Be ltsvil le , Maryland , and Watseka ,

I l l ino is , and also by re searchcontract w ith Shuman Laborator ie s , Batt le Ground , Indiana .

The program . inc ludes the f o l low ing f ore ign pro j ects under PL 480 : A

grant to the Israe l Institute of Techno logy , Haif a , Israe l , prov ide sf or a study to deve lop tests f or nutr itive va lue o f cerea l gra ins and

f eeds . Its durat ion is 4 years , 19 60- 19 64 , and invo lves PL 480 f unds

w ith a equ iva lent in Israe l i pounds .

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A con tract w ith the Adm in istrat ion o f Agr icu ltural Reserves and

Surp luse s , Mon tivideo , Uruguay , is f or the study o f underground

storage o f corn in a irt ight si los in re lat ion to ma intaining qual ityand prevent ing inse ct in f estat ion dur ing long - term storage . It

be came e f f e ct ive in 19 62 , cont inues to May 1967 , and invo lves PL 480f unds w ith a equiva lent in Ut uguayan pe sos .

A contract w ith the Institute Super iore di San ita in Rome ,Italy , is

to study the f ate o f in se ct ic ide res idue s on wheat dur ing storage ,

m i l l ing , and baking or proce ss ing into wheat products . It be came e f

f ec tive in 19 63 , cont inue s to Mar ch 19 67 , and invo lves PL 480 f unds

w ith a equ iva lent in Ita l ian l iras .

A contract w ith the Dire z ione Generale de l l ' A l imentaz ione , M in istryo f Agr icu lture and Forests , Rome , Ita ly , is f or the study of inse ctin f e stat ion in macaron i , noodle s , and spaghe tt i , and o f ways to pre

vent th is in f e stat ion . I t be came e f f e ctive in 1962 ,continues to

November 19 65 , and invo lves PL 480 funds w ith a equ ivalentin Ita l ian l iras .

The Federa l sc ientif ic e f f ort devoted to re search in this area tota ls24 pro f e ss ional man -

year s divided as f o l lows : ualit maintenance and

evaluat ion bas ic bio logz and e co logy insect ic ide eva luat ion

inse ct ic ida l con tro l and non chemica l contro l at Watseka ,

and inse ct - re s istant packaging at Savannah , Georgia ; programleader sh ip at Hyattsv i l le , Maryland ; and contract re search

L ine pro je ct MQ l a study of the e f f e cts o f ethylene dibromidef um igant m ixture on egg laying , was discont inued with the completiono f the con tract re search .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Ob je ct ive measurement and eva luat ion o f qua l ity

1 . Quality Indicators f or Stored Wheat . Samp le s o f the hard red

winter wheat var ie tie s ,Tr iumph , B ison , and Red Ch ie f , and the hard

red spr ing wheat var ie t ie s , Spinkco ta , Se lkirk, and Con ley , of the

A9 62 crop were stored f or 44 weeks at 75°

F . Sedimentat ion va lue sde creased dur ing the storage per iod with the greate st de c l ineexh ibited by the two hard red spr ing var iet ie s , Se lkirk and Con ley .

The f at ac idity va lue s increased f aster near the end o f storage

per iod than init ia l ly . The general ly re cogn ized poor qua l ity wheat

var ie t ie s , Red Ch ie f , and Spinkco ta , showed in general le ss changes

qual ity due to storage than the strong , good qual ity wheats . Sampleso f the h ighe st moisture leve l o f 16 per cent ev idenced genera l lygreate st de c l ine in overal l qua l ity , with the 14 per cent mo isturesamples less , and the 12 percent mo isture samples the least . Grainstored at 86

°

F . dec l ined more in chem ical , baking , and o ther qual ityproperties than wheat stored at 75

°

F . CMO 3 - 3 )

2 . Ef f ect o f Excess ive Heat on Corn Qual ity Dur ing Artif ic ia lDrying . ( a) Redu c ing sugar content and diastatic act ivity . Among the

chem ical and physical propert ie s o f the corn grain examined as pos

sib le indice s o f damage by h igh temperature s dur ing artif ical drying ,

diastase activity was the property hav ing the greate st dif f erent ialbetween unheated sample s and samp le s dried at 200

°

F . D iastaseact iv ity demonstrated an inverse l inear corre lat ion with increasingdrying temperature s sign if icant at the 1 percent leve l . Diastaseact iv ity was more sens it ive to inact ivat ion by heat than e sterase

activ ity or dehydrogenase act ivity as measured by te trazo l ium salts ,

but it did not have su f f ic ient accuracy or repeatabi l ity f or pre

dict ing heat damage in corn . D iastase act iv ity was not great lyaf f e cted by gra in mo isture in the range o f 7 to 21 percen t .

(b ) Corn tenderne ss as an indicat ion o f damage by heat . A lthoughth is te chn ique has been used succe ssfu l ly in assaying tenderne ss o f

var ious commoditie s , l itt le or no corre lat ion was f ound between corntenderne ss and damage by heat .

a lkal i so lut ion s as an indicat ion o f damage by heat . Pre l iminaryte sts w ith th is techn ique indicated that m ixture s o f ground heat

damaged corn and di lute a lkali so lutions gave h igher v isco s ity read

ings than m ixture s contain ing ground unheated corn and di lute alkal iso lutions .

by heat . Th is techn ique invo lves making a h igh f requency e lectr icalcapac itan ce measurement wh ich is dire ct ly re lated to the to tal mo isture content o f the corn sample and subsequen t ly making a dire ctcurren t re sistance measurement o f the same samp le . The re s istan cevalue s are inverse ly re lated to the logar ithm o f the sur f ace mo istureo f the corn samp le . When the capac itance and re s istance va lue s f or

normal , undamaged corn are p lotted on a semilog chart a stra ightl ine curve is f ormed . The va lue s f or damaged corn , when plotted , are

o f f set f rom th is straight- l ine curve in an amount wh ich appear s to be

re lated to the amount o f damage to the corn . A sign i f icant corre lat ionwas obtained between the magn itude o f the o f f set in un its o f

capac itance and the starch yie ld percent . The ser ie s o f samp les used

were art if ically dr ied by the Transportat ion and Fac il it ie s Re searchDiv is ion f ac i lity at Purdue Un iversity and the starch yie ld de termi

nat ion s were made by the Shuman Chemica l Laborator ie s o f BattleGround , Indiana .

- 305

Th is o f f set va lue may a lso have some re lat ion sh ip to the viabil ity o f

the corn but f urther invest igative work is needed be f ore any con

e lusion can be drawn .

by heat in corn . Th is techn ique is be ing eva luated and improved . It

appear s to have some mer it as a laboratory method and shou ld serve as

a che ck on o ther me thods . (MQ 3 - 18)

3 . Mo isture Measurement and Equ i l ibr ia in Grain . ( a ) SpectrO pho tometr ic measurement . A modi f ied near - in f rared Spectrophotome tr icmethod o f mo isture determ inat ion o f wheat has been deve loped. The

methano l extract ion o f the ear l ier method is e l iminated sav ing con

siderable t ime . It make s use o f the f act that water absorbs l ight at

m icrons wave length . The extent o f the absorption depends upon

the amount o f water pre sent in the samp le o f ground wheat through

wh ich the l ight passes . Resu lts obtained f or ground wheat show that

sensitiv ity o f per cent is readi ly obta ined .

(b ) Study o f hysteresis . A new approach to the study o f hysteres ise f f e cts in wheat has been undertaken . Kerne ls o f wheat o f known mo isture content wh ich have been co lored with an organ ic dye are m ixedthorough ly w ith o ther kerne ls wh ich are not dyed and have a dif f erentknown mo isture content . The m ixture is he ld in a sealed container at

con stant temperature unt i l equ i l ibrium condit ion s are attained . Th isrequ ire s approximate ly 40 days at 76

°

F . The hysteresis e f f e ct is

determ ined by separat ing the dyed f rom the undyed kerne ls by hand and

making a mo isture de term inat ion on each . When the or iginal dif f erencein mo isture conten t between the dyed and undyed kerne ls is approxi

mate ly 5 percent the dif f erence between them at equ i l ibrium at 76°

F .

is percent . Th is dif f erence at equ i l ibr ium gradual ly decrease sas the or ig inal dif f erence in mo isture content f a l ls be low 5 per cent .

Studie s are a lso be ing made on the e f f e ct on th is equil ibr ium o f

temperature , pre ssure , kerne l s ize , re lat ive we ights of h igh and low

mo isture kerne ls and success ive we tt ings and dryings . (MQ 3 - 23 )

4 . Sampl ing Research . Cooperat ive agreements were prepared and

s igned to cover re search on the me chan ical sampl ing o f grain . Grainindustry cooperators inc lude Carg i l l , Inc . , South Dakota Wheat Growers

Asso c iat ion , R . F . Gunke lman Sons , Farmers Un ion Grain TerminalAssoc iat ion , and F . H . Peavey and Company . Me chan ical samp ler manu

f acturers inc lude the Dean Gamet Company , The Gustaf son Manuf actur ingCompany , The Er l ing K . Strand Company , Wi lson Mach inery Company ,

and

Canadian Ang lo Mach inery and Equ ipment Company . Grain sampl ing t e

search was conducted at Wo l f Point ,

‘

Montana ; Aberdeen ,South Dakota ;

Grandin , North Dakota ; M inot , North Dakota ; Crookston , M innesota ; and'

M inneapo l is , M inne so ta . Var ious lots o f wheat and bar ley were caref u l ly c leaned to our Spe c if icat ion . Typica l screen ings were added to

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In genera l , peroxide f ormat ion was not direct ly re lated to the storage

l if e and v igor o f the seed . Assays f or caroteno ids showed -a de c l ineo f p igments dur ing storage wh ich apparent ly was corre lated w ith the

amount o f oxygen in the storage atmo sphere . This loss o f p igment ap

peared to be one o f ox idation and was no t corre lated with seed

mo isture . No s ign if icant var iat ion was revea led be tween the totalf at content o f seeds o f dif f erent mo isture conten ts Stored at dif

f erent oxygen leve ls . Re su lts o f phO Sphorous ana lys is were disappo inting due to lack o f su itable methods f or ana lyz ing the sma l l f ract ion sinvo lved . Studie s o f conduct iv ity o f seed leachate s indicated that

re su lts o f the se te sts might be more re l iable in the general assess

ment of Stored grain rather than as te sts f or germ ination .

Re spirat ion studie s o f very dry corn revea led extreme ly low rate s o f

carbon dioxide production . The se resu lts and o ther corroborat iveev iden ce cou ld sugge st that the carbon dioxide obta ined was not the

re su lt o f en zymat ic re sp irat ion . (MQ 2- 34)

2 . Corn Storage Re search . Studie s o f the e f f e ct o f var ious chem ica l sas inhibitors o f f ungus deve lopment showed l itt le promise and were

discont inued . Samp l ing and patho logy te sts on . corn stored at the CCC

bin site have been cont inued and are revea l ing the organ isms in f ect ingthe corn . Studie s o f the airborne f ung i in the atmo sphere o f the bin

s ite ,bo th in the bin and surrounding atmo sphere , have been in it iated .

In addit ion , the survey o f the to ta l f ungus popu lation o f the stored

corn is be ing con t inued . (MQ 0 - 0 - 2 (CCC) )

3 . M icro f lora o f Wheat . In PL 480 re search be ing conducted in

Po land , seventy- e ight samp le s o f Po l ish wheat and e ight sample s o f

wheat imported from the Un ited State s and the Sov ie t Un ion were

evaluated qua l itat ive ly and quant itat ive ly w ith regard to the ir ex

ternal and interna l m icro f lora . Th is m icro f lora was f ound to cons isto f 62 Spe c ie s o f bacter ia and 58 spe c ie s o f f ung i . The se re su lts are

in l ine with tho se reported by numerous o ther inve st igators and did

not revea l the pre sence o f any prev ious ly unrepor ted Spe c ie s . No

sign if icant dif f erence s in m icro f lora were f ound among the 78 sof t

wheat samp le s o f the 19 61 cr 0 p f rom 17 areas o f Po land . Ten samp le so f the 19 62 cr0 p from the Po znan reg ion were f ound to be v irtual lyf ree o f in terna l f ung i and bacter ia . E ight hard wheat samp le s f rom

the Un ited State s and the Sov iet Un ion were f ound to be comp le te lyf ree o f interna l f ung i and bacter ia . No s ign if icant dif f erence s were

f ound between the degree o f externa l contam inat ion o f the impor tedwheat and that o f the Po l ish wheat .

I t was f ound that one Spec ie s o f an aerob ic , Spore- f orm ing bac i l lus

cons isted o f severa l b io chem ical stra in s and it is be l ieved that th isf inding may be o f

"

great pract ica l sign if icance , as f ar as the qua l itat ive eva luat ion o f f lour is concerned . A number o f f ung i and spore

f orm ing bacter ia exh ibited marked antagonism . toward Bacter ium herb ico la .

I f it can be assumed that B , herbico la is one o f the dom inant bacter iaon hea lthy seeds , then its pre sence m ight serwe as an indicator o f the

hea lth condit ion o f gra in . (E21-AMS

4 . Underground Storage o f Corn . Th is re sear ch pro je ct concernedw ith the underground storage o f corn in airt ight s i los is be ing done

in Uruguay under a PL 480 grant . Af ter pre l iminary studies , exper i

ments were started on the con struct ion o f underground S i los . Two

exper imental s i lo s have been con structed each to ho ld 550 ton s . Both

are now ready f or corn and the actual re search study is be ingin it iated . ( S9 -AMS

C . Preven t ion o f in se ct in f e stat ion

1 . Basic B io logy and Eco logy . In a study to f ind whe ther the air

movement in mechan ica l ly aerated b ins o f grain has adver se e f f ects on

stored-

gra in inse cts ,it was f ound that the interst it ia l air in all

nonaerated b in s conta ined a percentage o f carbon dioxide cons iderab lyin excess o f that in norma l air or in aerated b ins . Th is conditionexisted in wheat ,

corn ,and grain sorghum . in - bushe 1 c ircu lar

metal b in s where observat ions were made over a per iod o f 3 months .

There was a pronounced reduct ion in carbon dioxide concentrat ion o f

inter st it ia l air in b ins aerated w ith outside air af ter 2 weeks o f

f an operat ion at the norma l air f low rate o f cub ic f oot per

m inute . No corre lat ion was evident dur ing the per iod o f observat ionbe tween change s in gra in temperature or mo isture w ith in a bin and the

compo s it ion o f the inter stit ia l air in the same bin . (MO 1- 18)

A ser ie s o f laboratory te sts was conducted to de term ine the e f f e ct on

the deve lopment o f r ice weev i l s in aerated wheat by varying tempera

ture , re lat ive hum idity , or rate o f air movement , one f actor at a

t ime . Twen ty 3 - in ch diame ter down spout tube s f i l led w ith wheat were

u sed in each te st ,and they were p laced in a sma l l in sulated room

where the temperature and re lat ive hum idity were ma in tained at a con

stant pre se le cted leve l . At 80°

F . and 60% re lat ive hum idity ,

condit ions f avorab le to the inse cts , the nonaerated tube s producedf ewer progeny than did the aerated tube s . The air c ircu lat ion tended

to increase the mo isture content o f the grain , making env ironmentalcondit ions more f avorab le f or reproduct ion . W ith the h igh mo istureconten t in grain caused by c ircu lat ing air at 90% re lat ive hum idityand a h igh f low rate o f 1 cub ic f oot per m inute per bushe l , the gra inbe came mo ldy , cru sted , and product ion o f r ice weev i l progeny was

l imited . When c ircu lated air conta ined on ly BOX re lat ive humiditythe lower f low rate s dr ied the grain the least and produced the h ighe st number o f progeny . W ith a ir at 60% re lat ive hum idity but lowertemperature s o f 70

°

and 60°

F the rate o f deve lopment and to tal num

ber o f progeny per tube were reduced in both aerated and nonaerated

wheat . (MQ 1- 18 )

- 309

An evaluation was made o f the e f f e ct of mo ist or dry n itrogen ,carbon '

dioxide , or norma l air at 86°

F . and at 3 f low rates toward pre

condition ing 2-week old conf used f lour bee t le adults_

f or suscepti

bility to f umigants . The treatments in decreasing order o f

e f f ect ivene ss were dry n itrogen , moist n itrogen , dry COZ , mo ist C02 ,

mo ist air , and dry air . There was no l inear corre lation between gas

f low rate and later f um igant susceptibi l ity . (MO 1- 31)

Twe lve hour s o f exposure to mo ist or dry carbon dioxide or nitrogenat a f low rate of 100 cc . per minute resu lted in the f o l lowing we ightlosses o f con f used f lour beet le adu lts : 20 29% f or dry nitrogen ,

f or dry carbon dioxide , f or mo i st n itrogen , and

f or mo ist carbon dioxide . Contro l s w ith e ither dry or mo ist room air

lo st an average o f in we ight . (MQ 1- 3 1)

A new standard concentrat ion -morta l ity curve f or adu lt con f used f lourbee t le s treated with the f umigant mixture o f 80% carbon tetrach lor ideand 20% carbon disu l f ide f or 24 hours at 80

°F . showed that the pre sent

laboratory stock cu lture is somewhat more susceptible than was reported

about 40 generations ago . (MO 1- 31)

In f ormat ion reported under Line Pro ject MQ 1- 18 sugge sts that the

typical atmosphere in the natural environment O f stored-grain inse cts

may contain a greater amount o f carbon dioxide than in normal air . I t

has al so been f ound that a h igh leve l of carbon dioxide exists in

cu lture jars in the laboratory where stored-grain insects are reared .

The que stion ar ise s as to what is a normal atmosphere f or stored

grain inse cts . A ser ie s o f te sts is under way w ith var ious rat io s o f

oxygen and carbon dioxide to f ind wh ich wil l ma intain , e levate , or

depress re spirat ion and at what po int the atmo spher ic environmentbecome s detr imental to the se insects . Pre l im inary data indicate that

f or every 50 per cent decrease in oxygen concentrat ion the respiratoryquo t ien t is lowered by 23 percent . I t is al so calcu lated that in

some cases the basal me tabo l ic rate of 2 -week o ld conf used f lourbeetle adu lts is about 10 t ime s that of an adu lt human . (MQ 1- 3 1)

A sign i f icant condit ion dur ing n itrogen or carbon dioxide precon

ditioning o f inse cts is the temporary unavai labi l ity o f oxygen .

Fo l lowing subletha l precondit ion ing there is a br ie f per iod of

e levated re spirat ion f or re covery and to repay the oxygen debt

incurred . Theoretica l ly th is per iod o f h igh re spiration wou ld be

when the in sects are most su scept ible to the act ion o f f um igant gase s ,

so studie s were made to learn the extent and durat ion of e levatedre sp iration . Af ter conf used f lour bee t le adu lts were he ld in n itrogenf or 2 hours they re ached a maximum re covery re spiration o f 28 percentabove norma l within 30 m inutes af ter the preconditioning per iod , and

th is lasted f or 70 m inute s . There was a gradual dec l ine in respirat ion rate dur ing the rema in ing 4 hours o f observat ion . Inse cts he ld

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ster i l ized khapra beetle eggs were p laced in c lean cu lture mediumthey deve loped norma l ly but there was no temperature increase in the

medium and the re su lt ing adu lts appeared not to be as productive as

those reared in the pre sence o f the organisms . (Alo- AMS

2 . Inse ct icide Evaluat ion . E ighteen numbered candidate compoundswere rece ived at Manhattan , Kansas , f rom the Savannah , Georg ia ,

stat ion and were te sted f or repe l lency when app l ied on gra in . None

was outstanding in per f ormance . (MO l- lS)

At Savannah a method was inve st igated f or applying insect ic ide s to be

evaluated in laboratory te sts as potent ial prote ctants to wheat ,

She l led corn , rough r ice , and f armers stock peanuts . unif orm. malathion

depo sits were obtained by app lying a l iquid f ormu lation of the in

sect ic ide to the inter ior wa l l o f a 1- ga l lon g lass jar conta in ing the

commodity , then m ixing the insect ic ide and the commodity through the

tumb l ing act ion o f rotat ing the jar s me chan ica l ly . About 83% o f the

intended depo s it was re covered by chem ical analys is . The re su lts f rom

this simple method are in sharp contrast to thet

30% re covery f rom

appl icat ion in a twin she l l l iqu id- so l id V - type b lender that had been

procured be cause it was reported to be spe c ial ly de signed f or e f f ec

t ive and un if orm appl icat ions o f th is nature . (MO 1- 15)

Pre l iminary te sts were conducted at Savannah to determ ine the com

parative e f f e ctivene ss aga inst r ice weev i ls o f ma lath ion , DDVP ,

Guthion , Substan z 215 , and Ve lsicol W - 24 as protectants on wheat .

In itia l morta l ity data indicated that ma lath ion and DDVP were the

most e f f e ctive against both the immature and adu lt inse cts . Guthion ,

Substanz 215 , and Ve lsico l W - 24 were re lat ive ly ine f f e ctive . The

durat ion o f e f f ectivene ss was not te sted in this exper iment ,but some

res idue data on DDVP indicated that the rate o f loss Or degradationo f the deposit was rap id . (MO 1- 15)

At Tif ton , Georg ia , 3 candidate grain protectants were te sted in the

laboratory f or immediate toxic ity against conf used and red f lourbeet les and r ice weev ils , when app l ied on she l led corn . DDVP ,

Diaz inon , and Bayer 29493 were appl ied at the rate s o f 5 , 10 , and

20 p .p .m . and were compared w ith the standard ma lath ion treatment .

All three were equa l to or better than ma lath ion . Diazinon was the

on ly one o f the three that prevented reproduct ion o f con f used f lourbeet les at all three rates of app l icat ion . The phase o f the test to

determine the durat ion of e f f e ct ivene ss o f the depo s its is st i l l in

progress . (MQ 1- 15)

A proport ionate share o f the cro ss- commodity inse ct icide eva luat ionwork at Savannah , Georgia , has been charged to th is area . A lthough

- 312

mo st o f the work is direct ly appl icable , it is not f eas ible to report

on ly certain portions here or to inc lude all the in f ormat ion under

each commodity area . There f ore the entire report is inc luded in

Area 13 .

3 . Insecticidal Contro l . A wettable -powder f ormu lation of ma lath ion

seems to be more e f f ective than the emu lsion treatment on the basiso f bioassay tests and the occurrence o f natural popu lat ions in

treated she l led corn at Watseka , I l l ino is . Chemical analyses o f the

deposits on the corn f ailed to show any dif f erences between the two

f ormu lations . In bioassay te sts , ma lath ion - treated corn f rom aerated

bins produced lower overa l l mortal ity to ‘ te st insects than did the

treated corn f rom. nonaerated bins . Sur f ace samp les o f corn producedlow morta l ity whether f rom aerated or nonaerated bins .

‘

Morta l itieswere higher f rom. the nonaerated bins when corn sample s were taken at

the 4 to 5- f oot or the 11 to lZ - f oot leve ls . When supplementalsur f ace Sprays o f ma lathion were app l ied to treated , nonaerated binsof corn there was a lower natura l insect population and increasedmortal ity in bioassay tests with sample s o f corn taken f rom. the surf ace .

(MQ 0- 0

Twe lve f umigations have been conducted in the serie s to study the

behavior o f l iquid f umigants in -bushe 1 bins with and withoutaeration systems . A lthough certain trends seem to be showing up , no

de f inite conc lusions can be reached until the entire ser ies of 20

fumigations is completed . (MQ 0 -0

Under a research contract with the Auburn Un iversity Agr iculturalExper iment Station a study is be ing made to determine the nature and

extent of insect damage to corn in the Southern states at t ime o f

harvest and dur ing storage , and to assess the e f f ectiveness o f insectcontro l measures as now used f or preventing such damage . The study

is be ing made on the 1962 crap in Georgia , A labama , and M ississippi .

Ten Spec ies o f stored-product insects were f ound in f esting corn at

the time o f harvest . The predominant ones were the r ice weev i l ,square

-necked grain beet le , and Angoumo is grain moth . These three

were also the most predominant af ter 6 months of storage . S ixteeninsects per pint of She l led corn were f ound in Georgia and A labamaand in Mississippi at the beginn ing of storage in October . The

average mo isture content of the corn at that t ime was percent .

At the time o f harvest the average insect damage in the 3 state s was

percent . In storage the damage had r isen to percent in

January and percent in April . About 88 percent of the corn in

A labama is stored on the ear and 12 percent is she l led . Twe lve per

cent o f the ear corn and 25 percent o f the she l led corn is f umigatedin storage . Prote ctants are used on 8 percent o f the ear corn and

13 percent of the she l led corn . (MQ l

- 313

4 . Nonchem ica l Contro l . Laboratory te sts have been init iated in the

pre l im inary phase o f a thorough study o f inert dusts as potentialpro te ct ive treatments f or grain . Ma j or phase s o f the re search inc ludea study o f the e f f ect iveness aga inst stored-

grain in se cts o f dif f erenttype s o f inert dusts w ith spe c if ic phys ical propert ies ; the inf luenceo f grain temperature and mo isture content , as we l l as type of grain ,

on the immediate and long - term e f f e ct iveness o f inert dusts againststored-

gra in insects ; and the re lat ive suscept ibil ity o f the ma j orkinds o f stored-

grain insects to iner t dusts . Pre l iminary resu ltscon f irm that certa in inert dusts produce a h igh in it ial mortal ity o f

some kinds o f inse cts at the t ime o f treatment , and a lso a h igh degree

o f immediate contro l over the product ion o f progeny . (MO 1- 15)

One approach to the dua l obj e ct ive o f prevent ing inse ct damage to

corn and o f redu cing the use o f pe st ic ides l ie s in the deve lopment of

in se ct - re sistant var ieties as hybr ids . A ser ie s o f 43 hybr id cornsharve sted f rom var ie ty tr ial s at the Coastal Plain Exper iment Station ,

T if ton , Georgia , was rated f or resistance to r ice weev i l attack dur

ing storage , on the bas is o f the number o f progeny ab le to deve lopdur ing a 90 - day te st per iod . The f ewe st number of progeny producedwas 138 in Greenwood 18 , and the large st was in PAG 750 , the

mo st suscept ible o f the 43 var ie t ie s . Pre l im inary eva luations o f

re s istance to r ice -weev i l attack were a lso made on 646 te st l ine sbe ing worked w ith by the Cerea l Crops Research Branch , ARS . A highpercen tage o f sample s showed more re s istance than did the hybr ids now

be ing grown . R ice weev i ls were apparently unab le to f f eed or deve lopat all on some o f the se le ct ions in which there were no progeny at

the end o f 90 days . (MO 1- 15)

A PL 480 pro je ct has re cently been in it iated by the Dire zione Generalede l l ' A l imentaz ione o f the M in istry o f Agr icu lture and Fore sts , Rome ,

I ta ly , to study in sect in f e stat ion o f Spaghett i , macaron i , noodles ,

and o ther pastas ,and to f ind ways o f prevent ing such in f e station . It

is too ear ly to repor t any exper imental re su lts , but a complete surveyof the l iterature has been made . A lso about 375 pasta f actor ie s were

v isited to make pre l im inary observations and f ind cooperators f or work

to be done later .

Observation s are be ing made in 4 quonse ts o f she l led corn where the

aerat ion system pul ls air down through the corn and in 4 where the

air is pushed up through the corn , to determine whether the two air

f low patterns may vary ih the ir e f f e ct on inse ct popu lat ions in the

b ins . At Watseka ,I l l ino is , there were f ewer in se cts where the air

was pushed through the corn . Th is conf irms pre l im inary observationsmade at Watseka last year . But in 4 b ins at El l is and 2 at Cre scentCity ,

I l l ino is , there was no apparen t dif f erence in the inse ct popula

t ions in the corn aerated by the 2 methods . Observations are

cont inu ing to obtain more conc lus ive in f orma tion about the e f f ects o f

the se 2 systems on insect popu lat ion s . (MQ 0- 0

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EDB by var ious f eed products , and on the attempt to deve lop a

S imple , rapid method o f detection f or EDB residues in grain or f eed .

(AlO-AMS

6 . Insecticide Re sidue Analysis . AS with insecticide evaluation ,

the inse ctic ide residue analysis work at Savannah , Georgia , o f a crosscommodity nature is reported in Area 13 .

A PL 480 research pro ject by the Instituto Super iore di Sanita in

Rome , Italy , became e f f ective in 19 63 to study in f urther detai l the

fate o f the re sidues o f several mater ials when appl ied as wheat pro

tectants , but it is too ear ly f or any resu lts to be reported .

(E15-AMS

7 . Insect-Resistant Packaging . A part of the cross- commoditypackaging work at Savannah , Georgia , has been charged to this area .

A lthough much o f the work is direct ly appl icab le to grain and to

cereal products , it is not f easible to report on ly certain portionshere or to inc lude all the inf ormation under each commodity area .

The entire report is inc luded in Area 13 .

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Quality'

Measuremen t and Evaluat ion .

Baker ,Dor is . 19 62 . Fatty Ac id Compo sition o f Oil from Damaged

Corn and Wheat . Cerea l Chem istry , Amer . Assoc . o f Cerea lChemists , Vol . 3 9 , No . 5 , September 19 62 . (MQ 3 - 18)

Hart , J ., and Co lumbic , C . 19 62 . Compar ison o f Basic Me thods o f

Mo isture Determ inat ion in Seed . Proceedings o f the Internat iona lSeed Te sting Assoc iat ion , Vol . 27 , pp . 907- 99 1. (MO 3 - 23 )

Kingso lver , C . H . , Yeatman , J . N Bo l ler , R . A . , and Thompson ,

J . A . 19 63 . Backgrounds and Ar t if ic ia l Light ing f or StandardizedGrain Inspe ct ion . Market ing Re search Report No . 606 . OMQ 3 - 30 )

Schroeder , H . W . , and Chr isten sen , J . J . 19 63 . Factors Af f e ctingRe s istance o f Wheat to Scab Caused by Gibbere l la zeae .

Phytopatho logy , Vol . 53 , No . 7 , pp . 83 1- 838 . (MO 3 - 3 )

Prevent ion o f Inse ct Inf estation .

Fu l ler , H . L. , and Morr is , G . K . 1963 . The Comparat ive Toxic ityof Ethylene Dibrom ide When Fed as Fumigated Gra in and When

Adm in istered in S ing le Daily Dose s . Pou ltry Sc ience508- 514 . (MO l

Morr is , George K . , and Fu l ler , Henry L . 19 63 . Ef f ect o f EthyleneDibromide in the Diet on the Growth o f Ch icks . Pou ltry Sc ience

15 - 20 . (MQ 1

Stored-Product Inse cts Branch . 1962 . Inse cts in Farm - Stored Wheat

How to Contro l Them . USDA , Leaf let No . 345 , 8 pp . , Rev isedOctober 1962 . (MO l )

Stored-Product Inse cts Branch . 1962 . Method and Equ ipment f or

Bu lk Treatment o f Grain Against Inse cts . USDA ,Marke t ing Bu l l .

No . 20 , 7 pp . (BS 1- 34 )

Stored-Product Inse cts Branch . 1963 . Samp l ing Me thods f or

Determin ing In se ct Popu lat ions in Stored Grain . USDA , AMS-497 ,

2 pp . (MO 1)

RICE MARKET QUALITYMarket Quality Research Divis ion , AMS

Problem .

Harvested rice is subject to damage or deterioration in qua l itywhile in marketing channe ls through normal metabol ic changes , by

the act ion o f disease organisms ,and by inse ct inf estation during

storage e ither as rough or mi l led rice . Saf e storage o f rice f or

extended periods is a problem of immediate concern to mil itary and

civ i l ian de f ense agenc ies . To maintain the qua l ity o f this product ,

more pre cise inf ormation is needed on the changes that occur in

handl ing , storage ,and transportation . To insure unif orm and stand

ardized products in the market ing channe l s and more equ itablepr ice s to all concerned , new and improved methods and techniquesf or measur ing quality f actors need to be deve loped f or use in the

inspe ction , grading , and standardizat ion procedures . There is

urgent need f or more e f f e ct ive methods f or preventing insect damage

and contaminat ion during storage , handl ing , processing , and trans

portation . The need is cr itical f or the‘

deve lopment of e f f e ct ivepestic ides and app lication methods that can be used in the market ingchanne ls without leaving objec tionable residues . Even more de sirable is the deve lopment , wherever possible , o f e f fe ctive preventive and contro l measures u ti l izing biologica l , physical , or mechanical means that wou ld comple te ly e l iminate the need f or pestic idalchemica ls .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department has a continu ing program invo lving engineers ,

chemists , and plant patho logists in basic and app lied research on

the qua lity eva luation and qua lity maintenance of rice . This work

is located at Col le ge Station , Texas , in cooperation with the

Texas Agricu ltura l Experiment Station .

A grant with the Department o f P lant Chemistry , Valencia , Spain ,

prov ide s f or a study on ob jective me thods f or measuring marke t

qual ity of rice . Its duration is f or 4 years , 1960 - 1964 ,and

involve s P . L . 480 funds with a equivalent in Spanishpese tas .

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REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Ob jective measurement and evaluation of qual ity

1 . Long-Grain Mi l led Rice . An improved apparatus f or the a lkal i

test which. was deve loped f or dif f erentiating long -

grain varietieso f mil led r ice was tested on new var ieties . A physical me thod

f or dif f erentiating certain newly deve loped long-

grain varietiesof mil led r ice was deve loped . A rapid light re f le ctance me thod

f or determining degree of parboil ing in r ice is now being tested .

(MQ 3 - 12)

2 . Ob je ctive Measurements f or Determining the Degree of Mil lingo f Rice . Additiona l tests of the rice photometer to determinemore su itable wave lengths f or measur ing the degree of mi l l ing o f

parboiled rice were made . The highest correlation. be tween ricephotome ter readings and o f f icia l rice graders

'ratings were

obtained with the ratio T859 mu/T660 mu .

(HQ 3 - 16 )

3 . Chemical Indicators o f Qpality . This P . L. 480 pro ject in

Spain conf irmed the re lat ionship be tween amylopectin and qua l ityreported previous ly and supports the V iew that mo lecu lar we ightof amylope ctin has an inf luence on the behavior o f r ice be ingcooked . A high aml pect n molecu lar we ight provides the starchgranu le with an e lastic ity of structure and resistance to break

age during swe l l ing . Among aged samples , in general , long-

grainrice s requ ire longer cooking time s than short -

grain r ices ; thistendency was also observed when studying the f resh rice samples .

(EZS SAMS

Tota l protein does not constitute an index o f qua l ity o f ricealthough it has some re lationship to qual ity the heterogenity

o f rice grain endosperm was con f irmed, particu lar ly that the outer

layers are richer in prote in than the inner ones . A new ricequal ity test was based on this f act .

B . Qpality maintenance in handl ing and packaging

The e f f e cts of inf rared drying o f rice and treatment of r ice w ithpreservative s have been verif ied by additiona l experimentation .

Rough r ice ( air - dried and inf rared-dried) with an initial moisturecontent o f percent was stored in an atmosphere with a

-320

re lative humidity of 85 percent at 30°

C . f or 33 days and sampledat interva ls o f 3 - 7 days . Air was c ircu lated continuously in

the storage chamber ( continuous aeration) . Inf rared-dried riceremained at a lower moisture content throughout the experiment .

Storage mold inf estation o f inf rared-dr ied rice treated withpreservative was reduced af ter 3 weeks storage in 100 percentre lative humidity at 30

°

C . in comparison to simi lar samples that

were not treated . An experiment is be ing designed to measure the

grain temperature of rough rice stored at var ious re lativehumidities . This wi l l be re lated to change in funga l f lora o f

the r ice as determined by plating technique s .

(MQ 2- 7 (ReV

C . Qpality maintenance in storage

1 . Heat Damage o f Rice . This research pro ject covers the causeand prevention o f heat damage in rough rice in re lat ion to o f f

f arm conditioning , handl ing , and storage in the South -CentralStates . The free amino acids extracted f rom rice discolored as

a resu lt o f inf estation by Fusarium. chlamydosporium are be inginvestigated and compared with the f ree amino acids f rom non

inf ested r ice . A . technique involving two dimensional mu ltichromatography o f extracts purif ied by the use of a strong cationresin column has resu lted in the separation o f 22 ninhydrinreactive compounds f rom inf e sted r ice as compared with 17 f rom

noninf ested r ice . Quantitative dif f erences are also obvious f rom

the inspection o f the chromatograms . The presence o f furfuralor hydrome thyl

- furfuraldehyde ( compounds associated with the

Mail lard reaction ) have not been demonstrated in e ither extractsf rom the discolored r ice or the cu ltural f i ltrate s .

(MQ 2- 76 )

2 . Damage and Of f -Color in Rough Rice . This new study is con

cerned with the cause and prevention o f damage and of f - color in

rough r ice in re lation to of f - f arm conditioning , handling , and

storage in the South -Central States . Inocu lation experiments

with Aspergil lus Spp . have been temporarily discontinued .

Handling grain heavily inf ested with these species contaminatedthe laboratory to such a degree that numerous exper iments had to

be discarded . Rhizoctonia spp . iso lated from Be l le Patna r iceis being investigated to see if it is a cause of the discolorationbeing reported in rice by industry . The study wi l l inc ludeBluebonnet 50 to determine if the reported varietal susceptibi lityof Be l le Patna is valid .

(MQ 2- 77)

- 321

l . Insecticide Evaluation . A . part of the program. on insecticideevaluation at Savannah , Georgia , has been charged to rice .

A lthough much of this research is directly appl icable , it is

not f easible to report only certain port ions here , or to inc ludeall the inf ormation under each of the severa l appropriate commodity areas . There f ore the entire report 18 inc luded in Area 13 ,

"Insect Control in Marketing Channe ls Cross Commodity .

"

cluded in the series of experiments planned to deve lop improvedprocedures f or fumigating mil led r ice in storage . Suitabledosage leve ls and me thods o f app lication were determined f or

several fumigants f or bu lk and bagged mi l led r ice and the linepro ject was terminated .

(MQ 1- 3 )

3 . Insecticide Residue Analysis . The overa l l chemical analyticalprogram at Savannah , Georgia , is reported in Area 13 .

common internal f eeding insects of rough rice can be kil led by

inf ra -red radiation at temperatures that are harm less to the r ice .

Ear ly data suggested that the reproduction of rice weevi ls and

lesser grain borers subjected to sub - letha l radiation was sever lylimited . An intensive study of the Angoumois grain moth , however ,

indicate that reproduction o f this spe c ie s was not serious lyaf f ected by exposure to inf ra -red radiation at sub - lethal leve ls .

(MQ 1- 9)

A large scale test was conducted with 3 chemical ly inert dusts

o f the sil ica ge l type as protect ive treatments f or r ice to prevent

insect inf estation . They continued to give satisf actory protect ionunti l it was necessary to move the rice . At that time they added

considerably to the dust problem dur ing the handl ing of the rice .

Th is cou ld be a serious de terrent to the commercial acceptanceo f inert dust treatments f or grain . The dust did not adverse lyaf f ect the mi l ling qua l ities or the germination o f the rice .

(MQ 1- 19 )

5 . Inse ct -Resistant Packaging . These studies at Savannah , Georgia ,

as with those on inse ctic ide evaluation and inse ctic ide residueana lysis ,

are reported under Area 13 .

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Schroeder , Harry W. 1963 . Changes in the fungus f lora o f rough

rice af te r f looding with sal ine water by Hurricane Gar la .

P lant Disease Reporter 47 : 118 . (M0 2 - 77)

Schroeder , Harry W . 1963 . Orange stain ,a storage disease of

rice caused by pen ic i l l ium puberu lum , PhytOpathology , Vol . 53 ,

No . 7 , pp . 843 - 845 . (MQ 2- 77)

Schroeder , Harry W . 1963 . Ef f e ct o f the growth of fungi on

head rice yie lds . Proc . o f Rice Technica l Working Group ,

February 21- 22 , 1963 , Houston , Texas , p . 31 , March .

(MQ 2 - 77)

Schroeder , Harry W . 1963 . Two types of rice kerne l disco lorationcaused by fungi . Publ ished in Proc . of Rice Technical WorkingGroup , February 21- 22 , 1963 , Houston , Texas , pp . 30 - 31, March .

(MQ

Ti lton , Elv in W . , and Cogburn , Robert R . ( 1963 . Fie ld te sts o f

phosphine gas f or fum igation o f rice . Proceedings Rice Technical Working Group , February 21- 22 , 1963 , Houston , Texas ,

p . 29 , March 1963 . (M0 1- 3 )

Cogburn , Robert R . , and Ti lton , E lv in W . Using phosphine

to protect stored grain f rom insects . Publ ished in Agri

cu ltural Marke ting , Vol . 8 , No . 3 , p . 3 , March 19 63 .

(MQ

T i lton , E lv in W and Schroeder ,Harry W . 19 63 . In f rared heaters

(non chem ica l ) may pro te ct stored grain f rom in se ct damage .

Pub l ished in Agr icu ltura l Marke t ing ,Vo l .

(

8 , qo

§)l, January 19 63 .

MQ

Market Quality Research Division , AMS

Prob lem .

Feed and seed may suf f er damage or deterioration in qual ity f rom

insect attacks , f rom m icroorganisms , and f rom normal metabol icchanges . Insect inf estat ions are a maj or problem with f eed and

do much damage both to the individual components and to the mixedproduct . Seeds are al so subj ect to insect damage . Qual ity deter-

m ination o f seed is essential to modern agr icu lture and orderlymarketing . Important qual ity f actors include genet ic purity ,

germination , v igor , weed- seed content , disease - organism inf estation , and mechanical purity .

‘

Methods o f determining seed qual ityare outdated , requiring much time , tedious work,

and l to 6 weeks

f or comp let ion o f germ inat ion tests . Because seed is an importantitem in interstate and international channel s o f commerce , methods

o f test ing f or qual ity shou ld permi t dup l icat ion o f resu lts by

laboratories in di f f erent states and countries . Stored seed is

subj ect to deteriorat ion w ith respect to germinat ion and vigor .

Deteriorat ion caused by f ung i , bacteria ,and metabo l i c changes

within the seed is in f luenced by storage temperature , re lat ivehumidity , gases ,

and time in storage . Research is needed to learnthe bio chemical changes that take p lace during seed germination , to

mechanize and s impl i f y the methods of test ing seeds , and to improvethe storage l i f e o f seeds .

Deve lopment o f rap id , s imp le tests f or determin ing the qual ity o f

f eeds is essential as new sources o f pro te ins , vitamins , and other

addit ives are m ixed with animal f eeds . More inf ormat ion is alsoneeded so that f eedstu f f s can be stored w ith a minimum o f loss in

qual ity .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department has a continu ing long - term program invo lving chem ists ,

botanists , seed techno log ists , p lant physio log ists ,and p lant path

o log ists engaged in both bas i c and‘

app lied research on qual ityevaluation and qual ity maintenance o f seed . This research is

- 325

conducted at Be ltsvil le , Maryland; Raleigh , North Caro l ina; and

at Co l l ege Stat ion , Texas , and by research contract with experi

ment stat ions of Miss issipp i , Iowa , and Oregon .

A grant with Israe l Inst itute o f Techno logy , Hai f a ,Israe l , pro

vides f or a study to deve lop tests f or nutritive value of cerealgrains and f eeds . Its duration is - 4 years , 1960- 1964 , and invo lvesP . L . 480 f unds w ith a equ ivalent in Israe l i pounds .

A P .L. 480 grant w ith Inst ituto Bio logico , Sao Pau lo , Brazi l , pro

vides f or a study o f substrate moisture leve ls f or germinationtesting o f agricu ltural seeds . Its durat ion is 5 years , 196 2- 1967 ,and invo lves equ ivalent in Braz i l ian cruzeiro .

A P .L. 480 grant with Rijksproef station voor Z aadcontrole ,

Bennenhaven 1, Wageningen , The Ne therlands , provides f or a study

o f the health condition o f seeds in commercial channe ls and de

velopment o f methods suitable f or routine testing f or seedborne

organisms . Th is proj ect has been approved but work w i l l not be

started until about January 1, 1964 . The durat ion of the proj ectis f or 5 years and the total grant is the equ ivalent o f

The Federal scientif ic ef f ort devoted to research in th is area

totals pro f ess ional man-

years , o f which man-

years are by

research contract .

Work terminated dur ing the period inc luded studies On classi f ication o f seedl ings produced in laboratory germination tests f rom

seeds o f southern cr0ps such as cotton , peanuts , ve lvet beans ,

soybeans , and lup ines (MQ 3 - 19 ) and seed blending (MQ 3

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

A . Objective measurement and evaluat ion o f guality

1. Seed Blending . Seventeen devices were tested f or perf ormancein b lending seed o f similar and dissim i lar composit ion . The

principal crop seeds used were soybean , birdsf oot tref o i l , sor

ghum , f escue ,and oats . Four batch b l enders were evaluated: Nauta

mixer , twin she l l mixer , doubl e cone mixer , and a rotating drum

m ixer with the drum. mounted diagonal ly on a horizontal axis . All

f our bl enders gave good results but the s ize of the lot blendedwou ld be l imited by the capacity of the b lender .

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_ 327 5

the t ime and tediousness o f certain operations in making pur ityanalyses o f seeds . The equ ipment has been tested by unb iasedworkers and demonstrated be f ore a national convention o f o f f i c ialand commerc ial seed te chno log ists . Two mach ines have been approvedf or routine laboratory use and construct ion spe c if ications and p lansw i l l be made avai lab le at an ear ly date . These include ( a) a vibrator separator which . will separate many kinds o f seeds much l ikethe gravity mach ines in commercial use and ( b ) an exam ination sta

t ion f or seeds treated w ith po isonous chem icals . The lattermach ine permits the seed to move past a viewing po int on a movablebe lt , contro l l ed by f oot switch , and be viewed through a transparent

p last ic w indow . Rej ected part icles are removed w ith vacuum p ickupneedles . Deve lopment o f other mach ines is proceeding satisf actor

ily .

(MQ 3

Seeds . A meter has been deve loped adapting a commercial e lectronic mo isture meter f or de termin ing mo isture in l ight and chaf fyseeds . The meter is be ing tr ied on. Kentucky bluegrass , perennialryegrass and other grass seeds . It shows prom ise but wi l l requiremuch more test ing .

(MQ 3 - 23 )

5 . Seed Metabo l ism . Pro cedures were deve loped f or iso lation o f

RNA and DNA f rom peanut cotyledons at various stages o f germination . These nucle ic ac ids were studied by means o f co lumn chromatography and density gradient f ractionations as we l l as by base

ratio analyses . A maj or shif t in the nature o f the high mo lecu larwe ight RNA component was noted between the f irst and se cond day of

germination . Simi lar exper iments with P32- labeled nucle ic acid

demonstrated that the germinating cotyledon active ly synthes izesall nuc leic acid components . Studies on enzyme deve lopment withgerminat ion demonstrated that enzyme f ormation in the cotyledonpro ceeds in the absence o f the embryo and proceeds even when

embryo germination is comp lete ly inhibited .

(MO 3 - 32)

6 . Determin ing the Purity of Certain Grass Seeds . Acetone ,

ethyl al coho l , methano l , hexane , and carbon tetrach lor ide were

evaluated as media f or separat ing pure seed and inert matter o f

dal l isgrass seed and bahiagrass seed on the basis o f spe cif icgravity . Germination tests were made to determine the ef f ectso f these so lvents on germination . None o f the compounds had a

s ign if icant e f f e ct on germinat ion o f bahiagrass seed at the 99

perc ent conf idence leve l . Ethyl al coho l , methano l , and acetonesign if icantly lowered the germination o f dal l isgrass but the

other so lvents did not . O f several l iqu ids tested f or separat ingseeds by spec if ic gravity , ethano l and methano l were sign if icant lybetter . Surf ace tens ion , espec ial ly w ith kerosene , was f ound to

be an important f actor .

(MQ 3 - 39 )

7 . Hay Mo isture . Th is new proj ect covers research to deve lopan accurate and rap id method f or determin ing the mo isture content

o f grass and legume hay f or use in routine testing . Twenty- six

samp les o f al f al f a hay were measured by. a compress ion device us

ing a-

new ly- designed large samp le ho lder . An e lectrode p latedesigned to f it this S- inch cyl inder samp le ho lder cons isted o f

a dish w ith f our stainless stee l pins mounted 2 inches apart on

a - inch radius f rom center o f dish . The ho lder is capableo f ho lding f rom 250 to 350 grams o f dry bay . The mo isture con

tent o f these samp les var ied f rom to per cent mo istureas determined by a f orced air oven . The corre lation between the

meter reading and oven was very good f or these 26 samp les .

The standard error o f est imate was I percent .

(MQ 3 - 41)

8 . Deve lopment o f Seed Germinator . Research was started to de

velop an automatic alternating temperature seed germinator f or

use in rout ine testing . The exper imental un it was equipped withthermistor act ivated temperature contro l lers in order to obtaincloser contro l o f temperatures than could be obtained with gas

f il l ed bulb thermostats . Any two temperatures desired f rom 10°

C . to 35°

C . can be se lected s imply by pos ition ing a rotary

switch . In perf ormance studies , temperatures were contro l ledto f C . Re lative humidity was maintained above 95 percentexcept f or a br ie f per iod when sw itching f rom the high to low

temperature cycle . The temperature changes f rom low to h igh are

made in approximate ly 40 m inutes and f rom h igh to low in approxi

mate ly 1 hour . The problem o f obtaining more un if orm l ighting in

the box w i l l be under study the com ing year . Germination tests

indicate l ight ing is su f f icient but distr ibution is poor and

trays must be rotated daily .

(MO 3 - 48)

9 . Cereal Grains and Feeds . Research aimed at the deve lopmento f a rap id , s imp le test f or prote in nutritive value o f cerealgrains and f eeds is be ing conducted by Te chnion Research and

Deve lopment Foundat ion , Ltd . , Hai f a , Israe l , under a P . I . 480

- 329

grant . Soybeans , r ice , wheat , peanuts , and cottonseed meal were

p laced in storage under dif f erent condit ions o f temperature and

humidity . Any successf u l method must measure qual ity o f commod

it ies af ter storage under both f avorable and unf avorable conditions . The nature o f the proj ect makes it poss ibl e to study both

qual ity maintenance and qual ity measurement . Analysis o f all

f oods has been carried out according to AOAC methods and byadditional methods , including f eeding exper iments w ith rats and

m isce l laneous chemical and phys ical tests .

Twe lve amino acids were determined microbio logical ly in the

various stored commodit ies and enzymatic re leases o f meth ionine ,

lysine and tryptophane were determined in eight f oods . Optimalconditions f or determ ining g lutam ic acid decarboxylase activityin soybeans , chickpeas , wheat , and rice have been estab l ished .

A method , capab le o f standardization , f or prote in dispersion f rom

soybeans , peanut mea l , cottonseed , and ch ickpeas containingglobu l in- l ike prote ins has been deve loped . Some dif f icu lty has

been experienced in obtaining random groups o f uni f ormly deve loping rats f or the f eeding exper iments but the variation has been

reduced by se lection o f mothers f or several characterist ics and

by us ing rats whose ages dif f er by no more than 2 days .

( AlO - AMS

10 . Mo isture Leve l s f or Germination . A . P .L. 480 grant was made

to the Instituto Bio logico , Sao Pau lo , Brazi l , f orl the study o f

substrate mo isture leve ls f or germination testing o f agricu lturalseeds . The pr incipal accomp l ishments reported by the InstitutoBio log ico are : ( a) The optimum mo isture leve l f or germinat ion is

not always optimum f or f uture growth o f the seedl ing , ( b) seed

l ing classif ication must be taken into consideration in the study

o f mo isture re lationsh ips , ( c) water was f ound to be dependent on

we ight o f seeds o f a simi lar kind and not on the number o f seeds

invo lved , ( d) a pro cedure was deve loped f or ho lding so i l as a

substratum. at three dif f erent un if orm moisture leve ls , thus pro

viding a bas is f or evaluating tests made on other substrates .

( S3 - AMS

11 . Health Condit ion o f Seeds . A P .L. 480 grant w ithRijksproe f stat ion voor Z aadcontro le , Bennenhaven 1, Wageningen ,

The Nether lands , provides f or a study o f the health condition o f

seeds in commerc ial channe ls and deve lopment o f methods su itablef or routine testing f or seedborne organisms . Th is proj ect has

been approved but work w i l l no t be started unt i l about January

1964 O

( El9 - AMS

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- 331

No s igni f icant di f f erences were observed between the mo ld f lorao f 10 samp les o f spotted wheat and that o f 4 nonspotted ( Check)samp les . Cu ltures o f a number o f pathogenic spe c ies o f

HelminthO Sporium . and Fusarium . are being evaluated to determinewhether one o f them may produce an inh ibitory substance that can

be used in deve lop ing a vigor test f or seeds and seedl ings .

( MQ 2- 62)

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Objective Measurement and Evaluation o f Qual ity

Andersen , A l ice M . 1962 . Ef f ect of g ibbere l l ic ac id , kinetinl ike substance , Getasan , and phenacridane ch lor ide on the germinat ion o f Pan icum ramosum seeds . Proc . Internat . Seed Test .

Assn . 7 30- 741 . (MO 3 - 19 )

Hart , Joe R and Go lumbic , Calvin . 1962 . A comparison o f basi cmethods f or mo isture determinat ion in seeds . Pro c . Internat .

Seed Test . Assn . 907- 919 . (MQ 3 - 23 )

Marcus , A . , Fee ley , J and Shannon , L . M . 196 3 . Preparat ionand propert ies on -methylene glu tam ic acid . Arch . Bio chem .

Biophys . 100 , 80 . (MQ 3 - 32)

Marcus , A and Fee ley , J . 1962 . Nu c le ic acid changes in the

germinat ing peanut . Bio chem . Biophys . Acta 6 1, 830 .

(MO 3 - 32)

Marcus , A . ,and Shannon , L . M . 196 2 .

cyiMethylw) -hydroxy4 * .

- ketoglutar ic aldo lase 11 . Studies w ith pyruvate- 014

. J . Bio l .

Chem . 23 7 , 3 348 . ( MO 3 - 32)

Shannon , L . M and Marcus , A . 19 62 .faiMethylwfllhydroxyd fi t

- ketog lutari c aldo lase 1 . Puri f icat ion and propert ies . J .

3 10 1 . Chem . 23 7 , 3 342 . (MQ 3 - 32)

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JMARKETING FACILITIES , EQUIPMENT AND METHODSTransportation and. Facilities Research Division, AMS

Problem . Dif f erence s in var iet ies of individual f ie ld crops and in the

environments of producing areas where they are conditioned and stored,

together w ith advanc ing te chn ique s in cu ltural and harve sting pract ices ,

requ ire new or m odif ied market ing f acil it ie s ,equ ipment ,

and me thods .

Such changes are essential to the e f f icient and e conomical handl ing ,con

ditioning ,and stor ing of these cr 0 ps and to maintain ing the ir qual ity .

There is a need f or improved des igns f or f acil it ies based on f unct ionaland structural requ irements ,

wh ich w i l l - expedite the m ovement of commod

it ies into , within , and out of the f ac il ity . There is a l so a ne ed f or

handl ing and conditioning equipment which w il l m inimi ze labor and other

costs .

'

More know ledge is needed of the re lat ive e f f ic iency of variou shandl ing and conditioning me thods so that improved or revised methods and

equipment can be deve loped to per f orm nece ssary operat ions .

USDA PROGRAM

The Department has a long- term program invo lving agr icu ltural engineer sand industr ial engineers engaged in both appl ied and basic re search on

,

as we l l as appl icat ion of known pr inc iple s to,the so lution of problems

of handl ing , stor ing , and condit ion ing f ie ld crops in marketing channe ls .

Gra in aeration and drying re search is carr ied out at Manhattan ,Kans on

wheat and grain sorghum ; at Laf ayette , Ind . ,on corn ; in laboratory and

pi lot - scale f acil it ies and in commerc ial storages ; in cooperat ion w iththe Agr icu ltural Exper iment Stat ions of Kansas and Indiana and w ith grainstorage f irms . Cooperat ive research on grain is supplemented by re searchcontracts w ith the A ir f o il Impe l lers Corporat ion , Co l lege Stat ion , Tex

and the Purdue Univers ity Agr icu ltural Experiment Station ,Laf ayette , Ind .

Research on the de s ign of grain storage structure s is conducted at'

Washington ,D . C . ,

w ith f ie ld studies providing the basis for se le ctingcapacity and type of operat ion . Re search on the handl ing of grain in

country e levator s and termina l storage s is conducted by the Manhattan,

Kans f ie ld of f ice in c 0 0 peration. with the Kansas Stat ion . Studies o f

grain storage in CCC b ins are conducted at a re search bin site at Watseka ,

111 ° Studies on the handling , drying, aerating , and storing of rice are

conducted at Beaumont, Tex . , in cooperation. with the Texas Agricultura lExperiment Station and at commercial f aci l ities in Texas

, Arkansas ,Louisiana , and. Mississippi .

'

The Federal ef f ort devoted to research in this area totals pro f essionalmanp years : to grain aeration and drying; to the design of grainstorage structures; to the handl ing of grain in terminal storages;to studies of grain storage in CCC bins; to the handl ing, drying ,aerating , and storing of rice ; and to program leadersh ip .

- 333

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATING PROGRAMS

A . Grain Aerat ion and Drying

l . Drying . At Laf ayette ,Ind . , addit iona l laboratory te st s conf irmed that

artif ic ial drying at air temperature s above about 140° F . change s the

hygroscop ic propert ie s of corn and that corn dr ied at such temperature s

supports a higher equ i l ibr ium re lat ive hum idity than corn of the same

init ia l m o isture dr ied w ith r oom . air . Re su lts of the se tests indicate that,

to prevent exce ssive mold deve l opment and spoilage dur ing storage , artif i

c ially dr ied corn w ith its h igher inter seed re lative hum idity shou ld bestored at a mo isture content to 1 percent lower than natura l ly dr iedcorn .

A qu ick and inexpensive proce ss - and a dev ice f or per f orming the proce sshas been deve loped f or determ ining the equil ibr ium re lat ive hum idity of a

samp le of corn which provides an ob j ect ive measurement of : ( l ) The suitability of corn f or wet m i l l ing and other commercial uses ,

and (2) overheat ing of the corn dur ing art if ic ia l drying . Deve lopment o f th is pro ce ssrepre sents a substantial "

break through"in providing a satisf actory

measure o f the su itabil ity of corn f or proce ss ing and storage and can

af f ect savings to the industry amount ing to many thousands of do l larsannua l ly . Appl icat ions f or pub l ic patents on both the proce ss and the

device are be ing f iled .

In laboratory te sts the m i l l ing qua l ity of corn dr ied with the concurrentf low method was sl ight ly better than f or that dr ied by the other two

methods . A lso,corn dr ied by the concurrent f low me thod had 27 per cent

che cked kerne ls as compared to 49 per cent in corn dried by the crossf lowmethod .

Drying methods f or f ie ld- she l led corn. were f urther evaluated in 19 f ie ldte sts in the f al l of 1962 . The re lat ion of the drying treatment to the

qua l ity of the corn f or commercia l use s was summar ized f or tests extendingover three seasons .

The temperature of corn reaphed during drying was f ound t 9 be the

contro l l ing f actor in m i l l ing qua l ity . However,corn temperature s

rema ined substant ia l ly be low the drying air temperature s in the f ie ldtests .

1190F

For example , corn dr ied at an air temperature o f 140°F . reached

and at an air temperature of 1900F . it reached 149 ° F .

The starch yie ld was reduced le ss than 2 percent in the drying te sts ato

140 F and 190°F . At 240

°F . and 290

°F . the reduct ion in starch yie ld

f or the three test year s averaged cons iderably h igher . The average amount

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2 . Aeration . A t jManhattan ,Kans .

,f ie ld studies were con tinued in

commercia l s torages ,both f lat and upr ight .

Dur ing poor harvesting weather in June 196 2 , thousands o f bushe ls o f "tough

”

new wheat,having an average moisture content o f 14 to 16 percent ,

were re

ceived and stored in upr ight concrete bins . In one test,non - aerated

"tough

"wheat went ou t o f " condit ion

,

" becoming musty and showing ser iousdamage . The loss in market value amounted to as much as 40 cen ts per bushe lor a loss to the storage owner o f approx imate ly $800 per

- bushe l rai lroad car . In a compan ion test

,wheat having percent mo isture stored in

June was turned once each during the summer,f a l l

,and w inter and aerated

af ter each turn . In December the average grain temperature was 42° F . and in

IMay 196 3 the mo isture content was percent lower and the wheat graded No . 1

Hard Winter with no loss in market qua lity .

Fie ld tests were made in upr ight storages using au tomatic f an con tro lschedu le s to l im it f an Operation to hours o f low so lar energy accumu lation .

Resu lts f rom these tests indicate longer f an Operation time be ing requ ir edto comp le te a coo l ing stage dur ing per iods o f low so lar energy accumu lationthan under ordinary aerat ion schedu le s . This was due to less evaporativecoo l ing and a smal ler reduc tion in the moisture content o f the grain .

The emptying o f f lat storages ,inc luded in f ie ld studies

,in which the

grain had not been moved f or per iods o f f rom several months to severa l

years provided an Opportun ity to s tudy the e f f ects o f aeration . Some grainSpoi lage was observed near and over aeration ducts

,both so l id and per f or

ated,and on some concre te f loors . The to ta l amount o f gra in loss f rom

these causes was extreme ly smal l ,however

,compared to the total quantity

o f grain stored in a f lat storage bu i lding ,up to bushe ls and even

more .

Fie ld studie s were c on tinued w ith both wheat and grain sorghum in largef lat storage s w i th the ma in emphasis on deve loping su itab le methods o f

con tro l l ing the Operation o f aeration sys tems to maintain the market qua lity o f the stored grain . Satis f actory resu l ts were obtained in tests where

a s ing le au tomatic contro l was used f or con tro l l ing the Operat ion o f 14

f ans in one large storage . Four hundred hours o f f an Operat ion dur ingJanuary and February reduced the temperature o f stored grain sorghum. f rom

6 7° to 3 73F a reduction o f 30 degree s .

In Indiana , two -

year te sts compar ing year- round aeration and aerat ion

l im ited to the f al l and w inter months f or she l led corn had to be terminatedwhen approximate ly of the storage s included in the study were un loaded .

There f ore ,th is study was term inated .

In Texas ,f ie ld studie s have been terminated and a f inal report is be ing

prepared f or pub l icat ion . Per sonne l f ormer ly conduct ing th is research havebeen transf erred to re search on peanuts .

At Co l lege Stat ion,Tex . , work under a re sear ch contract was cont inued to

determ ine stat ic pre ssure losses in addit iona l ducts in var ious s ize s,

losses f rom abrupt changes in du ct s ize s , and to de termine the change s in

stat ic pressure of air moving through aerat ion duct per f orat ions and

through gra in over the duct . The ma j or part of the actual te st ing w ork has

been comp le ted and the analys is o f the data contained in two of the

contractor 's repor ts on comp le ted te sts has been started .

B . Handl ing Gra in in Country Elevators and Term inal Storage s

At Manhattan,Kans . , a report ,

"A Comp lete - Open ing Endgate For Faster

Un l oading o f Grain From Farm. Trucks,

"was prepared and publ ished . A c om

pleta - Open ing endgate, ; made o f p lywood ,h inged at the top and Open ing across

the f u l l w idth of the gra in body perm its a 200 - bushe l standard f arm truckto be unl oaded at the e levator in 53 se conds , w ith no shove l ing requ ired .

A sma l l s l iding endgate can be bu ilt into the f u l l - w idth endgate f or use in

un loading gra in at the f arm. Est imated co st of mater ial s , in ear ly 196 3 ,

to build the endgate ,exc lus ive o f the sma l l sl iding gate , was $23 .

The study o f grain coo l ing dur ing turn ing Operat ions and dur ing extended

per iods was cont inued f or a second year . Dur ing the second year the gra inwas not turned and the average temperature of the grain at the center of

the bin increased by only 10 to 12 degrees . However ,the gra in 2 f eet in

f r om the wal l increased f rom 36°F . in January to 78

°F . in August ,

an

increase of more than 40 degree s .

Comparat ive te sts of var ious l iner mater ials f or grain spouts were

cont inued . One mater ia l under te st had handled about two and one - ha l ft ime s mor e gra in than current ly- used mater ia l s . When last inspected , the

bette r mater ial had handled 380 car loads o f gra in as compared to a maximum

of about 150 car loads f or commonly- used mater ial s . Th is better mater ialis st i l l under test .

C . De s ign o f Grain Storage Structure s

Work was cont inued by the Wash ington of f ice on the use of the queuing the ory

to determine Opt ima l capac it ie s of truck re ce iving systems f or commerc ialgra in e levator s . .Addit ional f ie ld studies were conducted dur ing the 1962

wheat harvest in Kansas and Nebraska to co l le ct addit ional data on truckarr ival s and service patterns . The data obtained ver if ied the resu lts f rom

previous f ie ld studie s . About 20 percent of the total wheat rece ived at the

e levators dur ing the harvest per iod arr ived in on ly one day and although the

e levator s were Open about 16 hours a day ,more than 10 percent of a day

's

rece ipts arr ived in one hour , usual ly late in the af ternoon . Dur ing that

hour ,trucks arr ived in a random manner ; but 20 percent or more of the

hour ly re ce ipt s may arr ive in a 5-m inute per iod.

The service time s f or rece iving trucks were studied f or crew s izes of l to t4

men at the scale and 1 to 3 men at the dump pits . Because of the dif f erent

- 337

type s of trucks used and f or other reasons , service t ime s var ied considerably . For example , at one e levator studied the time to dump a truck ranged

f rom 1 up to 6 minutes although the same crew was always used . Both arr ivaland service patterns f o l lowed statist ical distr ibution patterns of ten used

in theoret ica l wa iting l ine analysis . From . the se distr ibut ion patterns a'

method o f simu lated sampl ing - MOnte Car lo Method us ing an e lectr ic computer- was used to determine truck wait ing t ime s f or rece iving units of low

,medi

um , and h igh capacity . Re su lts of th is simu lation were deve loped into chartswh ich show ,

f or example , average and maximum truck wait ing t ime f or dif f erentda ily arr ival rates . It was f ound that wait ing t imes increase rap idly when

the da i ly arr ival rate goe s above 50 to 60 percent of the daily potent ialservice rate .

'

Waiting t imes were converted into wait ing costs ; these costs were added to

ownership and Operat ing c osts to f ind the most economical range of opera

tion f or the three capacities of rece iving units . For example , it was

f ound that a country e levator of medium capac ity with a 2-man crew at the

scale and another 2-man crew at the pit was the most economical where f rom

600 to truckloads are rece ived each harvest season .

Several simpl if ied, approximate methods f or determining wa it ing time s were

deve loped . A lso studied were methods wh ich cou ld be used by e levator oper

ators in improving truck re ce iving Operat ions ,such as : ( 1) Even ing out the

arr ival pattern by paying a prem ium f or dry grain arr iving be f ore Noon ; (2)providing plenty of room between scales and dump dr iveway f or wait ing trucks( 3 ) providing one - way traf f ic across the scale w ith the dr iver always on the

side toward the sca le and the of f ice ; and (4) using portab le auxil iary nu

loading equipment , such as pneumat ic conveyors ,at t ime s o f peak rece ipts .

D . Studie s of Grain in CCC Bins

At Watseka,I11 . ,

studie s were cont inued in standard USDA aerated b ins to

deve lop more sat isf actory methods of f an Operat ion f or m inimiz ing the m o isture increase in the surf ace layers of stored corn dur ing the late f al l and

w inter months . .A continuous ly- Operated f an caused a s l ight wetting of the

sur f ace corn during the winter months but this corn dr ied dur ing the

spr ing and summe r . Since airf low is downward through the corn a layer of

wet corn deve lops deeper in the bin . Var iou s methods of f an Operat ion are

be ing studied to lessen th is mo isture increase .

In two tests , started in 1959 , f ans have been Operated each year as

exhausters (air downward) f rom September to De cembe r ,stopped until

February ,then reversed and operated as b lowers (air upward) unt il September .

Samples drawn f rom the upper 8 f eet of corn in the se b ins showed an averageincrease of on ly about 1 percent in total damage af ter 3 years in storage .

In comparable test bins w ith the f ans Operating cont inuously as exhausters

the increase in total damage was about percent .

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- 339

Further te sts were run dur ing the 196 3 harvest season to compare the e f f ect

of throughput rates on m il l ing yie ld ,drying time and f ue l consumpt ion .

Data f rom the se tests have not yet been ana lyzed .

A sma l l - size dryer (SO-

pound capa city) was de signed and built to simu latethe drying act ion of f u l l - size cont inuous- f low , heated

- air dryers . Thisdryer is used to provide extra repl icat ions of procedures tested in the

larger dryer and is expected to speed up the obtaining of usab le inf ormationon drying procedures .

1962 to Apr il 196 3 ) was made to de termine how dif f erent Operating proce

dure s contr ibuted to change s in the moisture content of r ice . Loss of'

mo isture var ied f rom percent in s tored r ice exposed to s ingle stage

coo l ing to percent in r ice exposed to continuous f an operation. when

atmospher ic condit ions were f avorab le f or moisture removal . Th is studyindicated that shr inkage in r ice due to loss o f moisture need not be

exce ss ive dur ing w inter storage if unnece ssary f an operation is avo ided.

The study of aeration f or ma intaining the qual ity of undr ied (green) r icewas cont inued .

'

W ith an aeration rate of c fm. per barre l , r ice (TP 49

var iety ) w ith 19 percent mo isture remained at grade No . 1 f or 22 days when

the ambient temperature averaged 68° F . ; rice (Nato var iety) with 23 per

cent moisture dropped f rom. grade No . 1 to No . 2 in 2 days when the ambienttemperature averaged 80

° F . MO re tests must be run in order to determine

the re lat ive importance o f moisture content,

ambient tempera ture ,and

var iety o f r ice in predict ing a saf e storage t ime f or green r ice . Dou

b l ing the a ir f low rate,f rom c fm up to 1 cfm per barre l , increased

the saf e storage time f or two batche s of r ice (Bluebonne t 50 ) about -40

percent .

The study of r ice stored in bins covered with Spec ial paints f or ref lect ingso lar heat was comp leted in January 1963 . Th is study indicated that theuse of radiat ion - res ist ing pa int wou ld be benef ic ia l f or any rice storagebu i ldings having direct exposure to the sun in at least two ways : ( 1) Toma i ntain stored r ice at a coo ler temperature ; and ( 2) to maintain a coo lertemperature f or personne l who mu st work in the headspace above the rice .

A report of this study has been prepared and at the end of the year wasbe ing c leared f or publ icat ion .

PUBLICAT IONS REPORT ING RESUETS OF USDA AND

Grain Aerat ion and Dgying

Smith , Lloyd L. ,Grain Aeration Systems The ir Uses , Design , and

Operat ion . Paper pre sented at the Assoc iation of Operat ive Mi l lersMeet ing , W inston Salem

,North Caro l ina , October 1962 .

Hutchison ,R . S . and Al len , W . S 196 3 . Your Aerat ion System A

Comprehensive , Usab le ,Foo l - Proof Method For It . Grain Trade Buyers

Gu ide, Vol . 19 , 196 3 .

Grave s, A . H 196 3 . .A Comp lete - Open ing Endgate f or Faster Un loading

of Grain From. Farm. Trucks . Market ing Bu l let in No . 23 .

Marketing Division , FCS

Prob lem: Farme rs cont inue to expand the ir use o f cooperatives in mar

ke t ing the produc ts o f the ir f arms . In light o f the rapidand comp lex changes taking p lace in techno logy and in marke t organ iza

tion and practices , resear ch is n eeded to he lp f armer cooperat ives and

other marke t ing agenc ies per f orm . needed marke ting service s bo th mor e

e f f ic ien t ly and mor e e f f ective ly . Farmer - dire ctors , managers and

o thers , inc luding the pub l ic , n eed more inf orma t ion to ass is t in makingdecis ions on how cooperatives can maintain and s trengthen the bargaining power o f f armers , in crease e f f iciency and redu ce cos ts o f marke ting ,

and be tter meet the ne e ds o f our mas s dis tr ibut ion system . f or largequan titie s o f produ cts on as spe c i f icat ion bas is .

Femmer cooperat ives are an importan t par t o f the dis tr ibution sys tem

an d represen t a maj or po ten tia l f or mee ting f armers‘marke ting prob

lems in our modern , dynami c sys tem . They are organ iz ed and operated

to increase f armers‘ne t in com e . However , cooperative s f ace many

problems in ach ieving th is go a l . Cooperat ives mus t f ind. ways to c on

so l idate vo lume , f or examp le , through in terna l growth ,merger ,

acquis ition or f ederation , to strengthen the ir marke t pos ition and'

mee t the ne eds o f mass m erchandis ing . Ways must be f ound to reducecos ts by increas ing e f f ic iency through impr oved operat ing me thods ,

be tter organ ization and managem en t , and more use o f new techno logies .

USDA PROGRAM

The Depar tmen t conducts a con t inu ing long—range program of bas ic and

applied research and te chnica l ass is tan ce on prob lems o f marke tingf arm produc ts cooperative ly . Studies are made on the organ ization ,

operat ion and ro le o f f armer cooperat ives in marke ting . Wh i le mos t o f

the res earch is done dire ct ly w ith cooperatives , the resu lts are

genera l ly o f bene f it to o ther marketing f irms . The work is centeredin Wash ington , D . C . Many o f the s tudies , however , are done in co

operation with var ious State Exper iment Stat ions , Exten s ion Services ,

and Departments o f Agr icu lture .

The number of Federal prof essiona l man -years devoted to this researchtotals of which manp years re late to work on grain, on f eed,

and to seed .

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( 3 ) the value o f r ice f o l low ing drying and s tor ing var ies l itt le between the mu lt ipass and s tationary type un its ; and (4) of f - f armcommercial dr iers tend to per f orm be tter on radon m i l ling yie ld .

g e , and o f f f arm. driers

0 . Farm Product ion SuEElies

1 . Feed dis tr ibu tion . Work con tinued on studies o f the f eed f inanc ingoperations o f cooperat ives . A s tudy o f bro i ler and turkey f eed f inan

c ing o f n ine co operat ives was comp le ted and a report prepared f or

pub l ication . Prin c ipa l f indings were reported las t year . A study o f

the egg and rep lacemen t pu l le t f eed f inan cing operat ions by sevenlarge cooperatives n eared comple tion . It indicated that ( 1) egg and

pu l let f eed f inan cing by cooperatives has no t deve loped at the same rate

or m agn itude as f or bro i ler and turkey f eed; ( 2) mos t o f the egg and

pu l le t f eed was f inanced on a se cured note bas is , rather than on a

con tract bas is ; ( 3 ) lo sse s incurred by the cooperat ives through egg

and replacemen t pu l let f inancing p lan s were in sign if ican t ; (4) provencredit practices in se lec tion o f growers and care fu l se lect ion o f pro

duc tion areas n ear f eed m i l ls and egg assemb ly po ints enab led assoc iat ions to adjus t to chang ing condit ions and operate f inanc ing programe

most e f f ic ien t ly; and ( 5) assoc iations w ith rather Comple te‘

coordin ated

production and marke ting services rea l ized greater s tabi l ity and f eed

vo lume through the ir f in anc ing programs than those with the leas t in

tegration . A s imi lar s tudy o f the f inan c ing of l ives to ck f e ed by

se lected cooperat ives is underway .

“

Work'

was s tar ted on an analys is o f bu lk f eed r e lay depo ts or trans f er

stations operated by cooperat ives in se le cted ar eas o f the Un itedStates . Emphas is w i l l be placed on type o f f acil it ies and prac ticesemploye d; operating cos ts ; the f eas ib i l ity of th is dis tr ibu t ion sys tem

compared w ith other ex is t ing sys tems ; and the poss ible e f f ects thistype f ac i l ity or sys tem wil l have on con tinued use o f presen t manu f ac

turing and dis tr ibu t ion f aci l ities .

.A s tudy was in itiated on the operation s o f loca l f armer buying groups

purchas in g f e ed ingre dients in Il l ino is . This appraisa l , be ing doneunder con tract , wi l l de term ine the organ izat ion o f such groups , praetices f o l lowed , cos ts invo lve d in the ir operation , extent o f unpaidresources used , and source s and amounts of savings to the ir members .

It a lso wil l appra ise problems and l imi tations o f such groups and the irimp lication to o ther cooperat ives and f irms han dl ing f eed .

the marke t po tentia l and f uture trends f or var ious types o f commer c ia lf eeds in spe c if ic areas o f the Un i ted States .

d .

'

Work was s tarted on a s tudy o f the bu lkand transpor tation . of seed. Objectives o f the

ypas and costs o f bu lk f aci l ities and equipment

advantages or l imi tations , and poss ibi litieso f bu lk handling . Data w i ll be obtained large lypurchas ing choperatives in the East and marke t

West .

ING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Grain Co - ops He lp All Grain Farmers . Ar ticleer ly .

egional Grain Report 19 61- 62 . FCS Service

3 . Gra in Cd- ops He lp Hometowns Grow . Artic leooperatives .

ow Grain Co JD ps He lp Main Stree t . Art ic le in

Feb . 4 , 1963 .

notry Elevators - Cos t Vo lume Re lations in the

FCS Service’

Report 63 .

ng Exerc ise s f or Cooperative Elevator Bookkeepers .

Oklahoma 1 s choo l; Texas 1 schoo l .

Marketing Economics Division, ERS

Problem" Mbst agricultural processing industries are experiencing rapidand drastic changes in their'

market organizat ion and practices .

These changes are af f ecting'

both f armers and consumers . Research is

needed to keep abreast of such changes and to indicate their probableconsequences . There have been substantial advances in recent year in

increasing ef f ic iency and reduc ing costs through adoption of new technologyin. producing , assembling , processing and distributing f arm. products .

However , f or producers and marketing f irms to remain competitive ,additional inf ormation is needed on margins , costs, economies of scaleand e f f ic iencies possible in the marketing of f arm products .

The Department has a continuing long- term program of economic researchrelating to grain and f orage crops . The research involves economistsand personnel with dual economic and technical training and is carried out

at wash ington, D . C . , and f ield of f ices in Albany, Calif ornia; ,and

Peoria, I llinois , and in cooperation with State .Agricultural ExperimentStations in a number of States . The grain and f orage phases of the

research involve l6 .h Federal prof essional man -years of which are

studying market potentials; merchandising and promotion;transportation and storage; product qual ity; 5.h, costs , margins ,and ef f ic iency; structure , practices and competition and

inf ormation and outlook .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

A . market Potentials f or New Products and Haas

1 . Adhes ive s have tradit iona l ly been farm derived products but synthet icshave taken more and more binding jobs away f rom them , Study o f techn ica land e conom ic fac tors indicated that f arm der ived adhes ive s have many charac teristic s that are de f inite advantages ,

such as low cost , ready ava i labi l ity ,

nontoxic ity ,and ea se o f handl ing among others . Neverthe less ,

f arm produced raw mater ia ls need to be modi f ied to give them . more o f the

charac teristics o f the synthe tics so they can compe te more e f f ective ly .

The mo lecu lar structure o f starch and prote in glues needs to be modi f iedto make them . stronge r and more wate r re s istant . Work is a lso re commendedon hot me lts based on starch to improve this adhe s ive '

s method o f appli

cation ,tack, toughne ss ,

so lubi l ity in organ ic so lvents ,and reduced

sens it ivity to water .

Such hybr id adhe sive s wou ld be a boon to the construction industry ,among

othe rs . Partic le board is made by combin ing sawdust , sma l l wood partic le sand 3 0 pe rcent adhe s ive b inder (now most ly syn the tics ) under pre ssure . A

tough ,mo isture re s istant starch hybrid rep lac ing more expensive synthe tics

adhe s ive s wou ld considerably lowe r manu facturing co sts .

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1 . Economics of Invento Control and Ingredient Procurement in Feed

Manuf acturing . Reduction in cost and improved pricing efficiency for ingredianta used in f eed manuf acturing through deve lopment and application of

quantitative techniques of managerial de cision making are goals of research

being conducted in cooperation with the Purdue Agricultural Experiment‘

Station .

Preliminary results indi cated opportunities f or considerab le savings in ingre

dient costs through use of linear programed least cost f ormulas which are

being tested prior to introduction of var iations of the normative assemblymodel . Tests are being made of the f easibility of f orecasting f ini shed sales

and ingredient requirements through experimental smoothing

l. Grain T ran spo rtat ion in th e Northwe st . In the Northwe stern State s o f

‘

Montana ,Idaho ,

Utah , Wyom ing , Oregon , and Wash ington,rai l roads haul mo st

o f the grain sh ipped f rom coun try po in ts to pro ce ssor s and to m il l ers ,

pr imar i ly be cause o f the in —tran s it sh ipp ing pr ivi lege s provided by the

rai l roads . Coun try operato rs lo cated at or n ear r ive r tran s f er f aci l i t ie sare turn ing to tru cks and barge s , o r a combinat ion o f tho se carr iers .

Railroads gen eral ly cannot compe te e f f e ct ive ly w ith the low .co st tran spo rtation o f f e red by the truck - barge combinat ion f o r movem en t s o f grainbound to Paci f i c po rts f or export .

Dur ing the crop ye ar 1960 - 61 about 40 per cen t o f the tru cked grain was

hau l ed by common o r con tract carr ie rs . Exempt moto r carr ie rs moved 32

percent and pr ivate ly owned or l eased trucks carr ied 26 p er cent . I t in eran tbuy

- and - se l l mer chant tru ckers handl ed on ly 2 percent o f the grain trucked

f rom coun try po in ts .

Th e re su l ts o f a detail ed analys i s o f the movement o f ” f re e "wh eat in the

State o f Wash ington have be en publ ished in spee ch f orm .

The Port land port area,in cluding Longview and Van couver

,re ce ived the

bu lk o f the ra i l sh ipments f rom coun try or igin s in Wash ington . In 1960 - 61

the Po rt land area re ce ived 3 9 pe rcent o f the total ra i l movem ent o f wh eat .

Twenty - two percent o f the ra i l wheat moved to Puge t Sound po r ts ,24 percent

wen t to the Pasco - Kennew ick area , and 11 per cen t wen t to Spokane . Th e

rema inde r was sh ipped to smal l e r or unknown marke ts in th e No rthwest or to

Cal i f orn ia . Most o f the wh eat sh ipped by ra i l to Pasco - Kennew i ck is

probably re consigned to be term inated at Co lumbia R iver or Puget Sound

ports . Probably a port ion o f the wheat sh ipped to Spokan e continued to

th e coastal po rts . All th e ra i l movem en t could be con s ide red longhaul

movement s in ce the rai l cars gen eral ly or iginated at the producing area

and term inated at the maj or coastal marke ts .

Tru cks haul ed abou t m i l l ion bu sh e l s or 28 pe r cent o f total " f re e

wh eat sh ipment s in Wash ington dur ing l9 60 - 6l . F i f ty - two p er cent o f the

tru ck sh ipm ent s to known de st ination s moved l e s s than 150 m i l e s, 3 9 per cen t

was sh ipp ed 150 - 29 9 m i l e s ,and on ly 9 percent trave l ed 300 m i l es or more .

Wash ington country e l evator operato rs e st imated th at about 27 per cent o f

the ir tru ck sh ipments o f wheat in 1960 - 61 moved dire ct ly f rom f arm storage

to terminal s or other re ce iver s . Th is se l l in g method probably save s the

f armer mon ey and t ime sin ce h e do es not have to de l iver the grain to the

e l evator .

All data f or the Northwestern Survey have been gathered and analyzed . The

manu scr ipt is near ing compl et ion and should be ready f or review dur ing the

f ourth quarter o f cal endar year 196 3 .

2 . Grain Tran sportat ion in the Southwe st . Th e study o f grain tran sportation in the S ou thwestern States o f Ar izona , Co lorado , New Mexi co ,

Oklahoma ,and Texas w il l be comp l eted by th e end o f th e cal endar year 196 3 .

Th i s study is be ing done,

under contra ct by Agr i Re sear ch, In c .

, subs idiaryo f Dun lap and A sso ciate s , S tam f ord

, Conne ct i cut . Th e f indings are based on

data co l l e cted by mean s o f pe rsonal in te rviews w ith 470 coun try e levato rs,

term inal e l evators , f eed manu f acturers , and f l our m i l l s . The 470 f irmsinterviewed repre sented about a 20 per cen t sampl e o f grain handl ers in the

State s covered by the survey .

studie s o f grain tran sportat ion in the North Central and Southern State s

are cooperat ive pro j e cts w ith regional grain market ing committee s .

Data have been co l l e cted in bo th areas and are be ing analyzed . S ign i f i cantchange s in grain market ing pract i ce s are be ing f ound . The re l at ive importan ce o f th e var ious carrier type s is changing w ith tru ck and barge tran s

portation be com in g more importan t and rail roads le ss so in southbound

movements . The changes in the use o f the var iou s mode s o f tran sportat ionare caus ing change s in the lo cat ion and the use o f storage f acil it ie s .

Storage f aci l it ie s are tending to be lo cated and expanded e ither near pro

duct ion areas or pro ce ss ing po ints .

4 . Covered Hopper Cars f o r Moving Grain by Rai l . A study o f the f ess ibility o f us ing covered hopper cars f or moving grain is near ing compl et ion .

All re search data have been assembl ed and analyzed; a f irst draf t o f the

manuscr ip t has been reviewed .

I t appears that the ut il ization o f covered hopper car s wou ld be very com

parable to the present ut il izat ion rate o f boxcars when in grain servi ce ,

even w ith a 100 per cent empty car return . Th e greater capacity o f the n ew

l igh twe igh t covered hopper s enable s carr iers to op erate th em w ith a per

un it co st gen eral ly lower than th e standard boxcar s at comparabl e ut i l izat ion rate s .

About 40 percen t o f the country e l evators surveyed are equ ipped to load

covered hopper s and over 60 percent o f the terminal s and pro ce ssors can

l oad and un l oad th em . Firms pre sen t ly unabl e to use covered hoppersindicated the ir w i l l ingne ss to arrange to do so ,

w ith in the range o f the i r

individual e conom i c capabi l it ies . Judged on the bas is o f co sts o f ne ce ssarychanges in loading and un loading equ ipment , covered hopper cars seem to be

more acceptabl e than sem itrai l er tru cks as a subst itute f or standard box

cars in the movement o f grain .

1 . Evaluation of Hay Gradig . A completed mai l survey shows that ( 1 ) Federalgrades need revision to inc lude chemica l tests and moisture determination;chemical and moisture changes of al f alf a during storage are very sma l l ,

indi cating that the change in economi c va lue is also small ; and ( 3 ) no signif

icant change was f ound in the number of cores of a l f alf a needed to provide a

representative samp le to be used f or chemica l analysis

E . Costs,Margins and Ef f ic iency

1. Marke t ing Margin s and Costs f or Wh i te Bread . Pr ices o f many proce ssedagr icu ltura l products -

par ticu lar ly bread - have continued to r i se s inceWor ld War II . Much o f the r i se i s attr ibuted to increase s in co st o f

proce ss ing and distr ibution . Cont inued research is needed ( 1) . to de terminethe magni tude o f th is r i se

,and (2) to f ind means to proce ss and di str ibute

agr icu l tura l products mor e e f f ic ient ly .

Up- to - date ana lys is o f pr ice spreads f or wh i te bread indicate that bread

pr ices continued to r i se in 1962 to cents per l- pound loa f o f wh i tebread up cent over 196 1. Maj or f indings in M isce l laneous Publ icationNo . 712 and Market ing Research Repor t No . 623 were repor ted last year based

on pre l iminary ana lyse s . The f ina l pub l ications dur ing the current year

did no t modi fy the f indings repor ted ear l ier .

2 . Cost and Ef f i ciency in the Rice M i l l ing Industry. The cost o f mi l l ingr i ce i s a key f actor in de termin ing the leve l o f export subsidies f or r iceand the pr i ce supports to farmer s f or severa l var ietie s o f r ice . Up

- to

date in f ormat ion on r ice m i l l ing cost there f ore is e ssen t ia l f or a successf u l operation o f pub l i c programs in the r ice indu stry . Su ch in f ormationsupp lemented with cost standards o f Operation is a lso use fu l to management

o f r i ce m i l ls to gu ide them towards greater e f f ic iency o f operat ion .

Progr e ss dur ing the year is indicated by ( l ) in it iating ,conduct ing ,

and

comp le ting a study o f r ice m i l l ing co sts at the reque st o f the Agr icu ltura lStabi l ization and Conservation Service

, ( 2) cont inu ing the ana lysi s and

draw ing up a dra f t o f a report on labor standards in var ious phases o f

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money f or the f eed manu f ac turer s,

on the average ,the programs lo st . 87

per ton .

The repor t MRR - 564 on the labor and capi ta l f or mixing f eeds has u sed twomode ls with cost data and standards Obta ined f rom survey . An ou tlay o fabout wou ld be requ ir ed to bu i ld an 80 - ton

,8 - hour f eed mi l l . A

larger mi l l with a 200 - ton per 8 - hour capacity wou ld co st abou tI f the sma l ler m i l l Operated one sh i f t annua l ly ,

the Operating cost wou ldbe about 80 cents per ton . W ith two sh i f ts

,th is m i l l wou ld reduce the

annua l co st per ton to 70 cents . The larger mi l l,w ith a one - sh i f t Opera

tion,wou ld produce f eed a t an annua l co st o f 63 cents per ton . Th i s mi l l

,

Operating w ith two sh i f ts,cou ld reduce the co st per ton to 55 cents . I f

both m i l ls produced the same amount o f m ixed f eed annua l ly ,tons ) ,

the larger mi l l wou ld have about a 12 per cent co st advantage .

The manuscr ipt on packing mixed f eeds a l so u ses two mode l s : One packs65 ton s

,and the se cond packs 160 tons per 8 - hour day . It wou ld requ ire

man - hours f or the sma l ler m i l l to pack th i s amount at a cost o f

cents a ton . The larger mode l takes man - hour s to package the

160 tons o f f eed at a co st o f cents per ton . With both mode ls packing ton s o f mixed f eed a year the larger mode l wou ld have a 20

percen t cost advantage . Both mode ls costs wou ld incr ease about 18 per centi f the ir percent o f tota l f eed m ixed that was packed dropped f rom 80 to

3 0 per cent .

A manuscr ipt on the rece iving co st center operations is now under prepara

tion . Two mode ls w ith 80 and 200 tons capacities are used in th is study .

The 80 - ton mode l requ ir e s on the average man - hour s a day to r ece ive80 tons o f incoming ingredients . In the 200 - ton m i l l

,200 tons o f in com ing

ingredients requ ire about man - hour s per day .

7 . Co st and Ef f iciencies o f Commer cia l Seed Pr o cess ing P lants . Seed pr o

duction and proce ssing has expanded great ly ,especia l ly in the Northwe st as

a re su l t O f incr eased demand f or cover crops ( st imu lated by U . S . farm

programs ) . Seed p lant Operators urgen t ly need Obj ective in f orma tion on

costs and re lated f actors to gu ide them in expansion p lan s . A repor t on

"Cost and Ef f iciency in the Operat ion o f Oregon Commer cia l Seed ProcessingWarehouses " is be ing pub l i shed. I t indicates that the Oregon seed proce ss ing industry is dom inated by many sma l ler p lants and that the economieso f si ze are not be ing taken advantage o f by the seed proce ssing industry .

The repor t e stab l i she s through an economic - engineering method severa l mode lp lan ts o f di f f erent s ize as a gu ide to management o f seed proce ssing f acilitie s to improve the e f f iciency o f the ir Operat ion . Di f f erent handlingmethods are ana lyzed f or var ious type s o f grass seeds . Given a un iqu eme thod o f handling ,

a p lant proce ss ing tons o f rye grass seed wou ldincur a to ta l Operating cost o f per ton aga inst per ton f or

a p lant wh ich handle s and p roce sse s tons o f rye grass a year .

8 . Impact o f Grain Banks on Feed M i l l ing and Farm ing. Litt le is known

about a new mer chandi sing te chnique in the marketing o f f eed grains and

mixed f eeds . Th i s techn ique ,common ly ca l led gra in banking ,

became w idespread in recen t years in the M idwe st . In f ormation on its impac t on the

Operat ing e f f iciency o f the f e ed industry is needed to guide f armer s and

management o f f e ed mixing plants towards more e f f icient me thods o f marke t

ing . A gra in bank is an arrangement be tween a loca l f eed m i l l and a f armer

whereby the f armer deposits grain with the mi l l f or temporary storage and

withdraws it in the f orm o f m ixed f eeds . About grain bank Operator sin Oh io

,Indiana

,I l l ino is

,and Iowa were surveyed . It was f ound that the

gra in bank me thod o f di str ibuting f eeds can r ender sign i f ican t e f f i cienc ie scountry e levator . The use o f the gra in bank permitted the e levator Operator to schedu le the f eed processed, thereby increas ing output by 75 per

cent with the same f aci l itie s and labor . The maj or i ty o f the gra in bank

cu stomer s used services as : bu lk de livery ,she l ling ,

drying , gr inding ,

and m ixing . However,the use o f the se service s var ied with the u se o f

particu lar f e eds as we l l as between di f f erent f eeds . Grain banks were the

busie st dur ing the winter months and proce ssed the least in the summer .

M i l l managemen t emphasized the pr imary reason f or star ting gra in banks

was to increase concentrated f eed sa les . Customer s l iked the gra in bank

becau se O f convenience,many service s

,and lack o f storage space needed

on the f arm .

F . Structures,Practices and Competition

1 . Struc ture o f No rtheas tern Gra in Markets . Th e struc ture o f th e No rth

eastern gra in ma rkets has changed rap idly in rec en t years c rea ting market ingprobl em s f o r many agenc i es engaged in handl ing , pro c e ss ing and dis tr i but iono f gra in and gra in p roduc ts . Resea rch on changes in trends in gra in markets

in th e No rth ea st is des igned to prov ide th e industry w ith ba s ic data to

make Optimum adj us tm ent to changing condit ions .

Pro gress dur ing th e year is i ndicated by comp l e t ing all nec essary wo rk to

obta in needed data f or th e ana lys is . In f o rma t i on obta ined through ma ilsurveys and personal interviews is now be ing tabu lated f o r da ta pro c es s ing .

Som e gra in handl ing and process ing f ac il ities w ere covered . No

f indings a re ye t ava i labl e .

2 . Sto rage o f So rghams . The rap id inc reas e in so rghum gra in p rodu c tiondur ing th e 1950

's and government p ro grams changed marke ting pa tt ern s and

requ ired additional sto rage capac i ty . F indings show that on- f arm sto rage

inc rea sed f rom 9 m il l ion bu shel s in 1953 to 53 m i l l ion bu sh el s in 1960 ;about two - th irds o f the so rghum gra in is so ld at harvest in th e Coasta lBend du e to early season pr ice advantage , wh il e in o th er area s th ere is

grea ter tendency to se l l a t a la ter da te ; three - f ourths o f th e f armers in

the Coasta l Bend who sto re so rghum a l so have dry ing and aera t ion f ac il it ies wh il e l ess than 10 perc en t o f th e f armers in o ther a rea s have dr iers

and ae ra t i on equ ipm en t . Comm erc ia l s to rage capa c ity o f a lmo s t 6 50 m il l i on

bushe l s in 1960 is mor e than doubl e th e 1955 Spac e . So rghum gra in .o c cup ies

abou t 75 p erc en t o f th is spac e . Ther e is a w ide var iety o f typ es o f S tor

age and m e thods o f sto r ing a l though bo th are rap idly becom ing standa rdiz ed .

3 . Pr ic ing Fo rage . There is a lm ost no marketing s truc tu re f o r f o rage .

Lack o f pric ing in a common market r esu l ts in in ef f ic ien t pr ic ing and pro

duc es pric e dif f eren t ia l s tha t have no econom ic bas is . The r esu l t is tha t

f o rage is no t mov ed e f f ic i en tly . L ittl e o r no r ela t ion sh ip ex is ts betw e en

pric e and F edera l grade , pr ic e and p ro te in con tent ,

o r betw een pr ice and

any o f the f ac to rs o f cu tt ing ,s easona l ity , quan t ity o f hay so ld ,

and typ e

o f buyer . A l thou gh in gen era l ,average p r ic es f o r U . S . No . 1 al f al f a hay

exc e eded the pr ic es f o r U . S . No . 2, U . S . No . 3 ,

or Samp l e grade a l f al f a ,

the dif f eren c es w ere l es s than exp ec ted . In Wa sh ington State ,one lo t o f

U . S . NO . 1 a l f a l f a so ld f o r $ 18 per ton wh i l e U . S . NO . 2 a l f a l f a so ld f o r

as h igh a s $ 28 p er ton . A l so ,in Nevada the av erage p r ic e o f U . S . NO . 2

a l f a l f a exc eeded the pr i c e o f U . S . No . 1 al f a l f a .

G . Inf ormation and Outlook

1 . New Grain Market News Study in Missour i .

In cooperat ion w ith the Un iver s i ty o f M i ssour i a rev iew was made o f all

marke t ing in f ormat ion serv ice s prov ided by State and Federal governmentsin the State . The se serv ice s were identi f ied as to type and kind ; and the

pub l icat ion to be issued indicate s source s o f e ach data ser ie s and the kindso f in f ormat ion wh ich e ach ser ie s pre sents so f armer s w i l l be ab le to

qu ick ly ascerta in what the lo ca l pr ice , qua l ity ,and product movement

s ituat ion s are f or le ading Missour i commodit ie s .

The USDA cooperated w ith the M issour i Depar tment o f Agr icu lture in e stab

lishing an exper imenta l grain marke t news serv ice . Th is service reported

current transact ions on inter ior gra in marke ts .

A mai l survey o f Missour i f armer s and marke t ing f irms re ce iv ing th isreport showed th is service was providng local pr ice and gra in movementin f ormat ion not e l sewhere avai lab le . Be cau se o f the f avorable re cept iono f th is reporting service , M issour i Depar tment o f Agr icu lture w i l l cont inueth is serv ice .

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Waananen , M . V . Seuf f erle , R . C . September

price - qual ity re lationships in the Western re ion Washington Agricul tural Experiment Station Bul

CONSUMER PREFERENCE AND QUALITY DISCR IMINATION

Standards Research . Division , SRS

Prob lem . With the increasing comp lexity of marketing channe ls and

methods , it has become almost impossib le f or the consumer to

express to producers either his p leasure or disp leasure with avai lab lemerchandise . In order to market agricultura l products more ef f iciently,we need to understand existing household , institutiona l , and industria lmarkets and the reasons behind consumers ' dec isions to purchase or not

to purchase . Inf ormation is needed on pref erences , levels of inf ormation or misinf ormation , and satisf actions or dis l ikes of both present

and potentia l consumers . we also need to know consumer attitudes toward

the O ld and new product f orms of agricultura l commodities and theircompetitors , and probab le trends in the consumption of f arm. products .

we need to know the relat ionship between agricu ltura l and nonagricul

tura l products and the re lationship of one agricultural commodity to

another in consumers '

patterns of use . Producer and industry groups

and marketing agencies cons ider th is inf ormation essential in p lanningprograms to maintain and expand markets f or agricultura l commoditieswhich , in turn , increase returns to growers .

The Specia l Surveys Branch of the Standards and Research. Division con

ducts app l ied research on representative samp les of industrial, institutional , or househo ld consumers and potential consumers , in loca l ,regiona l , or national. marketing areas . Such research may be conductedto determine : Attitudes , pref erences , buying practices, and use habits'

with respect to various agricultura l commodities and the ir specif icattributes; the ro le of competitive products, and acceptance of new or

improved products .

The Specia l Surveys Branch also conducts laboratory and f ie ld experi

ments in sensory discrimination of dif f erent qua lities of a product .

These studies ordinarily relate discrimination to pref erences and

attitudes as they inf luence purchases in order to assess the standards

of qua l ity , packaging , etc . ,which are needed to satisfy consumer

In addit ion to surveys of consumer pref erences and discrimination, theSpecia l Surveys Branch a lso provides consultants and conducts Spec ialstudies , upon request , f or other agencies within the Department of

Agriculture or within the Federa l Government , when survey methods can

be usef ul ly app l ied to the evaluation of programs , services, or regu

latory procedures of interest to the requesting agencies .

- 3s7

The work of the Branch is carried out in cooperation with other Federa lgovernmenta l agencies , divisions within the Department of Agriculture ,State Experiment Stations , Departments of Agriculture , and land grant

co l leges, agr icultura l producer , processor , and distributor groups .

C losely supervised contracts with . private research f irms are used f or

nationwide surveys ; studies in selected areas are usually conducted bythe Wash ington staf f , with the assistance of locally recruited personne l .

The Branch. maintains all of its research scientists, who are trainedin socia l psycho logy and other socia l sciences , in wash ington , D . C. ,

which is headquarters f or all of the survey work whether it is con

ducted under contract or direct ly by the Branch .

werk on consumer pre f erence f or wheat products involved C. l Federalprof essiona l man -years .

REPORT OF PROGRESS FOR USDA AND COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS

test to determine consumer acceptance of a new canned f orm of cooked wholewheat (bulgur ) , developed by the western Util ization Research and

Deve lopment Division of the Agricultural Research Service , was pub l ishedin December 1962 . This test, detai ls of wh ich were discussed in a

previous progress report , was conducted in Wich ita, Kansas , in cooperation with Economic Research Service and. the Kansas Wheat Commission .

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESULTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Onstott , H . D . and Ho llon , D . S . 1962 . Redi Wheat A New CannedCooked Bulgur . Marketing Research Report NO . 574 .

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~359~

B . Situation and Outlook Analysis

1 . Food Grains . In the 1963 - 64 marketing year , the supply of wheat

continued the dec l ine of the last several years . Th is resulted f rom both

spec ial domestic programs to restrict production and intens if ied pro

gramming under Food f or Peace and simi lar export programs . Carryoverstocks are expected to be reduced at the end of the season f or the th irdconsecutive time . Prices in 1963 - 64 are expe cted to average near the

price support loan rate as they have in recent years . However , towards

the end of the current marketing year , the approaching l96h crop and its

much lower price support rate wi ll have a pronounced ef f ect on the wheat

e conomy .

Supp l ies of rice continued heavy with large crops in both 19 62 and 1963o f f setting smaller beginning stocks . As in the case of wheat , a h ighleve l of exports under Food f or Peace programs have prevented anyappreciab le increase in carryover . Prices were above support in 1962 - 63although they were somewhat be low the high price rece ived the previousyear . In 1963 - 64 prices wil l probab ly continue to average above the

support leve l .

During the past year spe cial attention was given to analysis of the

wheat certif icate program and alternatives to th is program . The conceptof the certif icate program was a sharp departure f rom that of previouswheat programs and many new prob lems were encountered . As a result, a

considerab le amount of detai led analysis was necessary . Much of this work

A5 Economic Analysis .

An artic le pub l ished in the Apri l 1963 issue of th eVWheat Situationdealt with prote in premiums f or wheat , and indicated that the variationin prices f or dif f erent prote ins was re lated to both the absolute and

re lative quantities availab le . Additional attention was given to rye

in 1962 - 63 . S ituation and outlook reporting on th is crop was expanded ,with additional attention to the impact o f wor ld supply and demand on

the rye s ituation in the United States . Several spec ial analyses were

prepared of existing or proposed Government programs or actions on f ood

grains . Long- run pro jections ( 5 years ) were deve loped as part of a set

of ERS pro jections f or the economy as a who le .

2 . Feed Grains . Carryover of f eed grain was reduced ll. million tons in

1962 - 63 , as acreage was down . Th i s brought stocks down about 2h mi ll iontons in the past two years , f o llowing a steady increase dur ing the pre

ceding decade . About 25 mil l ion acres were diverted to soil conservinguse under the Feed Grain Programs in 1961 and 28 mi l lion acres in 1962 .

A lso , domestic and export demand continued strong and tota l disappearanceof feed grains rose to record leve ls in the 2 years . In 1963 , participationin the Program. was a l ittle greater than in 1962 , but f armers diverted a

smaller percentage of the base acreage and total f eed grain acreage rose

about 3 percent . A lthough production is a l ittle above last year , it

probab ly wil l f all short o f total uti l ization, and a f urther dec l ine in

stocks is in prospect f or 1963 - 6h .

Because of the ir importance in the f eed supply- uti l ization balance , majoremphasis in the past year has been on analysis of the Feed Grain Programs

in operation , and proposed alternative programs . Results of studies of

Programs f or 1961 , 1962 , and 1963 have been summarized in the Feed

Situation and other reports . Trends in f eed grain production , consumption ,prices , and price re lationships were analyzed and results presented

graph ical ly in the November , 1962 , issue of the Feed Situation . Feed

grain prices proved low in recent years in re lation to both l ivestockproducts and other inputs in livestock production . Low f eed prices were

accompanied by a substantial increase in the rate of f eeding per anima lunit f rom. l956 to 1960 , then re lative stability in the rate . During1962 - 63 prices O f f eed grains rose in re lation to l ivestock , and f eedingratios are generally less f avorab le than during the period 1958- 61 .

Spec ial studies were prepared on longer term. trends and seasonal variationin suppl ies , consumption , and prices of f ish. meal and alf alf a meal . These

revealed upward trends in recent years in both supp l ies of and demand f or

these spe c ial ized f eeds . They also showed pronounced seasonal variationin production and more moderate seasonal variation in prices . High - prote inf eeds continued to rece ive spec ial attention as strong domestic and

f ore ign demand pushed soybean prices to the highest leve l since 1953 - Sh

despite increasing suppl ies . In connection with a set of ERS pro jectionsf or major commodities , analyses were made of probab le trends in f eed

grain supply, uti l ization , price s , and cash rece ipts (the next 5 years )under two type s of programs and under f ree market

" conditions . The

study indicates that under f ree market" conditions prices would dec line

materially f rom present l eve ls to move the larger f eed grain productioninto consumption .

PUBLICATIONS REPORTING RESUDTS OF USDA AND COOPERATIVE RESEARCH

Wheat and Rice

Askew,w. R . November 1962 . A look at the current wheat program .

Agricultural S ituation .

Askew ,W . R . Apri l 1963 , An ana lysis of protein premiums . Wheat

Situation .

Askew , w. R . April 1963 . Exports of rye to set record . AgriculturalSituation .

Askew,W . R . The Wheat Situation , Pub lished 5 times a year . ERS , USDA ,

washington , D . C .

Askew , W. R . Rice Situation . Pub l ished once a year . ERS , USDA ,washington , D . C .

Grain and Feed Statistics . July 1963 . Supp lement f or 1962 . StatisticalBu l letin No . 159 .

Feed

Clough , .Malcolm . May 1963 . Farmers to divert 26 mi l l ion acres f rom f eed

grains . Agricultural S ituation .

Clough , Malcolms June 1963 . Heavy use of corn is reducing stocks .

.Agricultural Situation .

Clough, Mal co lm . Feed grain situation and outlook f or 1963 - 6h, (mime o

graphed ) . Presented at the Great P lains and Western Out look Conf erenceat Laramie , wyoming, and the Midwest Regiona l Outlook Conf erence at

Peoria , I l l ino is .

C lough , Malco lm. Feed Situation . Pub l ished 5 times a year . ERS , USDA ,wash ington , D . C .

Ross , J . S . February 1963 . Fish meal supply and price trends . Feed

Situation .

Ross , J . S . .August 1963 . Recent trends and seasonal ity in alf alf a meal

production , use and prices . Feed Situation .

Grain and Feed Statistics . July 1963 . Supp lement f or 1962 , StatisticalBul letin No . 159 .

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