Curriculum Theory

Curriculum and Curriculum Development

Curriculum and Curriculum Development

Definition

The word curriculum was derived from Latin word ‘currere’ which means to run which wasused to describe the process of running courses in schools, from nursery to university.

Curriculum development

Curriculum development is defined as the process of selecting, organizing, executing, and evaluating learning experiences on the basis of the needs, abilities and interests of the learners andnature of the society or community.

Curriculum development describes all the ways in which training or teaching organization plans and guides learning. This learning can take place in groups or

with individual learners. It can take placein groups or with individual learners. It can take place inside or outside a classroom. It can take place in an institutional setting like a school, college or training center, or in a villageor a field.

Curriculum development is a continuously changing process, which is relevant to the situation where it takes place and flexible, so it can be adopted over time.

Curriculum may refer to a plan for educating youth or a field of study. The idea that curriculum is a field of study implies that curriculum is an aspect of knowledge which has developed into a discipline area of study.

The purpose of curriculum as a field of study is to advance knowledge about curriculums

Whatever is included in the field of study must be defended on the basis purpose.

It is a conventional for students of curriculum to study social and psychological foundations of education

They study and analyze the past experiencesin curriculum affairs. Established relationships among such studies and basic ideas of curriculum design and engineering give added theoretical strength to curriculum as a field of study

Traditionally, the school curriculum uphelda relatively standardized ground i.e. a course of subjects covered by students in their move towards the finish line i.e. certificate, diploma or degree

The early usage of the concept of curriculum has been changing with time, rising controversies among educationists about its precise meaning.

The word has passed into a common usage whereby ordinary people think of it as a course of study i.e. syllabus or collectionof syllabi containing the body of subject matter officially taught in schools.

Others see it as items of knowledge to be covered or content or organization of teaching learning or method of teaching or timetable.

However the Dictionary of Education (1959) provided the following definitions:

1. A systematic group of courses or sequences of subjects required for graduation or certification in a major field of study e.g. Social Studies curriculum, Physical Education curriculum etc

2. A general overall plan of content orspecific materials of instruction that the school should offer the student by way qualifying him for graduation or

certification or entrance into a professional or vocational field

3. A group of courses and planned experiences which a student has under the guidance of the school or college

The word curriculum is very broad to the extent that there is no precise definition today. However different definitions have been given by various scholars as follows:

i. Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcome i.e. it is adeclaration of intent or what outcome are expected after a learner has passed through a learning experiences

ii. Curriculum is the sum total of all theexperiences an individual passes through from birth to dearth

iii. Curriculum is a document which contains ingredients basically plannedfor the education of students during their enrolment in a given school. It is the overall plan that is intended

to be used by teachers for developing teaching strategies

iv. It is that the student learns as a consequence of all the forces which are brought to bear on the education system

v. Curriculum is the sum total of all experiences a student undergoes under the guidance of the school

vi. Curriculum is really the entire program of the school work. It the essential means of education. It is everything that the students and theirteachers do. This has two parts in nature: a) The part made up of the activities or the things done b) Thematerials with which they are done

vii. Curriculum refers to decisions aboutthe educational experiences of students

viii. Curriculum is a set of decisions about what outcome are desired for

students as a result of such experiences and the instructional activities likely to facilitate the achievement of these outcomes

ix. Curriculum is the process by which newideas are communicated to the members of a social system

Any of the curriculum definition should at least touch some aspects in these definitions

However in Tanzania context that adopted curriculum definition is as follows: ‘Curriculum is a written instructional plandepicting the scope and arrangement of projected educational or training program’

The curriculum is constituted of:

a) A statement of intention i.e. the rationale for the use of the document asa guide on planning instructional strategies

b) Statement outlining the goals and objectives of a particular subject or course to the intended audiences and duration

c) A body of cultural capital i.e. content areas that have potential for the realization of the goals and objectives of the course of study

d) A statement of evaluation scheme fordetermining the work and effectiveness of the educational or training program

Various scholars attempted to define curriculum as follow:Doll: Sees curriculum as all experiences that learners have under the school supervision

Taylor: Look at curriculum as that which includes content, teaching methods, and purpose.According to him these three dimensions interacting are operational curriculum

Kerr: Perceives curriculum as all the learning which is planned or guided by the school,

whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school

Tyler: Understands curriculum as all of the learning of students which is planned and directed by the school to attain its educationalgoals

Murray Print: summarizes the concept of curriculum as all planned learning opportunitiesoffered by the organization to learners and experiences learners encounter when the curriculum is implemented. This includes those activities the educators have devised for the learners which are presented in form of written document.

According to him there are difference between curriculum and syllabus. That is, a syllabus forms part of the overall curriculum and tend tobe a list of content areas which will be assessed. Curriculum on the other hand, when looked at broad level, it is determined is determined by educational institution

In all given definitions, there are common elements, that is, curriculum involves all the learning which is carefully planned.

So curriculum has the following elements:

1. Subject matter which provides knowledge2. Learners experiences3. Desired outcomes in school and out of school institution

The scholars, however shared the common view that curriculum depicts subject matter or body of content to be taught to students. The limitation of this approach is that if the curriculum is overcrowded with content, teachingsessions my focus primarily on getting through the material set down in the curriculum rather than focusing on how to help the students learn the material

Characteristics of Curriculum:

Curriculum has the following basic characteristics in which it can be looked at:

1. Experience: Here curriculum is seen as a set of planned learning experiencesencountered by students.

In a class setting it includes a wide range of activities, such as experiments, role-plays and simulations etc.Learning experiences can be reflected inways communication channels and modes, learning activities, and sources come together to best support the end goals and outcome and how these channels and activities may evolve (progress) over time. (Gallagher, 2011)

2. Intention: Here curriculum is seen as a predetermined aims, goals, and objectives describing what students should learn.This may include statements of the anticipated learning outcomes or behaviors

3. A process of providing personal meaning to learners: The emphasis given here is personal growth and self-actualization through experiential learning. Self-actualization as a goal

of a curriculum means the school experience should be such that each individual has the freedom and opportunity to aspire to what he or she dreams of becoming" (Ellis, 2004)

4. Content: This refers to the topics and subject matter to be taught in different courses

5. Cultural production: This refers to the transmission of the accepted knowledge, values, and behaviors of a discipline, professional or society to the succeeding generation.

Dimensions of curriculum

Kerr identified three dimensions of curriculum:

1. Formal dimension2. Non-formal dimension3. Informal dimension

Formal dimension: This refers to the prescribed subjects and course offered at various levels. This is official or mandated curriculum which combines all learning activities that learners undertakeformally in a class or outside the class. These activities are normally manifested inthe courses of study in a school.

This is a highly structured curriculum

Non-formal dimension: This dimension is sometime known as the co-curriculum.

It includes out of class activities or programs which student take part at school either in or outside the class.

These include activities such as games, sports, hobby clubs and societies that are promoted by the educational system

These are semi-structured compared to the rigid characteristics of formal learning activities.

Informal dimension: This dimension is sometimes known as the hidden curriculum

This basically embraces norms, values and behaviors which are enhanced in school

Under this dimension students learn more orless by exposure. For instance by copying lifestyle of teachers and peers.TYPES OF CURRICULUM

1. Overt, Explicit or Written Curriculum: This is a curriculum that is written as part of formal instruction of schooling experience. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, filmsand supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the intended instructional agenda of the school. It is usually confined to those written understandingsand directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often collectively.

2. Societal Curriculum: refers to the massive, ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer group, neighborhoods, churches organizations, mass, media and other socializing forces that “educate” all of us throughout our lives.

3. The Hidden or Covert Curriculum: This is used to refer to the structure and nature of school, which refers the kinds and learning's ofchildren derive from the very nature and organizational design of the public school as well as the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators. Examples of the hidden curriculum include the messages and lesson derived from merely organization of schools suchas the emphasis on: * sequential room arrangements

* time segment of formal instruction

* discipline messages

*continually quietness

* student standing on line when getting services

* student remain quiet and raising hand to be Called

* endless competition for grades

The hidden curriculum may include both positive and negative messages depend on the models

provided and the perspective of the learner or the observer

4. The Null Curriculum: refers to what the schools do not teach, thus giving students the message that these elements are not important intheir educational experiences or in their society.

What is advocated there is that schools have consequences, not only by virtue of what they donot teach but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach. Examples of exclusion in lowerlevel of education i.e. primary and secondary include economics, law, psychology, anthropologyetc.

The null curriculum involves exclusion of a complete subject, or topics or skip of some topics during instruction or putting little emphasis. E.g. in a subject like History a topicon the History of Science can be excluded.

Eisner (1994) considers the null curriculum as simply that which is not taught in schools.

Somehow, somewhere, same people are empowered tomake conscious decision as to what is to be excluded from the overt curriculum.

Since it is impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be excluded from the written curriculum.

In that case, Eisner takes it that the null curriculum, which excludes certain subjects or topics from the curriculum, send the message to the students that certain content and processes are not important enough to study.

Unconsciously, school personnel send this same type of message via the hidden curriculum.

5. Phantom Curriculum: This refers to the messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These components and messagesplay a major part in the enculturation of students into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or generational subcultures.

6. Concomitant Curriculum: This is what is taught or emphasized at home or those experiences or related experiences sanctioned bythe family.

This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious expression, lessons values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.

7. Rhetorical Curriculum: This refers to ideas offered by policy makers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This curriculum may also came from those professional involved in concept formulation and content changes; or those educational initiatives resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches or text critiquing outdated educational practices.

The rhetorical curriculum may also come from thepublicized works offering updates in pedagogicalknowledge

8. Curriculum-in-use: This refers to the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher. It is a formal curriculum (writtenor overt) comprises those things in textbooks, and content and concepts in the curriculum guide

9. Received Curriculum: This refers to those things that students actually take out of classroom; those concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered.

10. The Internal Curriculum: Refers to those processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of the learners to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little

control over the internal curriculum since it isunique to each student.

11. The Electronic Curriculum: Refers to those lessons learned through searching the internet for information, or through using e-forms of communication.

This type of curriculum may either be formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on one’s views.

Students who use the internet on regular basis are challenged with all types of media and messages. Examples of internet media, services and activities include blogs, wikis, chartrooms,listserves, instant messages or online conversations through personal email and sites like facebook MySpace, You tube, twitter, etc, and from personal online research.

Much of this information may be factual correct,informative or even entertaining or inspirational but other information may very incorrect, outdated, biased, perverse or manipulative.

The implication of the curriculum for educational practices is that part of overt curriculum. This needs to include lessons on howto be wise consumers of information, how to

critically appraise the accuracy and correctnessof the e-information as well as the reliability of electronic sources.

Also students need to learn how to be artfully discerning about the usefulness and appropriateness of certain types of information.

Like any other forms of social interaction students need to know that there are inherent lessons to be learned about appropriate and acceptable online behavior to include the difference between fair usage and pragarism

Curriculum Planning

Curriculum planning deals with a number ofreality-oriented statements concerning withthe questions such as:

* What should be taught?

* How should it be taught?

* To what segment of population?

*What should be the relationship betweenthe various components of curriculum?

It is assumed that curriculum planningwould enable the resolution of thesecomplex questions and to develop a workablecurriculum.

The curriculum development andimplementation involve devising curriculummaterial and trying them out, deployingmanpower, resources and time.

Contextual issues involved curriculumdevelopment is divided into fourcategories:

1. Political and economic2. Social3. Material4. The administrative and historicalissues

5. Ideological issues

There is a direct relationship betweenthese categories and curriculum development

Without these categories curriculumdevelopments become impotent.

The planning or building up of curriculumis a process which consists of thefollowing phases:

a. The selections of aims, goals andspecific objectives

b. The selection of learningexperienced calculated to help in theattainment of the aims, goals andspecific objectives

c. The selection of content (subjectmatter) through which certain type ofexperience may be offered

d. The organization and integration oflearning experiences and content withinthe teaching-learning process

e. Evaluation of the effectiveness ofall aspects in phases , a selection oflearning experiences, selection ofcontent and organization and integrationof learning experiences

Curriculum development definition entailsall activities which lead to the creationand maintenance of all components of acurriculum such as

Situational analysis Curriculum planning Curriculum implementation Curriculum evaluation Curriculum system restructuring/review

The importance of curriculum is to help andguide educators or trainers to keep withrelevant culture and provide the necessarymotivation to the learner.

It helps the education system to maintain acommon standard for learning and evaluation

The learners are exposed to the samelearning surroundings and instructionalobjectives, hence subjected to the sameassessment based on latter precondition formaintaining standards.

Through curriculum implementation thelearner is influenced or changed.

Curriculum Theory

Meaning and Importance of curriculum Theory

Theory: refers to statement which explainssome series of events covering a givensubject matter, from which a compressiveand consistent set of specific and testablehypothesis can be deduced (figured out)logically.

Such a statement can be expressed in theform of statements of facts, definitions,postulates (assumed to be true),hypothesis, deductions (conclusion reachedby reasoning) assumptions, generalizations,laws and axioms (statements accepted astrue) or theorem.

A theory attempts to explain why somethinghappens, helps

us make sense of many interrelatedphenomena and predict

behavior or attitudes that are likely tooccur when certain conditions are met.Examples of social theories are structural

functionalism, conflict theory and symbolicinteractionism

Characteristics of a good theory

1. Predictive Accuracy-can it reliablypredict behavior?

2. Internal Coherence-are there anylogical inconsistencies

between any of the theoreticalideas?

3. Fertility-Does it generate researchand can it be used to

explain a wide variety of socialbehavior?

Curriculum theory attempts to focus anattention on all that are involved ineducation.

Except in the most obvious and routinematters, knowledge is never final but it istreated as tentative.

Practical decisions are made according tothe test of the available evidence, pendingthe emergence of yet better evidence.

Branches of Curriculum Theory

1. Formal curriculum theory-Thisattempts to categorize knowledge intofamilies of concepts, disciplines,subjects, realms etc. It deals withformal curriculum

2. Curriculum valuation theory-Thisdeals with speculation about the goalsor objectives of the curriculum

3. Curriculum practice theory-Thisinvolve the elaboration of criteria for

the efficient functioning of thecurriculum.o It explains issues as design,validity, authenticity,significance, utility, learnabilityand consistency in relation tocurriculum

o It focuses on the instructionalsystem, for instance, the methodsappropriate for achieving curriculumgoals

The combination of the three curriculumtheories gives what is refers to asCurriculum grand view

Event curriculum theory: this denoted thesorting out and characterizing the eventsand relating them.

It is concerned more about the theory ofinstruction

The contemporary definition of curriculumtheory is a follows: is a set of relatedstatements that give meaning to the curriculum bypointing out the relationships among its elements andby directing its planning, its use (i.e. implementation)and its evaluation.

Importance of curriculum theory

The importance or significance is that itis essential for the development ofknowledge as oppose to other notions, whichhave no structured elements e.g. point ofview, attitude or opinion.

A theory helps in data analysis, making ashorthand summary (synopsis) of data andrelations and in suggesting or speculatingnew things to be tried out.

Thus, theory is a device for interpreting;criticizing and unifying established lawsby molding them to fit data.

Importance of curriculum theory

a. Describes, predicts, and explainscurriculum issues in the operationalways

b. Synchronizes relations amongcurriculum issues in the curriculumdevelopment

c. Suggests new curriculum issues fortrying out

d. Discover new and more powerfulgeneralization in curriculum planning

e. Logical deduce specific and testablehypotheses for research in curriculumissues

f. Classifies existing and newknowledge

g. Develops and use curriculum models h. Sort out and characterize events ofcurriculum

Problems of curriculum theory

The main issues and problems concerned withcurriculum theory are categorized into sixaspects:

1. Curriculum definition2. Source of curriculum decisions3. Issues and problems of curriculumdesigns

4. Issues and problems in curriculumobjectives

5. Issues and problems concernedcurriculum engineering

6. Curriculum theory implications withrespect to emergent curriculum issuesand problems

How each of these issues and problems arereflected in curriculum theory

Curriculum definition

There is specific need to define the rangeof meaning about what the ingredients of acurriculum should be.

The definition must answer the followingbasic questions:

1. Is curriculum a concept unique toschooling?

2. Does a curriculum includeinstruction or teaching?

3. To what extent are students’learning parts of curriculum?

4. What are the total scopes of acurriculum as a discipline of study?

5. Should a curriculum contain a set ofbehavioral or other kind of objectives?

6. Should a curriculum containrecommended content that may be used toachieve the objectives?

7. Should a curriculum includeinstructional material?

Source of curriculum decisions

There is disagreement between curriculumtheoreticians and practitioners on severalsources of curriculum decisions e.g. earlycurriculum scholars advocated the adultsurvey and job analysis as the principalbases for determining curriculum content,while others contended that man’saccumulated culture should be therecognized source.

Most curriculum theoreticians andpractitioners today insists that bothsociety culture and the learner should beconsidered as relevant sources ofcurriculum decisions

A number of theoreticians and practitionershave different views on curriculum decisionmaking

Some scholars believe that past experiencesin curriculum affairs serve as the basisfor curriculum decision making. For them,parents and teachers groups’ experiencesare vital source of curriculum decisions

Other scholars the social-politicalauthority as a source of curriculumdecisions because these are the onesinvolved in determining the nationaldevelopment policies.

Utility has also been considered as avaluable source of curriculum decisionsthrough judgment of the success of studentsin learning school objectives.

Any change in curriculum content shouldtherefore be judged with attention directedat whether the students learned morebecause of the curriculum change.

It is impossible to make curriculum whichcontains all cultural elements, socurriculum planning is the selection ofcontent from the total culture of which areof most value.

Curriculum design issues and problems

Some issues on curriculum design are notclear e.g. issues involve whether acurriculum should be a written document ornot. Contemporary specialists advocate thatcurriculum should be expressed in a writtenform, while others feel that commitment inwriting is itself restrictive to teachersin planning for teaching

There are issues on to whether curriculumshould be for a particular level e.g.primary school, secondary O-level or A-level and whether it should include allsubjects so that a total conception of aneducational plan is expressed.

Some people argue that curriculum should beonly a set of intended learning outcomes,whether stated behaviorally or not.

Issues and problems in curriculumobjectives

There is considerable agreement among curriculum scholars regarding the nature ofobjectives.

Current curriculum theory views the ends sought as desired changes in the behavior of learners, “behavior” being used in the broad sense to include thinking, feeling, and acting.

The aim of the school curriculum is to develop in learners those reaction patternsthat are of greatest significance.

However, there are, varying conceptions of what reaction patterns are of greatest significance, but the nature of educationalobjectives as changes in learner behavior is a common concept of curriculum theories.

Furthermore, there are several well-definedtechniques for approaching the problem of objectives, each of which has some theoretical explanation and support. For example, one approach upon objectives is to

analyze the activities, interests, problems, and deficiencies of the learners to identify learner needs that might serve as the bases for the educational objectives.

Another is to analyze contemporary society— its problems and the activities and difficulties of adults in society-to identify social demands and needs that imply educational goals.

The various techniques that have been developed for approaching the problem of objectives are not mutually consistent, norare they altogether adequate; but theory isevolving to provide a more coherent guide for action in dealing with problems of thistype.

The approach upon curriculum objectives hasbeen given most attention in curriculum theory.

The problem of selecting and designing learning experiences to attain the desired objectives has been given muchless attention in its theoretical aspects, but theories of learning have contributed greatly to our concepts in this field. For example, the associationist theory of learning, with its emphasis upon exercise and effect, has played a large part in the planning of many curriculums. This theory places emphasis upon learning experiences in which the learners practice the behaviordesired as the objective and in which the pupils derive satisfaction from these experiences.

On the other hand, dynamic theories of learning are also guiding many current curriculum developments. These theories stress learning experiences which involve goals already recognized by the learners and which provide opportunity for the

learners to attain the goals or to move toward their attainment.

Issues in Curriculum engineering

The major issue in curriculum engineering has to do with who will be involved in curriculum planning

Some propose that teachers should be the dominant group involved

Some suggest specialists in the subject or discipline areas should do the job

There are also confusion between involvement in planning and enrolment in implementation of the curriculum once it isplanned

The involvement of ordinary citizens is both proposed and opposed

Curriculum theory implications regardingthe emergent curriculum issues andproblems

Many of the emergent issues and problemswarrant the following generalization:

1. Any curriculum theory should beginby defining its set of events

2. It should make clear its acceptedvalues and sources for decisions

3. Should specify the characteristicsof curriculum design

4. Should describe he essential processfor making curriculum andinterrelationship among these processes

5. Should provide continuousregeneration of curriculum decisions

Curriculum Components

Curriculum consists of five widely agreedupon components. These are:

1. Curriculum goals and instructionalobjectives

2. Curriculum content3. Teaching and learning methods andstrategies

4. Teaching and learning material5. Curriculum evaluation

Each of these components gives form andsubstance to syllabi, teacher’s guide,pupil/student textbooks and supplementarymaterial

The mentioned components are interdependentin a manner similar to the system orcomponent affects the structure andfunctioning of others.

They all must be well coordinated for theorganism to live or for the educationalsystem to operate and develop.

Yet, they may be separated for the purposeof description and study.

Curriculum goals and instructionalobjectives

Curriculum is as broad as education and aslarge as life itself.

Thus, one has to go beyond the confines ofthe school or college when consideringquestions of goals and instructionalobjectives.

Meaning of curriculum goals

Curriculum goals are purposes or endsstated in a general terms without criteriaof achievements.

They are statements of intents which tendto define in abroad and general terms, what

the educational system of a given countryshould strive to inculcate in its citizens.

These goals usually refer to outcomesspecified at the individual school orcollege level, but usually they reflect thegoals of the general school or collegesystem.

They may vary according to their degree ofspecificity, but in general they will tendto be long-range in nature, and as targetsthat is differentiated from what usually isconsidered to be immediate classroomassessment.

Some educators refer to curriculum goals asgeneral objectives or general aims in thesense that they focus on activities and aregenerally broader in character thanspecific objectives.

Curriculum goals do not specify thecriteria of accomplishment at any level oflearning e.g.

1. Students shall acquire……………

2. Students will achieve………………..

Characteristics of curriculum goals

1. They relate to educational aims andphilosophy

2. They are pragmatic. That is to say,although they speak to one or more areasof the curriculum, they do not refer tospecific courses or specific items ofcontent.

3. They refer to the accomplishment ofa group, for instance, all students ingeneral, rather than the achievements ofan individual student

4. They are always stated in generalterms that provide directions forcurriculum development

5. They are broad enough to lead tospecific objectives

Different between broad and specificcurriculum goals

Broad curriculum goals are statements ofintent which indicate in broad terms, whatthe educational system of a country shouldstrive to inculcate to its citizens

While specific curriculum goals are thestatements of intent which direct theintended educational outcome according toeducation levels

Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived fromcurriculum goals and are defined aspurposes or ends stated in specificmeasurable term.

People who plan curriculum wish students toachieve certain behavior, knowledge andskills after going through a section orwhole program.

Curriculum objectives provide opportunitiesfor evaluating students’ achievements.

Importance of objectives

1. They provide decision about theselection of content and learningexperiences and also providing criteriaon what to teach and how to teach it.

2. A clear statement of objectives helpto select from vast areas of knowledgein the various discipline which isnecessary for valid outcome

3. Objectives serve to clarify thetypes of power, mental or anything whichneeded to be developed

4. They provide a common and consistentfocus for the many activities that gointo the curriculum

5. They serve as guider for evaluation

Instructional Goals

An instructional goal is defined as astatement of the performance expected ofall students in a class, stated in generalterms without any criteria of achievement

Sometimes the term instructional goal isused to refer to the general objective,e.g.

1. The students will show understandingof the causes of inflation

2. The students will demonstrate anunderstanding of works of judiciary

3. The student will develop knowledgeon how to develop simple machines

4. The students will develop ability touse correct grammar in speaking

Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statementof performance to be demonstrated by eachstudent in the class, derived from theinstructional goals, stated in measurableand observable term.

These are the intended changes expected tobe brought about in a learner.

Instructional objectives must be ‘SMART’

S-Specific

M-Measurable

A-Attainable

R-Realistic

T-Time-bound

Teachers are always encouraged to stateinstructional objectives (specificobjectives) whenever they plan a lessone.g.

1. The student will be able to identifyand name eighty types of speech

2. The student will be able to identifyand write correctly the nouns, verbs,

adjectives and adverbs in a givenEnglish passage

3. By the end of the lesson everystudent should be able to name mainsource of local government revenue

Characteristics of good instructionalobjectives

1. They should be related to theobjectives of the program

2. They should be clearly stated3. They should be appropriate for andattainable by the pupils/students at theparticular level of education and stageof mental development

4. They should be important enough toencourage further learning by thepupils/students in the next level ofcourse or in related subject area

Advantage of instructional objectives

1. They force the teacher to be preciseabout what to accomplish

2. They enable the teacher tocommunicate to pupils/students what theymust achieve

3. They make evaluation procedures easy4. They make accountability possible5. They facilitate sequencing

Guideline for writing objectives

All instructional objectives should relateto the existing curriculum goals orobjectives

The goals and objectives contained inschool syllabuses for every subject shouldhelp the teacher to select and write goodinstructional objectives

Domains of Learning

It is recommended that instructional goalsand objectives be stated within the threedomains of learning which are

1. The cognitive domain2. The affective domain3. The psychomotor domain

However it does not mean that allobjectives and goals will specify the threedomains.

Cognitive domain: defined as thoseobjectives and goals that deal with therecall or recognition of knowledge and thedevelopment of intellectual ability andskills

Affective domain: Defined as thoseobjectives that include emphasis onfeeling, tone, emotion, acceptance orrejection.

In other words, change in interests,attitudes, and values and the developmentof appreciation

Psychomotor domain: This include behaviorthat emphasizes physical or muscular skillsor body movement or performance

Taxonomic Level

Taxonomies of educational objectives wereintroduced for the first time by anAmerican educationist Benjamin Bloom.

In his book Taxonomy of Educational Objectives(1956) he identified and defined threelevels of taxonomy:

1. Cognitive domain: Bloom and hisassociates developed a taxonomy forclassifying educational objectives incognitive domain in various level asfollows:

i. Knowledge level: Objective at knowledgelevel requires the students to rememberor recall information such as facts,terminology, problem solving strategiesand rules. The terms or action verbsused are: define, describe, list, name,label, outline, recall, recite, state,select etc. E.g. the student will name thethree highest mountains in the world.

ii. Comprehension level: Objectives atthis level require some level ofunderstanding. Students are expectedto be able to change the form ofcommunication, translate, state whatbeen read, see connections orrelationships among parts of acommunication (interpretation) or drawconclusion or consequences from theinformation (inference). Action verbsthat describe learning outcome at thecomprehensive level are: comment,defend, distinguish, discriminate,estimate, explain, extend, generalize,

summarize, infer, paraphrase, predict,etc. E.g. the student will read ThingsFall Apart by Chinua Achebe andsummarize the main character from it.

iii. Application: Objectives written atthis level require the student to usepreviously acquired information insetting other than the one in which itwas learned. The difference ofapplication from compression is thathere the student can rely on neitherthe content nor context in whichoriginal learning occurred to solvethe problem. Some of the action verbthat describe learning outcomes at theapplication level are: change, modify,relate, compute, operate, demonstrate,solve, organize, transfer, develop,use prepare etc. E.g. the student willmodify the Present’s speech for‘Teacher’s Day’ celebration.

iv. Analysis: Objectives written at theanalysis level require the student to

identify logical error e.g. pointingout a contradiction or erroneousinference or different among facts andopinion, assumptions, hypothesis, andconclusion. At the analysis levelstudents are expected to drawrelationships among ideas and compareand contrast. Some action verbs usedto describe learning outcome at theanalysis level are: breakdown, deduce,diagram, differentiate, distinguish,illustrate, infer, outline, point out,relate, separate out , subdivide etc.e.g. The student will analyze thefunction of Local Government inTanzania

v. Synthesis: Objectives written at thesynthesis level require the student toproduce something unique or original.The student is expected to solve someunfamiliar problem in a unique way orto combine parts to form unique ornovel solution. Some action verbs that

describe learning outcomes at thesynthesis level are: categorize,compile, compose, create, design,devise, predict, produce, etc. E.g.the student will write a passage forindependence struggle in Tanzania.

vi. Evaluation: Objectives written in thislevel require the student to formjudgments and make decisions about thevalue or worth methods, ideas, peopleor products that have specificpurpose. The student is expected tostate the bases for their judgmentse.g. the external criteria orprinciples that were drawn upon toreach a conclusion. Some action verbsthat describe learning outcomes at theevaluation level include: appraise,compare, contrast, criticize, defend,justify, support, validate, judge etc.

Highest

Lowest

2. Affective Domain: Krathwohl, Bloomand Masia (1964) developed thetaxonomies of objectives in theaffective domain, whereby theycategorized them in five level whichare:

i. Receiving: objectives at the receivinglevel require the student to be awareof or to passively attend to certainphenomena and stimuli. At this levelthe student is expected to listen or

AnalysisSynthesis

Comprehension

Evaluation

Application

Knowledge

to be attentive. Some action verbsthat describe outcomes at thereceiving level are: listen, attend,share, notice, be aware, control,look, hear, discern etc. E.g. Thestudent will listen while a teacherexplain new points

ii. Responding: Objectives at the respondlevel require the student to complywith given expectations by attendingor reacting to certain stimuli.Student is expected to obey,participate or respond willingly whenasked or directed to do something.Some action verbs describe the outcomeat the responding level are: comply,follow, volunteer, discuss, practice,play, applaud, participate, obey etc.E.g. the student will answer the callto plant new tree in the schoolcompound.

iii. Valuing: Objectives at the valuinglevel require the student to display

behavior consistent with a singlebelief or attitude in a situationwhere he/she is not forced or asked tocomply. The student is expected todemonstrate a preference or display ahigh degree of certainty andconviction. Some action verbs thatdescribe outcomes at the valuing levelare: help, debate, argue, act,express, organize, prefer, convince,display etc. E.g. the student willexpress appreciation for thecontribution of other ethnic groups inthe development of his country.

iv. Organization: Objectives at theorganization level require acommitment to a set of values. Thislevel of affective domain involve bothforming a reason for why one valuescertain things and not others and alsoappropriate choices among things thatare and are not valued. The student isexpected to organize his/her likings

and preferences into a value systemand determine theirinterrelationships, and then to decidewhich ones will be dominant. Someaction verbs that describe outcomes atthe organization level are: select,compare, systematize, decide, balance,define, formulate, theorize, abstractetc. E.g. the student will choose goodeating habits from bad ones.

v. Characterization: Objectives at thecharacterization level require thatall the behaviors displayed by thestudent be consistent with his/hervalues. At this level the student hasnot only acquired the behaviors at allprevious levels but, in addition, hasintegrated his/her value into a systemrepresenting a complete andpersuasive philosophy which neverallows expressions that are out ofcharacter with these values.Evaluation at this level of behavior

involves the extent to which thestudent has developed a consistentphilosophy of life. E.g. exhibitsrespect for the worth and dignity ofhuman beings in any and allsituations. Some action verbs thatdescribe outcomes at this level are:display, required revise, avoid,manage, resolve, resist, internalize,exhibit etc. E.g. the student willexhibit a helping and caring attitudetowards handicapped students byassisting with their mobility both inand out of classroom.

Highest

AnalysisSynthesis

Responding

Application

Receiving

Lowest

3. Psychomotor domain-Armstrong and hisassociates defined psychomotor asneuromuscular of physical skills. Thisdomain has not been given muchprominence as cognitive domain. Thefollowing are components of the taxonomyof objectives in the psychomotor domain:

i. Imitation: Objectives in this levelrequire that the student be exposed toan observable action and then overtlyimitate the action, such as when aninstructor demonstrates the use of themicroscope by placing a slide on thespecimen tray. At this level thestudent is expected to observe and beable to repeat, although imperfectly,the action being visually

demonstrated. Some action verbs thatdescribe outcomes at this level are:repeat, place, align, hold, balanceetc. E.g. after being shown a safe methodfor heating a beaker of water to boilingtemperature, the student will be able to repeatthe action or after being shown a freehanddrawing of a parallelogram, the student will beable to reproduce the drawing

ii. Manipulation: Objective at this levelrequires the student to perform theselected action from written or verbaldirections without the aid of a visualmodel or direct observation as in theimitation level. The student isexpected to complete the action fromreading or listening to instructions,although the behavior may be performedcrudely without neuromuscularcoordination. The same action verbsas it is in the imitation can be usedto describe the outcome.

iii. Precision: Objectives at this levelrequire the student to perform anaction independent of either a visualmodel or a written set of directions.Accuracy, proportion, balance, andexactness in performance accompany theaction. Student is expected toreproduce the action with control andto reduce errors to the minimum levelthan in the previous levels.Expressions to describe outcome atthis level including performing thebehaviors e.g. accurately,independently, with control,proficiently, errorlessly, withbalance etc. E.g. the student will be ableto accurately place the specimen on themicroscope tray and use the high power focuswith proficiently, as determined by the correctidentification of three out of four easilyrecognized objects.

iv. Articulation level: Objectives at thislevel requires the student to display

the coordination of series of relatedacts by establishing the appropriatesequence and by performing the actsaccurately, with control as well aswith speed and timing. Expressionsthat describe outcomes at this includeperforming behavior with harmony,integration, speed, timing,smoothness, confidence, stability,proportions etc. E.g. the student will berequired to write the alphabet, displaying theappropriate proportion between upper andlower case in ten minutes.

v. Naturalization: Objectives at thislevel requires a high level ofproficiency in the skills onperformance being taught. At thislevel behavior is performed with theleast expenditure of energy and becomeroutine, automatic and spontaneous.The student is expected to repeat thebehavior naturally and effortlessly.Some expressions to describe this

level of behavior performance are:naturally, with easy, routinely,effortlessly, automatically, withpoise, spontaneously, with perfectionetc. E.g. by the end of term the student willbe able to write routinely all letters of thealphabet and all numbers up to 100 each timerequested.

Highest

Lowest

Curriculum Content

It is impossible for schools and collegesto teach everything. A selection is to be

Naturalizat

PrecisionManipulation

Imitation

Articulation

done from the vast store of knowledgepossessed by each nation and society.

A list of priority should be developed fromphilosophical, political, sociological,cultural and psychological considerations.Curriculum content must be based on theneeds of the learners, parents and thesociety

Meaning of curriculum content

The term curriculum content refers toparticular facts, ideas, principles, andproposed skills etc which are included incourse of study.

Any specific content items may servedifferent content items.

Source of curriculum content

Various educational theorists such asTyler, Kerr, Phenix, Wheeler, Taba, Smith

Burnet etc point out the major sources ofcurriculum content as follows:

1. Society and its needs2. Culture3. Philosophy of the nation4. The learners themselves5. Nature of the subject matter6. Educational authorities e.g. inTanzania the Ministry of Education

7. Researchers including academic andsocial-culture and politicalresearchers.

8. Political ideology of the country

Criteria for selecting curriculum content

1. Philosophical criteria: In selectingand organizing content, the knowledge tobe taught, the learners’ activities tobe fostered must decide:a. What knowledge is worthwhile to passon to the learners

b. What skills should be mastered bythe learners

c. What teaching and learning methodsshould be encouraged e.g. scientificmethods

Knowledge must be:

a. Meaningful to the learnerb. Relevant to the society in which thelearner will live

c. Structured into a pattern or systemd. Arranged into a sequence ofteaching-learning episodes

Bruner sees subject as having content and aform or structure. And insist that thecurriculum should be organized around thestructure, around the fundamental conceptsand relationships because:

a. Understanding fundamentals makes thesubject more comprehensive to thelearner

b. Organizing knowledge in terms ofprinciples and ideas facilitate memory

c. Mastery of the general principlesand ideas is helpful to transfer oflearning i.e. learning in some othercontext

Bruner argues that in teaching we must beconcerned with

1. The nature of subject to be learned2. The nature of the learning process3. The nature of the individualchildren

The task of teaching is to translate thebasic ideas of the subject i.e. itsstructure, into language appropriate to thelearner’s stage of development

Social-Cultural Criteria

a. A content selected into curriculummust be related to the relevant,contemporary issues of the society orculture, e.g. diseases, malnutrition,conservation of resources, multi-

cultural awareness, internationalunderstanding, gender relations,aesthetics etc.

b. Curriculum content should never bein conflict with socio-cultural values,attitudes or beliefs of the society.

Psychological Criteria

This relates to the needs and interestsof children, their physical development,the nature of learning process, methodsof teaching-learning etc. The differing,interests, aptitude, and capabilities ofchildren can be catered for by providing:

a. Variation in courses i.e. flexiblecurriculum

b. Variation in methods of teaching fordifferent learning rates

c. Variations in methods of teaching

Skilbeck’s criteria for selecting andorganizing curriculum content include:

I. Meaningfulness of the content to thelearner such that it connects withhis experience

II. Structurediness i.e. into a patternor system and not to be in a set ofseparate elements

III. Inviting i.e. so that the learneris stimulated to hard work

IV. Activity-based i.e. with thelearners themselves being involvedin the process of enquiry andcreativity, instead of being merelyspectators

Knowledge component of the curriculum mustbe organized so as to provide thefollowing:

1. Scope (opportunity to do or achievesomething)

2. Sequence (orderliness)3. Integration (continuation ofdifferent aspects to form a whole)

4. Validity (acceptance)

5. Significance (meaningfulness)6. Relevancy (connected with which isbeing discussed or happening)

7. Pattern (clearly arranged)8. Balance of breadth 9. Continuity10. Comprehensiveness11. Consistency with social reality