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Министерство образования и науки РФ

ФГБОУ ВПО «Братский государственный университет»

М. А. Мутовина

ЧТЕНИЕ, ПЕРЕВОД И ПИСЬМО

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ ЦЕЛЕЙ Учебное пособие по английскому языку

Рекомендовано Федеральным государственным бюджетным

образовательным учреждением высшего профессионального обра-зования «Московский государственный лингвистический универси-тет» в качестве учебного пособия для студентов и аспирантов, обучающихся по техническим специальностям и направлениям

Братск Издательство Братского государственного университета

2012

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УДК 811.111 ББК 81.2.Англ. Мутовина М.А. Reading, translating and writing for specific purposes : учеб. по-

собие. – Братск: Изд-во БрГУ, 2012. – 176 с. ISBN 978-5-8166-0338-6 Цель пособия – научить студентов читать английскую обще-

научную, общетехническую, отраслевую литературу, переводить ее, используя переводческие приемы, писать на английском языке, чтобы решать определенные академические или профессиональ-ные задачи.

Пособие снабжено грамматическими комментариями и упражнениями для повторения артикля, существительного, грамматических способов выражения подлежащего и сказуемого в составе предложения.

Предназначено для студентов и аспирантов, достигших сту-пени Intermediate или Advanced, а также для круга лиц, самостоя-тельно изучающих английский язык.

Рецензенты: кафедра англ. яз. Сибирско-американского

факультета менеджмента ИГУ (г. Иркутск); Е.В. Махоткина, канд. филол. наук (ИГЛУ, г. Иркутск).

ISBN 978-5-8166-0338-6

Мутовина М.А., 2012 ФГБОУ ВПО «БрГУ», 2012

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CONTENTS

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РАЗЪЯСНЕНИЯ

И РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ........................................................... 5 PART I: READING WITH THE PURPOSE..................................... 9

Section I: Discussing the Activities ......................................... 9 Section II: Extensive Reading ................................................. 18 Section III: Intensive Reading and Translating ........................ 29 Section IV: Vocabulary Study................................................. 27 Section V: Some Translation Techniques ................................ 30 Section VI: Translating and Writing Advertisements ............... 38

PART II: EXPOSITION................................................................... 45

Section I: Discussing Exposition ............................................. 45 Section II: Extensive Reading ................................................. 47 Section III: Intensive Reading and Translating ........................ 47 Section IV: Vocabulary Study................................................. 53 Section V: Some Problems

of Translating International Words......................... 56 Section VI: Translating and Writing Abstracts ........................ 59

PART III: ENQUIRY....................................................................... 63

Section I: Discussing Enquiry ................................................. 63 Section II: Extensive Reading ................................................. 66 Section III: Intensive Reading and Translating ........................ 66 Section IV: Vocabulary Study................................................. 76 Section V: Translation of General Scientific International

Words (Adverbs) ................................................... 79 Section VI: Translating and Writing Essays ............................ 82

PART IV: ARGUMENT .................................................................. 86

Section I: Discussing Argument .............................................. 86 Section II: Extensive Reading ................................................. 91 Section III: Intensive Reading and Translating ........................ 92 Section IV: Vocabulary Study................................................. 104

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Section V: Russian Equivalents of General English Sci-entific Words. Pseudointernational Words.............. 108

Section VI: Translating and Writing Summary ........................ 120 SUPPLEMENT: GRAMMAR ......................................................... 128

Articles, Demonstratives and Other Determiners ..................... 128 Nouns .............................................................................. 138 Subject .............................................................................. 147 Verb .............................................................................. 156

ЛИТЕРАТУРА................................................................................ 175

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МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РАЗЪЯСНЕНИЯ И РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ

Данное пособие ориентировано на адресата (студента, аспи-ранта, преподавателя, ученого и др.), которому приходится или же придется читать литературу, представляющую интерес с академи-ческой или профессиональной точки зрения, и информацию из ко-торой можно было бы использовать в его деятельности. Следова-тельно, если наш адресат благодаря предлагаемому пособию научится читать общенаучную, общетехническую, отраслевую специальную английскую литературу, переводить ее, писать на английском языке, с тем чтобы решать определенные реальные академические или профессиональные задачи лучше, оригиналь-нее, интереснее и т.д., то это будет означать, что он научился ис-пользовать английский язык в определенных целях (Specific Pur-poses). Другими словами, он научился критически осмысливать прочитанное и переведенное, антиципируя (предвосхищая) резуль-таты, делать соответствующие выводы, интерпретировать и оцени-вать информацию, находить доказательства истинности и ложности утверждений автора и, наконец, вступать с ним в диалог.

Зная, что научить всему невозможно, автор настоящей работы ставит перед собой задачу попытаться научить адресата (далее сту-дента) элементам целевого чтения, перевода и письма. Именно поэтому в первой части пособия предлагается начать с анализа и обсуждения таких логико-смысловых и прагматических компо-нентов, как exposition (описание, изложение, толкование), enquiry (исследование, расследование, запрос), argument (дискуссия, спор; довод в пользу или против чего-либо), которые в частях II, III, IV рассматриваются более подробно. Необходимо также добавить, что первая часть в некотором отношении отличается от второй, третьей и четвертой частей своей композиционной и содержательной структурой, поскольку является своего рода методическим руково-дством (для преподавателя и студента) к целевому чтению: что чи-тать, как читать и зачем читать.

В разделе I (Section I) каждой части пособия ставятся задачи совершенствования у студентов коммуникативной компетенции говорения, а именно: умений монологического высказывания

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и диалогической речи посредством обмена информацией в рамках общенаучного и профессионального общения.

Раздел II (Section II) направлен на совершенствование беглого (просмотрового) чтения (extensive reading) оригинальной общена-учной, общетехнической, научно-популярной и профильной лите-ратуры с целью извлечения значимой информации, выявления авторского отношения к описываемым явлениям, поиска доказа-тельной базы и т.д.

Назначение Раздела III (Section III): 1) прочитать тексты, об-ращая внимание на детали (Intensive reading), выявление которых запрограммировано вопросами на полях, перевести указанные пас-сажи письменно, применяя различные переводческие приемы, за-имствованные у авторов Т.А. Казаковой [3] и В.С. Слепович [7], и отредактировать перевод с учетом значений, указанных в списке слов, и контекста; 2) перевести тексты устно «с листа» без словаря и адекватно воспроизвести основную информацию на родном язы-ке.

Таким образом, перед преподавателем ставится комплексная задача: с одной стороны, совершенствование коммуникативной компетенции двух видов чтения (extensive and intensive), а с другой – формирование переводческой компетенции: извлечение инфор-мации из текста на одном языке и передача ее путем создания тек-ста на другом (Программа подготовки переводчика в сфере про-фессиональной коммуникации. – М., 1999. – С. 5).

Раздел IV (Section IV) содержит упражнения на совершенство-вание умений идентифицировать части речи слов, использующихся в предложениях; давать им определения своими словами; распо-знавать слово в группе слов, идентичное по значению первому; правильно употреблять предлоги в заданных предложениях. Упражнения, предназначенные для работы со словами, направлены на формирование потенциального словаря студентов в сфере нау-ки, техники и технологии, составляющих тематику текстов, содержащихся в пособии (звук, его технические характеристики, экономические проблемы, связанные со звуком; безработица и пу-ти ее решения; некоторые проблемы цивилизации; научное объяс-нение аномальных явлений).

В Разделе V (Section V) приводятся примеры лексических и грамматических трансформаций, использующихся при переводе

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на русский язык [3, 7], анализируются частотные ошибки при пере-воде интернациональных общенаучных слов в целом и общенауч-ных интернационализмов (наречий), в частности, при переводе ко-торых требуются «соответствующие лексико-грамматические трансформации, для того чтобы не нарушить стилистические нор-мы русской технической речи» [1, с. 21–23, 38–49, 55, 73, 90, 102, 170].

Включение в пособие разделов, посвященных интер-национализмам, не случайно, поскольку опыт работы с переводчи-ками показывает что недооценивание их роли при чтении вслух и переводе приводит к «плачевным» результатам, а это недопусти-мо в переводах специальной литературы.

Раздел VI (Section VI) организован так, чтобы студенты снача-ла узнали о таких формах краткого изложения информации, как реклама, аннотация, эссе и реферат, их структуре, характерных для них грамматических конструкциях, фразеологических словосоче-таниях и речевых актах (в рекламе). Для этого предлагается снача-ла прочитать и перевести письменно или устно “at sight” материа-лы, раскрывающие содержательные и языковые особенности вышеупомянутых четырех жанров, а затем, используя образцы (samples), написать под руководством преподавателя или самостоя-тельно то или иное произведение «малой формы».

Раздел “Supplement” включает в себя грамматический коммен-тарий и упражнения для повторения грамматических явлений, которые при переводе с английского на русский и с русского на английский вызывают целый ряд проблем. Предлагаемый грам-матический блок (артикль, существительное, подлежащее, сказуе-мое) рекомендуется для самостоятельной проработки. Однако, в случае возникновения вопросов по использованию артикля, форм глагола и существительного, выявлению функций подлежащего и сказуемого при переводе на практических занятиях, преподава-тель может разобрать со студентами соответствующие грамматиче-ские комментарии и выполнить необходимые для закрепления уп-ражнения.

Прохождение материала, содержащегося в одной части посо-бия, потребует примерно 11 уроков или 22 часа, соответственно, 44 урока или 88 часов – для прохождения всего курса.

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Картина распределения объема часов на каждый раздел имеет примерно следующий вид:

4 часа – Discussing (Section I) 2 часа – Extensive Reading (Section II) 6 часов – Intensive Reading and Translating (Section III) 4 часа – Vocabulary Study (Section IV) 2 часа – Problems of Translation (Section V) 4 часа – Translating and Writing

Принимая во внимание то, что настоящее пособие рассчитано

на студентов, достигших ступени Intermediate или Advanced, общий объем часов может меняться как в сторону увеличения, так и в сто-рону уменьшения.

В заключение следует добавить, что предлагаемая методика работы с пособием далеко не совершенна. «Успешность» реализа-ции поставленных перед преподавателем и студентом задач зави-сит от заинтересованности в успехе обеих сторон.

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PART I. READING WITH THE PURPOSE

SECTION I

Discussing the Activities

Read the following material about the activities for practicing pur-poseful reading and tell your partner if you use all of them.

1. Introductory activity.

The illustrations on pages 10–11 show examples of the type of ma-terial we commonly read in everyday life. Make a list of things you read in any language yesterday:

a) as part of your studies or occupation; b) for a particular purpose in your daily activities; c) for pleasure.

2. Activities involving reading.

Write down the kinds of reading material which the following ac-tivities probably involve. For example:

a mechanic repairing a car repair manual, labels, parts list a) a businessman selecting and placing an order for a piece of

equipment; b) a student preparing a report on nuclear energy; c) a student revising for an examination; d) a postgraduate student deciding on a research topic; e) a committee deciding where a new airport should be located.

3. “Why we read activities”: Activities giving and seeking informa-tion.

3.1. The following advertisement appeared in a professional jour-nal (see p.10–11).

You have a friend who would be qualified to take up the post ad-vertised. Read the advertisement and extract the most important infor-mation for him.

3.2. You are assessing the suitability of some of the candidates who have applied. Read their details and decide which candidate is most likely to be suitable.

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a) Miss A. 25 years old. PhD from the University of Illinois. 1 year's experience as research assistant in a laboratory.

b) Mr B. 40 years old. MSc from the University of Cambridge. 5 years' experience as manager of small department of drug metabo-lism.

c) Mr C. 29 years old. PhD from the University of Hawaii. 3 years' experience in a laboratory developing drugs for veterinary use.

3.3. You are dealing with enquiries from some candidates who have not seen the advertisement. Answer as many as possible of their questions using information given in the advertisement.

a) How many people would I be responsible for and who would be my superior ?

b) What experimental approach is pursued? c) Would I be able to develop my own research interests? d) Would I receive allowances for removal, transportation and

housing? e) When would I be required to start? f) Are there opportunities for contact with other areas of drug

safety work ? g) What salary is offered?

Ph.D. DRUG METABOLISM

We need an additional PhD, to lead a small group of research

assistants involved with ADME studies. He/she will join our De-partment of Drug Metabolism, reporting to the department's man-ager, and will participate in multi-disciplinary project management groups which are concerned with drugs for human and veterinary use.

The successful applicant, who will probably be in his/her late twenties, will have already gained several years' experience of drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic work related to the development and registration of new drugs. He/she will be keen to build upon this knowledge in the wider aspects of Drug Safety Evaluation.

Our Department of Drug Metabolism, which is part of the Drug Safety Evaluation Group, is housed in the recently opened £2-6 mil-lion extension to our Research Block. The laboratories are well equipped and allow the pursuit of a wide variety of experimental ap-

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proaches, and these are augmented by the collaborative work which is undertaken with other departments.

Conditions of employment include flexible working hours, four weeks' holiday, pension and death benefit schemes, bonus, etc. Fi-nancial assistance with relocation expenses is given where appropri-ate.

Applications giving brief details of age, qualifications and ex-perience should be addressed to.

R. F. Taylor, Personnel Manager, Pharmalab, Central Re-search, Milton Road, Reading, Berkshire RG5 6DP

[11, р. 4] 3.4. What questions would you want to ask the applicant who

wrote the following letter?

Dear Sir, I am writing to apply for the post advertised in the Science

Journal for a research assistant in your Department of Drug Metabo-lism.

I am a graduate in biology from the University of North Wales and am currently undertaking research work. I have extensive ex-perience of laboratory work and am keen to participate in multi-disciplinary projects as I already have managerial experience.

I am available for interview when required and look forward to receiving a favourable reply.

Yours faithfully, G. R. Davies

[11, р. 5] 4. “What we read” activities.

Exposition1

4.1. The ad below describes a new device for a domestic and indus-trial use. Make a summary of the information in it by noting:

a) the nature of the device;

1 Read about it on page 45.

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b) its significance; c) how it has been modified during its development; d) whether it has been tried sufficiently to be bought and installed

at the plant. 4.2. What further information is needed to buy and install the de-

vice? 4.3. What does exposition deal with? 4.4. Prove that the ad in action can be considered as exposition.

Runtal:

The creative system!

Radiators are ungainly. Radiators are ugly. Radiators are bad news. They rarely fit into any scheme of things. Right?

Wrong! Runtal radiators are different. They're different from any other radiator on the market. Have you ever seen a radiator less than 76 mm high? And anything up to 6 metres long? Or vice versa.

Have you ever seen a radiator that looks like a delicate window de-coration. Or an unobtrusive ceiling fitment?

If you haven't, then you haven't seen Runtal. Runtal are small enough, and aesthetic enough, to give you total

creative license. But they're big enough, thanks to a swiss-designed con-vector plate, to give you 75% more heat per square centimeter than con-ventional radiators.

That's Runtal in a nut shell. Discreet heat at moderate costs. Call us if you'd like to know more [6, р. 161]. 5. “What we read” activities.

Enquiry1

5.1. Read the following thesis on page 13 (5.3) and note: a) the phenomenon investigated; b) the particular purpose of investigation; c) what should be undertaken in voltage stability studies. 5.2. What does enquiry deal with? 1 Read about it on page 63.

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5.3. Prove that the conclusion can be considered as enquiry.

In this thesis basic phenomena concerning voltage stability and voltage collapse have been investigated and explained using a power system model and theoretical analysis.

In contrast to opinions found in literature, the point of collapse does not coincide with the critical point of the PV-curve. It is possible to run the system on the lower solution of the PV-curve with a constant impedance load as well as with a mixed load.

In our opinion armature current limitation is a main issue when studying voltage stability. Once an armature current limiter has become active, generator tripping is very hard to avoid. This seems to be valid even when there is a strong connection to other production plants. Field current limitation is not by far that critical for the voltage stability.

A reduction of the generator active power output could be benefi-cial if the armature current limiter has become active. However, if the power output is drastically decreased, transient instability may follow.

An exponential load, model for reactive power must be considered as unsuitable for voltage stability studies.

In voltage stability studies, proper modelling of induction motor loads should at least include the non-linear behaviour of their magnetic circuits.

In addition the reactive load should be modeled as a function of the fraction of motor loads, the active load power behaviour and the charac-teristics of the network between the point where the load is modeled and the load objects [15, p. 195].

6. “What we read” activities.

Argument1

6.1. Read the following letter on page 14 (6.4) to a university newspaper and note the views to which the writer is opposed.

6.2. What does argument deal with? 6.3. Prove that the letter includes some arguments.

1 Read about it on page 86.

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6.4. Write a reply with a similar structure from the head of one of the departments mentioned in the final sentence.

Sir, I fully understand the opposition expressed by my colleagues to

the reduction in the university budget. Nevertheless one is forced to recognize that in times of financial difficulty the university has a du-ty to decide where savings can be made. I believe however that it would be misguided for the university to make the same cuts in all departments without considering national priorities. May I suggest that there are some departments which must continue to be financed at existing levels if these are to produce the fully trained pro-fessionals which the country needs. Surely it is a national priority to train competent scientists, engineers and practitioners of medicine and veterinary medicine. If there have to be cuts they should be shared between departments which cannot claim to be absolutely essential to the needs of the country, such as economics, psychology or modern languages.

James Young Head of Department of Veterinary Medicine.

[11, р. 7] 7. “How we read” activities.

Interpreting passages

The ways in which we interpret passages can be practiced by trying to discover the context in which a passage was written. This involves considering such aspects as: the intended reader, the writer, the pur-pose of the passage, the type of writing.

An important aspect of interpreting is predicting what is going to come next. This skill enables the reader to be aware not only of what information is given but also of what information is not given in the passage.

Interpreting a passage involves implications and inferences, that is understanding not only what the writer states but also what the writer implies and what can be inferred from what is stated.

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7.1. To interpret passages read the possible questions and possible answers about the possible context:

1. Was the passage intended for: a) specialists; b) students; c) general readers; d) academics and others with an interest in…; focus on intended reader e) schoolchildren; f) etс. 2. Is the purpose of the extract: a) to teach a subject? b) to interest people in….; c) to provide new information; d) to persuade people to adopt a particular focus on the purpose

point of view; e) to tell people how to do something; f) etc. 3. Does the extract assume that the reader: a) has or has no scientific background; b) is familiar with the (nature and use of…); focus on implications c) already knows about… ; d) has or has no a specialist knowledge of the… . 7.2. The following sentences form a paragraph on microprocessors.

After each sentence there are four questions. These suggest the ways in which the passage might continue (Prediction).

Look at each sentence and mark the preceeding question (a, b, c or d) which it answers. For example:

Computers were initially used to store, manipulate, retrieve and or-ganize vast quantities of statistical information.

a) Why were they used for these purposes? b) How are they used in the present? c) What kinds of information were stored? d) What other purposes were they used for?

1. But now they are increasingly used in control, monitoring, regu-lation and automation.

a) Why has this change occurred?

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b) How will they be used in the future? c) When did this change take place? d) How has this change affected computer design?

2. Their changing role has been made possible by technologic ad-vances which have increased the speed, reliability and power of com-puters.

a) What kind of technological advances? b) How has speed been increased? c) What are the effects of this change? d) What else has been made possible by these technological ad-

vances?

3. In addition there has been a dramatic reduction in their cost and size.

a) How will these changes affect society ? b) What other invention is even more important ? c) Which of these changes is most important ? d) How has size been reduced ?

4. Yet it is the invention of microprocessors which will have the most profound effects in the last quarter of this century.

a) When will these effects be noticed ? b) What kind of effects ? c) Why were they not invented earlier ? d) What will be of less importance than this invention ?

5. The development of microprocessors enables a limited task to be carried out very quickly, accurately and cheaply.

a) What is the consequence of this ? b) What kind of tasks? c) What about tasks which are not limited ? d) How cheaply can a limited task be carried out ?

6. They are now being introduced into a wide range of industries and services.

a) What role do they have in industry ? b) What kinds of industries and services ? c) What problems is this causing? d) In what other areas are they being introduced ?

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7. The speed, reliability and power of microprocessors have vastly increased the potential for automation.

7.3. Consider the following statement: Age affects hearing. We can

infer (заключить, подразумевать) that with age hearing either in-creases, decreases or changes. However, the statement ‘Older people lose the ability to distinguish high-pitched sounds’ implies (предполагает, содержит намек) that younger people are able to distinguish high-pitched sounds.

Read the following statements and answer the questions about what they imply.

1. Hearing loss does not necessarily occur with old age. This is suggested by a comparison between industrialized and non-industrialized peoples. In which people does hearing loss accompany old age?

…in non-industrialized peoples...

What does the writer imply about the cause of hearing loss in old age?

2. Sounds can be described in terms of their frequency, intensity and length. For example, a sound may be high-pitched, loud and short. What other types of sounds can we infer?

3. Noise affects people in many ways. Hearing damage is the most well-known effect. Noise can also influence task performance. We can infer that noise improves /harms task performance.

4. Noise can interfere with sleep.

Which of the following does this imply? a) Noise makes people sleep more. b) Noise prevents people from sleeping. c) Noise interrupts sleep. d) Noise may reduce the quality of sleep. c) Noise wakes people up. f) People sleep better in a noisy environment. g) Noise can cause dreams.

5. 80 % of hearing damage is caused by exposure to occupational noise. What can we infer about the remaining 20 % of hearing damage?

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6. Admissions to mental hospitals are more numerous in noisy ar-eas than in comparable quiet ones. This implies that...... can cause......

7.4. Extensive reading. It usually deals with skimming through the passages rapidly (бег-

лое прочитывание, просмотровое чтение), choosing specific informa-tion, locating specific information and finding out the writer’s opinion, etc.

7.5. Intensive reading. It usually concerns careful reading of each section of the passage,

answering the questions, analyzing the grammar, the vocabulary, the style of writing, etc.

7.6. Information retrieval (возвращение; восстановление). It means looking back at the passage to answer the questions on

some sections and remember some specific information.

7.7. Evaluating (оценка) the information. It is concerned with finding out the reader's opinions about the pas-

sage, whether it is important, original, well presented, persuasive, in-conclusive, dull, trivial, muddled; contains insufficient evidence, but conclusions valid; wrong, inaccurate, irrelevant; contains essential facts, case well argued, etc.

7.8. Following – up (дополнительная работа по закреплению темы и расширению знаний по теме)

It includes using reference books and special literature to research the topic and present the results in class. This activity can also cover role- playing exercises in putting points of view and making decisions, playing games, performing experiments, etc.

SECTION II

Extensive Reading

The following tasks are all related to the reading passage itself, which begins on page 20.

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1. Skim through the passage rapidly and choose a title from the following list for each section.

a) Effects of noise on people. b) Ways of controlling noise pollution. c) Economics of noise pollution. d) Measurement of noise. e) Effects of noise on animals and plants. f) International cooperation.

2. Locate specific information. Look for information on three of the following topics. Read only as

much of the passage as is necessary to find the answers. a) the audible range of frequencies. b) definition of frequency. c) types of helpful noise. d) the amount of sound produced by a rock-and-roll band. e) causes of hearing damage in young children. f) an example of a physiological response to noise. g) estimated cost of equipping jet engines with noise control de-

vices. h) definition of the sound spectrum.

3. Find out the writer's opinion. Study the opinions about noise pollution and the statements below.

Match each statement to the position it supports. Opinions: a) Reducing noise would be too expensive. b) A reduction in noise would justify the cost. c) Noise reduction is an urgent necessity. d) We need to know more before any action can be taken. e) It is vital that people should be given information on the costs

and effects of noise pollution. Supporting Statements: f) More research needs to be done on noise reduction and effects. g) At least £1 million would be required to equip jet aircraft with

noise control devices and this would be insufficient to make noise levels acceptable.

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h) If the noise of aircraft were reduced there would be numerous economic benefits.

i) Measures must be taken to reduce noise pollution before it is too late. j) The public should be alerted to the dangers and economic costs

of noise pollution.

SECTION III

Intensive Reading and Translating

A. Read and translate passages I, II in writing, using translation techniques1 and answer the questions in the margin.

1. What phenome-non is propagated through the air? 2. What can be made to vibrate? 3. What can't normal young ears hear? ... if an ear cannot hear a sound be-tween 20 and 20 000 Hertz it must be...... 4. a) Some species ...... than other spe-cies. b) Some frequencies are audible to ...... but not......

I Sound is produced by the vibration of some

object, such as the vocal cords, or the tiny dia-phragm inside a telephone receiver. The vibrating material alternately pushes against the adjacent air, compressing it, and then retreats, allowing it to expand. This phenomenon1, propagated through the air, is called a sound wave. If it reaches a suitable surface, like an ear-drum, it can set that2 vibrating.

A sound wave is characterized by its par-ticular frequency, which is the number of times per second that the air is compressed and ex-pands. The frequency of compression determines the pitch: the greater the frequency, the higher the pitch. If the frequency is between 20 and 20000 Hertz, a normal young ear will hear it3. The range of frequencies audible to other species can vary4.

A sound wave also has its own peculiar strength or intensity, a characteristic which is related to loudness. There is a tremendous range, between the softest sound to which the human

1 Learn Section V p. 30.

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5. A decibel is a unit of measurement of... 6. What information does a sound spec-trum give? 7. ... impulsive sounds ...

ear responds, such as the whisper of a leaf, and the loudest sound to which it has been exposed, probably the liftoff of a Saturn rocket.

In order to reduce this large range to a more manageable size, a logarithmic scale is used. Each unit on the scale is called a bel, which is further divided into 10 smaller parts called deci-bels5.

Most sounds have a number of different frequency components. Each component can have its own decibel level. Sound meters equipped with filters can focus on the individual frequency components, or, more usually, on small groups of frequencies, and measure their decibel level. A graph of the frequency groups or bands in a sound versus their decibel levels is like the fingerprint of a sound – a unique picture of the sound, called its spectrum6.

A final parameter necessary to describe a sound is its variation in time. Sounds are either steady state – that is, continuous, like a siren – or impulsive, like a gunshot. Steady state sounds can fluctuate in intensity7. All of these character-istics influence how a sound affects us, whether it is acceptable or whether it is a nuisance.

8. What statement does this explain?

II Research has shown that noise affects people

in several different ways. Hearing damage is the most well-known effect. Hearing damage involves some injury to the receptor cells, or the structure containing them, in the inner ear. The eardrum and middle ear are very rarely damaged by noise. Only an extremely loud sound pressure could burst the eardrum8. Noise can also have more subtle effects. It may influence task performance, deteriorate one's mental or physical state, interfere with sleep, and increase the rate of accidents.

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9. What level of ex-posure to noise can cause damage to hearing?

In the age range 5 to 10 years, significant hearing damage is mainly caused by toy caps. In the range 10 to 18 years, loss is caused by toy caps and firearms. The main problem in the 18 and over group is occupational exposure. It is es-timated that 6 to 16 million workers in such occu-pations as construction, heavy industry, flying, printing, mechanized farming and truck driving are exposed regularly to hazardous noise levels. In addition, some recent studies contain disturbing evidence of hearing loss among non-occupationally exposed young people. It is sus-pected that listening to amplified rock-and-roll music may be causing hearing loss among young people on an epidemic scale. At one subcommit-tee hearing it was averred that certain rock groups contract that they will produce 120 decibels or forfeit payment. Frequent exposure to noises of 80 db(A) or above and even exposure of a suffi-cient duration to sounds in the 70 to 80 db(A) range probably lead to diminished hearing ability. It has been suggested that noises in the range of 70 db(A) or greater should be reduced or avoided to prevent gradual hearing loss with age9.

Noise causes three types of physiological re-sponses. First, there is a voluntary muscle re-sponse in which the head and eyes turn to the noise source and the body prepares for action. This is exemplified by a startled response to a sudden loud noise.

Second, the involuntary muscles respond to noises over 70 decibels by general reduction in blood flow to the peripheral body parts (fingers, toes, ears and changes in such functions as heart rate and breathing).

Third, loud noises can cause neuroendo-crine responses which, from animal experiments, appear to affect sexual and reproductive functions

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10. This implies: a) There is no simi-larity between the ways humans and animals will re-spond. b) There may be some similarity be-tween human and animal responses. c) The ways in which humans and animals respond will be identical. 11. This implies that these abnormal rhythms are caused by... 12. On what? 13. How can this be explained?

and which cause overgrowth of the adrenal glands, among other effects. These results of course cannot be directly extrapolated to hu-mans10. Nonetheless, workers exposed to high noise levels exhibit an increased incidence of car-diovascular disease, ear. nose and throat prob-lems, and equilibrium disorders. For instance, German steelworkers have been shown to have a higher than normal incidence of abnormal heart rhythms11.

Adverse psychological responses to noise have been noted in several areas. Task perform-ance is affected by noise that is intermittent, al-though steady state noise even up to 90 db(A) does not seem to have much effect12. Complex tasks are affected more than simple ones, and ac-curacy is reduced more than quantity. Even when good performance is maintained, excess noise is fatiguing.

People working in noisy environments are much less tolerant of noise in their non-occupational environment than those working in quiet surroundings13. Time judgement is another response upset by noise. Certain types of noise can of course be helpful, such as rhythmic noises or those which mask distracting sounds. More commonly, however, noise has been shown to produce anxiety symptoms such as headache, nausea and irritability. One study indicated that mental hospital admissions are more numerous innoisy areas than in comparable quiet ones.

B. Read passage III and translate it “at sight”. Answer the ques-

tions in the margin.

III The economic costs to society of noise are

several. Airports are currently operating at less than capacity because of noise regulations

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14. Why not? 15. The current state of the art means: a) aesthetic consid-erations; b) the volume of pre-sent-day traffic; c) present-day know-ledge of noise control devices. d) equipping jet en-gines with noise control devices. 16. Why might prop-erty values rise?

which restrict their hours of operation. For in-stance, at Washington's National Airport no jet traffic is allowed from 11 pm to 7 am14. Other airports restrict the use of certain runways. One estimate is that noise restrictions reduce possi-ble airport use by 20 per cent. The profitable cargo trade is especially affected by night re-strictions.

In the case of airports, jet engines may be modified to reduce their noise level, or insula-tion from air traffic noise may be provided by the purchase of land around airports or the insu-lation of buildings. One estimate is that 85-7 billion would be required to equip all existing jet engines with noise control devices. How-ever, considering the current state of the art15 even taking this step will not reduce noise lev-els at all points to acceptable values. Some combination of methods is probably necessary.

If all aircraft were made quieter by exist-ing methods, there would be a number of eco-nomic benefits. A decrease in the right-of-way needed for airports would be possible, and an increase in airport capacity would occur. Prop-erty values near airports might rise.16 Transpor-tation costs to and from airports could be dimin-ished since the airports now could be located closer to population centres. Much research still needs to be done on the economic aspects of noise abatement and noise effects. Although some of the effects of noise pollution are known, more must be discovered about its ef-fects on health, productivity, property values and the quality of life. Furthermore, the cost of noise pollution control to the economy as a whole needs to be illuminated. The public must be alerted to the dangers and economic costs of noise pollution so that people may make intelli-gent choices and exert appropriate pressures [11, p. 18–20].

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Word list

Nouns and noun phrases 1) abatement – уменьшение, ослабление, снижение,

скидка 2) adrenal gland – надпочечная железа 3) anxiety – беспокойство, тревога 4) damage – повреждение, поломка, вред 5) disturbing evidece – вызывающие беспокойство данные 6) eardrum – барабанная перепонка 7) f'ingerprint – отпечаток (пальца) 8) frequency – частота 9) injury (to) – повреждение, травма, ушиб, вред 10) insulation – изоляция 11) irritability – раздражение, раздраженность 12) jet traffic – движение реактивных самолетов 13) liftoff – старт космического корабля 14) loss – потеря 15) nausea – тошнота, морская болезнь 16) nuisance – помеха, неудобство, досада 17) pitch – высота (тона, звука) 18) receptor cells – нервные клетки 19) soft sound – тихий, нежный, ласковый звук 20) sound – звук 21) subtle effects – трудноуловимый эффект, неуловимый

эффект 22) vocal cords – голосовые связки 23) voluntary muscle

response – непроизвольное сокращение мышц

Verbs and verbal phrases

1) affect smb., smth. – влиять (на кого-то, что-то) 2) alert (to) – предупреждать об опасности; привести

в состояние готовности 3) amplify – усиливать (тех.) 4) aver – утверждать, доказывать (юр.) 5) be steady state – быть устойчивым 6) be exposed (to) – подвергаться (чему- то) 7) diminish – уменьшать; ослаблять

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8) disturb – беспокоить, расстраивать, волновать, смущать 9) deteriorate – ухудшать, портить, разрушать 10) exert – оказывать давление 11) fluctuate – колебаться, быть неустойчивым, меняться 12) forfeit payment – заплатить штраф 13) illuminate – освещать, разъяснять, просвещать 14) interfere (with) – вмешиваться (в), мешать, быть помехой 15) occur – иметь место, происходить 16) propagate – распространять (ся), передавать (ся) через среду 17) respond – отвечать, откликаться (сразу) 18) retreat – удаляться, отступать 19) sound – звучать

Adjectives 1) acceptable – выполнимый, приемлемый, допустимый 2) adjacent – примыкающий, смежный, соседний 3) adrenal – надпочечный 4) audible – слышный, внятный, слышимый 5) cardiovascular – сердечно-сосудистый 6) distracting – отвлекающий, рассеивающий (внимание),

сбивающий с толку 7) fatiguing – утомительный, изнурительный 8) forfeit – конфискованный 9) gradual – постепенный 10) hazardous – рискованный, опасный 11) intermittent – скачкообразный, прерывистый 12) managable – приемлемый, поддающийся 13) tiny – очень маленький, крошечный

Adverbs 1) alternately – по очереди, переменно 2) versus – против, в сравнении с

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SECTION IV

Vocabulary Study

A. Study the sentences with italicized words. Then identify the part of speech and write your own definition for the word on the line pro-vided.

Example: He acquired his wealth in the steel industry. Acquire (v) Gain pos-

session of 1. If it reaches a suitable surface, it can set that vibrating. Reaches ( ) __________________________________________

2. The range of frequencies audible to other species can vary. Audible ( )____________________________________________

3. In order to reduce this large range to a more manageable size, a logarithmic scale is used.

To reduce( )__________________________________________

4. Sound meters equipped with filters can focus on the individual frequency components.

Equipped( )___________________________________________

5. A graph of the frequency groups or bands in a second versus their decibel levels.

Versus ( )____________________________________________

6. Sounds are either steady state. Steady state ( )_________________________________________

7. Hearing damage is the most well-known effect. Damage ( )____________________________________________

8. Only an extremely loud sound pressure could burst the eardrum. Extremely ( )__________________________________________

9. In the age range 5 to 10 years, significant hearing damage is mainly caused by toy caps.

Range ( )____________________________________________

10. Some recent studies contain disturbing evidence of hearing loss among non-occupationally exposed young people.

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Disturbing ( )__________________________________________

11. It was averred that certain rock groups contract that they will produce 120 decibels or forfeit payment.

Averred ( )___________________________________________

12. This is exemplified by a startled response to a sudden loud noise. Exemplified ( )________________________________________

13. These results of course cannot be directly extrapolated to humans. Extrapolated ( )________________________________________

14. Complex tasks are affected more than simple ones. Ones ( )_____________________________________________

15. People working in noisy environments are much less tolerant of noise than those working in quiet surroundings.

Environments ( )_______________________________________

16. Certain types of noise can of course be helpful. Certain ( )___________________________________________

17. The economic costs to society of noise are several. Society ( )____________________________________________

18. If all aircraft were made quieter by existing methods, there would be a number of economic benefits.

Quieter ( )____________________________________________ B. In each set of words, cross out the word that does not have

a similar meaning to the first. Compare your answers with those of an-other student. Discuss why the words are similar.

1) cords threads strands corks 2) pitch excitement highness lowness 3) effect impression affect result 4) propagate spread reproduce pronounce 5) nuisance nuance disappointment trouble 6) subtle complex ingenious obvious 7) diminish dimple lessen decrease 8) exert influence put forth exercise 9) alert alight warn make aware of 10) aver state avert prove

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11) deteriorate spoil demolish loosen 12) retreat remove withdraw go back 13) respond react answer respect 14) interfere introduce obstruct intrude 15) intermittent interrogative uneven not continuous 16) fatiguing wearisome reinforced tiring 17) distracting bewildering destructing drawing away 18) nausea sickness disgust disguise

C. Pay attention to the use of prepositions to, on, with, against, in,

by, of, up, from. Fill them in the blanks. 1. The vibrating material alternately pushes ____ the adjacent air. 2. The range of frequencies audible ______ other species can vary. 3. Each unit _______ scale is called a bel. 4. Sound meters equipped _____ filters can focus ____ the indi-

vidual frequency components. 5. Steady state sounds can fluctuate ____ intensity. 6. Research has shown that noise affect _____ people _____ sev-

eral ways. 7. The middle ear is very rarely damaged ______ noise. 8. It may influence ____ task performance. 9. ____ addition, some recent studies contain disturbing evidence

hearing loss. 10. The involuntary muscles respond ____ noise ____ 70 decibels. 11. These results____ course cannot be directly extrapolated ____

humans. 12. Adverse psychological responses ____ noise have been noted

____ several areas. 13. Task performance is affected ____ noise that is intermittent, al-

though steady state noise even ____ to 90 db does not seem to have much effect.

14. People working in noisy environments are much less tolerant ___ noise than those working ____ quiet surroundings.

15. The economic costs ____ society of noise are several. 16. ___ the case airports, jet engines may be modified to reduce

their noise level. 17. A decrease ____ the right-of-the way needed for airport would

be possible.

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18. Transportation costs ____ and ___ airports could be dimin-ished.

D. Memorize the words and phrases given in the list on p.25.

SECTION V

Translation Techniques

Read carefully the following and share your opinions on the prob-lems both in Russian and English.

A. Лексические трансформации при переводе Лексические трансформации (добавления, опущения, замены)

являются частью переводческой практики в силу разной структуры английского и русского предложений или невозможности найти эквивалент слова или его соответствие.

1. Добавления. Этот прием перевода связан с тем, что англий-ским предложениям свойственна компрессия. То, что ясно носите-лю английского языка, требует добавления в рамках нормы русско-го языка. Речь идет, безусловно, о словах, которые не носят харак-тер смыслового добавления, например:

I saw a face watching me out of one of the upper windows.-Я уви-дел лицо человека, наблюдавшего за мной из одного из верхних окон.

В вышеприведенном примере читателю ясно, что наблюдать может человек, а не лицо. Поэтому при переводе пришлось сделать добавление. Аналогичный прием использован в следующих приме-рах:

Тhe IМР mission is to arrive in Minsk on May 20. The staff will focus on the general macroeconomic indicators. – 20 мая в Минск должна прибыть миссия МВФ. Сотрудники фонда сосредоточат внимание на общих макроэкономических показателях.

"Jupiter" is 40 percent owned by individual shareholders.

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Компания "Юпитер" на 40 процентов принадлежит индиви-дуальным акционерам.

... 125 passengers and 5 crew – 125 пассажиров и 5 членов эки-пажа.

2. Опущения. Этот прием перевода используется в случае из-быточности информации, которая представляет собой нарушение норм русского языка. Например, Не 1еапed forward to take the paper. – Он наклонился, чтобы взять бумагу. Понятно, что он на-клонился вперед, поэтому это слово можно опустить при переводе.

Иногда опущения при переводе вызваны различиями в струк-туре английского и русского предложений. В русском языке нет необходимости в полном наборе всех членов предложения:

Тhe first thing I did was to give her a call. – Первое, что я сделал, позвонил ей.

Часто опускаются притяжательные местоимения, которые в русском переводе являются избыточными:

He took his bag in his right hand. – Он взял сумку в правую руку.

Опускается при переводе также один из парных (равнознач-ных) синонимов, которые довольно часто встречаются в англий-ском языке:

Тhe town we stayed in was very nice and attractive. – Город, в котором мы остановились, был очень уютным.

Тhe treaty was pronounced null and void. – Договор был признан недействительным.

Используя прием опущения, необходимо помнить, что это не лазейка для пропуска трудных мест при переводе. Смысл предло-жения не должен быть искажен.

3. Замены. Данный прием довольно широко используется при переводе в тех случаях, когда отсутствуют прямые словарные соот-ветствия. В этом случае необходимо найти вариант перевода, кото-рый подходит для данного контекста, например: Рrivacy was im-possible. – Было невозможно побыть одному.

Invasion in one's privacу – вмешательство в чью-л. личную жизнь. Контекстуальная замена как вид лексической трансформа-ции используется в тех случаях, когда необходимо сделать уточне-ние (конкретизацию), обобщение (генерализацию), а также заме-

32

нить отрицательную конструкцию на утвердительную или наобо-рот (антонимический перевод) или полностью переосмыслить вы-сказывание (например, при переводе фразеологизмов). Примеры различных видов замен:

Конкретизация. Использование при переводе слова с более узким значением, чем слово в оригинале, называется конкретиза-цией. Например:

The curtain went up. – Занавес поднялся. Тhe facilities were downstairs. – Удобства находились внизу. Рut him on the phone please. – Позови его, пожалуйста, к теле-

фону.

Генерализация. Использование при переводе слова с более широким значением, чем в оригинале. Например:

She was killed in a car accident. – Она погибла в автокатастрофе. То the last ounce of effort – из последних сил.

Антонимический перевод. Замена двух отрицательных форм на одну утвердительную, когда «минус на минус дает плюс», и на-оборот, утвердительного слова на отрицание с тем же значением. Например:

It's not uncommon for families in rural areas to have three and more children. – В сельской местности в семьях обычно бывает по трое и более детей.

Remember to wake me up at 7 a.m. – Не забудь разбудить меня в 7 утра.

Тhey never found out until afterward what he had to go through. – Они лишь впоследствии узнали, что ему пришлось пережить.

Иногда антонимический перевод является единственно воз-можным средством для достижения адекватного перевода:

Тhe last thing I would like to do is to spoil our relationships. – Мне бы очень не хотелось испортить наши отношения.

Тhe inferiority of the enemy. – Превосходство наших войск.

Целостное переосмысление. Это наиболее трудный вид кон-текстуальной замены при переводе, заключающийся в понимании английского устойчивого словосочетания (фразеологизма) и пере-

33

даче его по-русски совершенно другими лексическими средствами. Например:

То bе аn аlbatross Быть обузой (ярмом) (аround one's neck) Work and pleasure Полезное с приятным No way! Ни за что! (Ни в коем случае!) Stretch one's leg Размяться Jack of all trades Мастер на все руки Still waters run deep В тихом омуте черти водятся In the nick of time В последний момент B. Грамматические приёмы перевода Известно, что грамматический строй английского при частич-

ном сходстве отличается от грамматического строя русского языка. Так, в русском языке отсутствуют такие грамматические катего-рии, как артикль, герундий, сложное дополнение, абсолютные кон-струкции (например, независимый причастный оборот) и т.д. Сле-довательно, полный перевод словосочетаний и предложений с од-ного языка на другой не всегда возможен. И помощником в реше-нии этого вопроса является исходный контекст (лингвистический и экстралингвистический).

Учитывая вышесказанное, наиболее часто переводчики обра-щаются к следующим приёмам:

1. Нулевой перевод – пропуск той или иной безэквивалетной формы при переводе (артикля, местоимения, подлежащего):

they say – говорят you see – понимаешь say it – скажи

The door will not open. Невозможно открыть дверь.

2. Функциональная замена – употребление глагольных форм, подлежащего, обстоятельства, сказуемого в несвойственных им функциях. Например:

а) русская глагольная форма Она остановится в гостинице может быть переведена разными способами в зависимости от до-полнительного временного контекста:

She will stay at a hotel (сообщается факт).

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She will be staying at a hotel (контекст обусловливает точное время).

She is staying at a hotel (контекст обусловливает намерение или договоренность).

b) подлежащее выражается не местоимением, а обобщенно-значимым словом:

One must be humane. Человек должен быть человечным. Надо быть человечным.

c) преобразование подлежащего в обстоятельство: The article says about the new trends in economy. В статье сообщается о новых тенденциях в экономике.

d) замена глагольного сказуемого именным и наоборот: Hunting and fishing provided the chief occupation and food supply

of the Northwest Indians of America. Охота и рыболовство были основным занятием и источником

пищи для индейцев северо-запада Америки.

3. Уподобление – придание общих грамматических свойств разным грамматическим формам, в частности, при переводе нелич-ных форм глагола (инфинитива, герундия и причастия, не указы-вающих своей формой на лицо, число и время).

The weather permitting, we shall go to the country – Если позво-лит погода, мы поедем в деревню (неличная форма permitting при-спосабливается к личной форме сказуемого shall go и передается формой будущего времени).

He glanced up just to see a stranger on the neighbouring roof. – Он взглянул наверх и в этот момент увидел на крыше соседнего дома незнакомца (неличная форма инфинитива to see приспосабливает-ся к личной форме сказуемого glanced up и передается формой прошедшего времени. Кроме того, инфинитиву от глагола сказуе-мого передается значение последующего действия).

4. Антонимический перевод – позволяет переводчику создать более естественную грамматическую структуру на переводящем языке в тех случаях, когда грамматическая форма приходит в про-тиворечие с правилами лексической сочетаемости и лишает пере-водной текст выразительности, утяжеляя его.

35

He did not have much time at his disposal. – У него оставалось мало времени.

He was еager to start climbing. – Ему не терпелось начать подъ-ём.

5. Структурная замена или конверсия – вместо специфиче-ской формы исходного языка употребляется иная форма, способная служить заместителем исходной. Такой прием довольно часто употребляется при переводе английского герундия.

On acquiring new animals, one of the many problems that face you is the process of settling them in. – Приобретение новых животных связано с проблемами, одна из которых заключается в размещении их (герундий переводится отглагольным существительным).

After visiting several toy-shops, we managed to buy a teddy-bear. – Обойдя несколько магазинов игрушек, мы купили плюшевого мед-вежонка (герундий переводится деепричастием).

6. Распространение – при переводе фразовых глаголов (гла-гол + грамматическая форма, представляющая собой нечто среднее между наречием и предлогом: bring up- воспитывать, figure out – понять, etc.).

They danced people into joining them. – Они плясали так зара-зительно, что увлекали зрителей в общий танец.

7. Стяжение или компрессия – этому приему подвергаются аналитические формы видовременных значений глагола, фразовые глаголы, аналитические формы причастия и герундия и т.п.

He almost belived that he had been living on two pounds a week for years – Он едва сам не поверил в то, что годами жил на два фунта в неделю.

8. Частичный перевод – применяется, когда правила синтак-сической сочетаемости компонентов не совпадают с правилами лексико-семантической сочетаемости в исходном и переводящем языках. В этих случаях используются приемы сокращения и рас-ширения.

8.1. Сокращение – пропуск одного или нескольких элементов исходного словосочетания:

civil servants – чиновники;

36

домашний скот – the cattle; не в своем уме – insane; воспитание и образование – education.

8.2. Расширение – добавление одного или нескольких элемен-тов в словосочетание:

her archaeologist husband – ее муж – археолог по профессии (при переводе данного словосочетания использованы также пере-становка и функционально-морфологическая замена – ее муж ар-хеолог).

9. Описательный перевод – используется в тех случаях, ко-гда словосочетания представляют трудность для перевода и требу-ют преобразования или даже комментария, если в переводящей культуре отсутствуeт то или иное явление или понятие:

out-of-town visitors – приезжие посетители; out of the way places – места, где редко бывают; an-hour-early visitor – гость, явившийся на час раньше срока; a no-show customer – клиент, который не является в заказан-

ный срок (в ресторане).

Комментарий: «no-show» – not to show up at the appointed time.

10. Изменение структуры предложения при переводе Далеко не всегда перевод английского предложения заключа-

ется в дословной передаче значения каждого слова. Чаще всего при переводе с английского приходится менять структуру предложе-ния, порядок слов, разбивать одно предложение на два или объеди-нять два предложения в одно.

Причинами таких изменений могут быть отсутствие соответ-ствующего грамматического явления в русском языке, а также не-совпадение стилистических особенностей грамматических конст-рукций и смысловой структуры английского и русского словосоче-таний, например:

It being very dry, forest fires were common. – Так как было очень сухо, часто возникали лесные пожары (независимый прича-стный оборот)

Had he come earlier, he would have helped us. – Приди он (если бы он пришел) раньше, он бы нам помог (бессоюзное условное предложение).

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What I mean is that it needs to be done right now. – Я имею в ви-ду, что это нужно сделать прямо сейчас (придаточное предложе-ние, являющееся одновременно подлежащим).

При выборе порядка слов в процессе перевода на русский язык необходимо рассматривать два типа английских предложений: a) с прямым порядком слов; b) с инверсией, то есть нарушением обычного порядка слов.

a) В русском языке, в отличие от английского, смысловой центр высказывания («центр тяжести», т.е. новая информация) час-то находится в конце предложения:

Winter came. – Наступила зима. New books were brought. – Привезли новые книги.

При переводе английского предложения с прямым порядком слов необходимо определить его смысловой центр, чтобы точно передать смысл. В конец русского предложения обычно ставится слово, которое выражает новую информацию в английском повест-вовательном предложении без эмфазы (логического выделения):

An old man was slowly walking along the road. По дороге медленно шел старик. Сравните с эмфатическим предложением: It was Lomonosov that founded Moscow University. Именно Ломоносов основал Московский университет.

b) Английские предложения с инверсией передаются на рус-ский язык предложениями, в которых также нарушен обычный по-рядок слов (за исключением случаев грамматической инверсии, т.е. изменения порядка слов в вопросительных и повелительных предложениях):

Mine is a totally different approach. – Подход мой совершенно другой.

Ideas he had plenty. – Идей у него было масса. Для достижения адекватности перевода часто приходится ме-

нять члены предложения из-за несовпадения смысловой структуры английских и русских словосочетаний и предложений, например:

I am confident he will benefit from participating in this research programme both personally and professionally (см. также с. 79).

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Я уверен, что он получит пользу от участия в этой научно-исследовательской программе как в личном, так и в профес-сиональном плане.

Переводчик имеет право прибегать к изменению структуры предложения (менять простое предложение на сложноподчиненное или сложносочиненное, разбивать одно предложение на два или объединять два предложения в одно), если это необходимо для пе-редачи смысла, например:

They didn't expect us to come back soon. Они не ожидали, что мы скоро вернемся. Inflation remains high, it being somewhat lower over time. Ин-

фляция остается высокой, хотя при этом она несколько снижается со временем.

A three-day conference on Chernobyl issues gathered as many as five hundred delegates from all over the world in late March.

В конце марта состоялась трехдневная конференция по про-блемам Чернобыля. В ней приняли участие не менее пятисот деле-гатов из всех уголков земного шара.

The opening ceremony was delayed. The guests didn't mind though.

Церемония открытия задерживалась; однако гости не вы-сказывали недовольства.

SECTION VI

Translating and Writing Advertisements

A. Translate the text “at sight”. Notice the functions of the adver-tisements.

The power of advertising

Advertising often uses language and pictures to make us believe that we should be ashamed of ourselves for not buying a certain product for ourselves or our families. They play on our feelings, emotions, and especially our wish to:

1. Be up-to-date and knowledgeable. Advertisers expect us to be-lieve what 'the experts' say about their products. We find expressions like 'a revolution in skin care' or 'scientifically developed'.

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2. Be as good as others. They challenge us to 'keep up to date' (быть современным), 'keep up with the neighbours', or even 'keep one jump ahead'. The message is to buy the product if we don't want to be left behind.

3. Be attractive. Pictures of attractive people are used to draw attention to a product,

and the suggestion (здесь – идея) is that we will be desirable and so-cially successful if we use that product.

4. Do things well. The idea is that you must buy the product if you want to do your

job properly. Many soap powders are sold through the idea that they 'wash whiter than white', 'remove stains', etc.

5. Be responsible or act responsibly. Adverts for health foods, environmentally friendly products (экологически чистые продукты), and even charities, appeal to the caring side of human na-ture. They aim to make us feel guilty if we ignore the appeal.

6. Have excitement in our lives. Pictures of exciting or romantic events are used to suggest (здесь –

внушить) that exciting things happen when we use a particular product.

7. Be one of the group ... or an individual. Some people like knowing that lots of people have chosen the same product, so expres-sions like 'millions of satisfied users' are used to reassure them. Some-times advertisers try to convey the idea that only 'special' people use their product. They will use expressions like 'a unique experience' (здесь – событие).

8. Be shrewd and streetwise (быть проницательным и практич-ным). We sometimes feel guilty about spending money. Advertisers reassure us and suggest that we are making a good decision by offering us 'great value', 'mammoth savings', and 'bargains of the century', etc. [6, р.138].

B. Read and convey the main idea in English. Analyse the lan-

guage and style used in the advertisements. Рекламой называется информация о потребительских свойст-

вах товара и различных видах услуг с целью их реализации, созда-

40

ния спроса на них. Реклама является неотъемлемой частью марке-тинга.

Цель научно-технической рекламы – рекламирование объ-ектов научно-технической деятельности: результатов научно-технических исследований, введения технических и технологиче-ских новшеств, оказания технических услуг (монтаж и испытание оборудования, пусковые работы), научно-технической и справоч-ной литературы и т.д. Цели промышленной рекламы состоят в следующем: распространение информации; привлечение заказов; получение запросов; создание положительного образа фирмы.

Первое в мире рекламное бюро было открыто в 1611 г. в Лон-доне.

Своеобразие рекламных текстов (РТ) заключается в том, что в них точность формулировок, присущая другим жанровым разно-видностям научно-технического стиля, сочетается с разнообразны-ми средствами усиления выразительности. Так, в РТ встречается большое количество прилагательных и наречий, дающих высокую положительную оценку изделию, продукту, например: outstanding performance; superior quality; perfectly adjustable lens system; incredi-bly simple control и т.д. В промышленной рекламе можно встретить неологизмы – новые слова или слова с новыми значениями: to out-perform – обгонять, превосходить по качеству или рабочим харак-теристикам; in-depth (attr.) – глубокий, серьезный; add-ons – аксес-суары; to feature – иметь.

В связи с необходимостью передать максимум информации на сравнительно небольшой площади рекламного издания в РТ часто используются разного рода сокращения: spec(specification), ad (advertisement), addl (additional), drwg (drawing), hrs (hours), op amp (operational amplifier), polysynth (polyphonic synthesizer), rel (reliability), semins (semiconductors), hi-fi (high fidelity).

Работая с рекламными текстами, следует иметь в виду, что в них могут встречаться слова в нетрадиционном написании: sirkit (circuit+kit).

В области синтаксиса в РТ можно отметить использование инверсии (обратного порядка слов), например: Included are typical noise values, а также конструкции, известной под названием Split Infinitive: Our devotion to research and development has enabled us to continually make the best even better. В предложении может отсут-

41

ствовать один из главных членов – подлежащее или часть сказуе-мого: Manually regulated by rheostat. No venting required [6; 8, р.83].

C. Do the translation of the passages in writing. Analyse the struc-

ture of ads, speech acts and style.

The structure of advertisements

Every good ad has strong opening paragraph (сильный зачин). To draw the reader’s attention it is (as a rule) not connected with the object to be advertised. Then the body paragraph and the closing follow. The message of the closing is to make the addressee (адресат) get in touch with the advertiser and buy the product.

Речевые акты (Speech Acts) в зачине и концовке научно-технической рекламы

Исследование показывает, что в зачине и концовке научно-технической рекламы используются:

Зачин

(opening)

1. Речевой акт предложения: We offer classification services of your research or production ma-

terials … or classified powders to meet your requirements.

2. Речевой акт гарантирования: We guarantee a collection efficiency of an exit loading.

3. Речевой акт рекомендации: Martin Polypropylene plates and frames are recommended for

applications requiring a wide range of acid and alkali resistance to tem-peratures below 190 F.

4. Речевой акт обещания: It (pump) WON'T shimmy, wiggle or shake. It WILL do a great

job pumping gaseous solution.

5. Речевой акт совета:

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If you don't know him (distributor-M.M.) YOU REALLY SHOULD.

6. Речевой акт призыва: a) Improve the uniformity and flow of your material. Eliminate the powder and dust that make handling so messy. Get a K-G rill-type compacter system. Watch your powders. b) «I am all for something new … something offering real – and I

mean real product advantages» (выдержка из речи компетентного человека, подающаяся в рекламе как скрытый призыв). ( – M.M.).

7. Речевой акт утешения: May be your operator doesn’t stand toe-to-toe with the scale, or

can’t see too well, or gets tired. DO NOT DESPAIR!

8. Речевой акт констатации: ONE DOES NOT SPEAK LIGHTLY OF PAIN, and among

pains one of the most excruciating is the Tan-Sad Chair.

9. Речевой акт утверждения: Time was people said: «Eastern makes great small pumps. Up to

50 GPM». THAT IS ONLY HALF TRUE TODAY. Today Eastern supplies

great small and medium sized centrifugal pumps. Up to 150 GPM.

10. Декларативный речевой акт: GRID units WILL NEVER LEAK because of rotted or corroded

cores. Acids present in steam WILL NOT CAUSE internal corrosion; fumes WILL NOT CAUSE external corrosion.

11. Речевой акт предположения: a) MAY BE you weren’t too familiar with the tremendously wide

range of wire cloth. b) PROBABLY this pert young lady could never make a connec-

tion between her high fashion costume and industry air pollution.

Концовка (closing)

1. Речевой акт предложения: We suggest you see for yourself.

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2. Речевой акт приглашения: We invite your inquiry.

3. Речевой акт обещания: a) FAST deliveries, BEST cloth, LOWEST cost when call on

Newark. b) WE'LL MAKE IT UP TO YOU BY SENDING YOU A

TECH BULLETIN.

4. Речевой акт, относящийся к формуле социального этикета: a) SORRY – we can’t send a sample to everybody, but if you have

good reason, you can have it. b) WE’RE ALWAYS Glad to talk to you about molybdenum,

tungsten and phosphor chemistry.

5. Речевой акт совета: We’ve got a lot of know-how. You SHOULD have it.

6. Речевой акт призыва: a) When you can’t risk failure with a population control problem,

trust Thermal. b) Long live your process with Ljungstrom! (Призыв-лозунг).

7. Речевой акт утешения: The Labor problem? FORGET IT. The Enviro Monitor has been

designed for unattended operation.

8. Речевой акт просьбы: PLEASE, submit us your problems.

9. Речевой акт предположения: We just MIGHT have the solution toward illuminating the bulge

in your budget [6]. D. Read, translate the advertisement and analyse its structure, lan-

guage and style. SAMPLE Advertisement

If you spend more than $ 50,000 p.a. on Nitrogen read this and save 66 %.

How? Simply by installing a Petrocarbon high-purity nitrogen plant, which will provide an automatic and reliable source of nitrogen at low cost. If you are spending more than $ 50,000 per annum on deliv-

44

ered nitrogen, investment in a Petrocarbon nitrogen plant can save at least $ 33, 000. Furthermore the purity of the nitrogen produced is mea-surably superior.

Petrocarbon high purity nitrogen plants are in service throughout the world, wherever a cheap, reliable source of nitrogen is required. In-dustries served include: Chemicals, Petrochemicals, Metallurgy, Nu-clear energy, Resins, etc.

We also have cryogenic plants to produce oxygen and carbon diox-ide. So, whatever your problem, wherever it's located ... consult the man from Petrocarbon. He's worth talking to, – and soon [6, p. 160].

E. Create ads of your own. Choose any product, service and idea to

be promoted.

45

PART II. EXPOSITION

SECTION I

Discussing Exposition

Exposition presents knowledge already established. It presents theories, laws, general principles and specific instances. It uses different means of organizing information such as definition, classification, de-scription, explanation.

Экспозиция – описание фактов и событий; объяснение, толко-

вание определенных законов, явлений, принципов, частных случа-ев и т.д.

A. Read the following passages and list the explanations which are

given, which are amplified and rejected. 1. Vilcabamba is an isolated community high in the Andes moun-

tains. Both men and women work in the fields all their lives and travel many miles on foot every day. There are no signs of obesity or of under nutrition. There is a very low calorie consumption and protein and fat consumed are almost entirely of vegetable origin. All the elderly inhabi-tants remain active and all are, or have been, married. Some have smoked cigarettes for most of their lives. Many had parents or relatives who lived to a very old age.

2. The fact that many inhabitants of Vilcabamba live to be over 100 can be explained by their regular exercise. The importance of exer-cise is that it improves the cardiopulmonary functions. Consequently the oxygen supply to the heart muscles is maintained. This means that the heart is less liable to sudden failure.

3. Many attempts have been made to explain longevity. Some ex-planations have concentrated on dietary factors, others on climate or the amount of exercise taken but all have been inconclusive. In fact there is no need to search for environmental or even psychological considera-tions when trying to explain longevity. By far the most likely explana-tion is that longevity is the result of genetic factors.

46

4. It has been noted many times that the centers of development of civilization lie outside the boundaries of the tropical rain forests. The explanation for this is that the limitations of slash-and-burn agriculture in tropical rain forests prevent cultural development from advancing beyond a relatively simple level. Gardens can be productive only for a short time. Consequently, settlements are small and have to move fre-quently. These two factors prevent the growth of occupational speciali-zation. One does not therefore need to look for psychological explana-tions or to consider low cultural development as the result of geographi-cal isolation from centres of diffusion. The explanation is provided by the series of causes and effects just mentioned.

B. Answer the questions below: 1. Does extract 4: a) list several possible explanations; b) identify

one explanation; c) identify and amplify an explanation; d) reject current explanations?

2. What is the phenomenon explained? 3. What explanations are rejected? 4. What term is used to describe the type of agriculture found in

tropical forests? 5. Which of the following descriptions refers to this type of agri-

culture? a) Intensive subsistence of a single crop. b) Shifting cultivation in which the forest is cleared by fire and cut-

ting. c) Cultivation of tropical raw materials in plantations for export. 6. Which of the following statements give the same information as

statements in abstract 4. Where possible, identify the statements in the abstract which give the same information.

a) Civilization can develop in different environments but not in tropical forest areas.

b) Tropical rain forests have seen the development of no great cen-tres of civilization.

c) Wherever tropical rain forests are found, centres of civilization tend to develop.

d) The fact that gardens are productive only for a short time ex-plains why settlements are small.

e) Slash-and-burn agriculture limits cultural development.

47

SECTION II

Extensive Reading

A. Now turn to the passage which begins on page 47. Read the whole passage rapidly and identify which sections deal with the follow-ing topics:

1. Cultural consequences of low population concentration. 2. Reasons for large amount of land required. 3. Cultural consequences of moving settlements. 4. General statement of phenomenon, explanation and main fac-

tors. 5. Reasons for moving settlements. B. Some of the following questions have answers in the passage.

Look for the answers, reading only as much of the passage as is neces-sary to find the answers. Note that some of the questions are not an-swered in the passage.

1. What is the average size of a South American tropical forest set-tlement?

2. How much land does an average community use for agriculture? 3. What are the main crops in the tropical forest? 4. What type of social organization is found in tropical forest set-

tlements?

SECTION III

Intensive Reading and Translating

A. Now read and translate passages I, IV, V in writing using trans-lation techniques1. Answer the questions in the margin and analyse the expositions.

I It has been noted many times that

the centres of development of civiliza-tion lie outside the boundaries of the

1 Turn to page 30.

48

1. What prevents cultural de-velopment? 2. a must adapt to b c must adapt to d Identify a, b, c and d 3. Of what? 4. What explains 1) and 2)?

tropical rain forests. Various explana-tions have been offered but the one most pertinent to this enquiry is that the limitations of subsistence resources in tropical rain forest areas prevent cultural development from advancing beyond a relatively simple level.1 Just as the standard climate has features to which the vegetation must adapt, slash-and-burn agriculture has charac-teristics to which a culture must adapt.2 The most significant of these3 derive from the short period of time that the garden remains productive which means 1) that a relatively large amount of land per capita must be available for agricultural use, and 2) that the set-tlement cannot remain permanently in one place4. Let us consider the manner in which these two requirements affect cultural development.

B. Read passages II, III. Translate them “at sight” and answer the

questions in the margin. 5. With what held in reserve? 6. The land needs a long time in order ... its ... is not profit-able until the land has recov-ered ... 7. What situation? 8. What is irregular?

II The amount of land under culti-

vation at any time must always be slight in comparison with5 that held in reserve because of the long period re-quired after use for6 recovery of fertil-ity before reclearing is profitable. This situation7 exercises a strong control over population density and also over population concentration. Since the amount of agricultural land in an ac-cessible radius of the village is limited by the irregularity of the terrain,8 by and large the smaller the community

49

9. If agriculture were the only important food resource, population concentrations would be ...

the longer it will be able to remain set-tled in one spot. Differences in local hunting and fishing resources some-times make local exceptions and per-mit larger population concentrations than could be supported were agricul-ture the only important food resource9. However, generally speaking 1000 individuals is a large population for villages in the South American tropical forests and settlements with less than 300 people are typical.

10. The absence of what? 11. What evidence is given for the value of specialization? 12. How are skills transmitted when there is no specializa-tion?

III Such a low level of population

concentration allows little room for occupational specialization. If we note in our culture how occupational spe-cialization increases with the size of the urban population, it is readily un-derstood how its absence10 is normal and inevitable in the small settlements characteristic of tropical forest life. Specialization provides a favourable atmosphere for the acquisition of de-tailed knowledge and for improvement of technical skills, and the archaeo-logical picture in the centres of civili-zation around the world shows an ad-vance in all fields of endeavour under its influence11. Where specialization is absent and each generation transmits what it has learned in much the same form as it was received, the normal result is slight variation but no marked increase in the scope or quality of techniques or products12. One does not need to search for psychological ex-

50

planations or to point to geographical isolation from centres of diffusion. The answer seems to be adequately pro-vided by the series of causes and ef-fects just described – without occupa-tional specialization, progress in tech-nology is slight and slow; without population concentration there is little specialization; with shifting cultivation there can be no large permanent set-tlements.

13. What solution? 14. When do temperate crops mature? 15. What explanation is given for the periodic moving of the village?

IV In addition to a low population

concentration, dependence on slash-and-burn agriculture necessitates peri-odic moving of the village. While it might be feasible in a temperate cli-mate to exploit fields at a considerable distance from the settlement, this solu-tion13 is not practical in the forests. The staple root crops do not mature for seasonal harvest as do temperate crops14, and cannot be stored in the humid, warm climate without sprout-ing or rotting. Harvesting must be dai-ly or several times a week. If the fields were not readily accessible, the time needed to exploit them would be so great that agriculture would provide little more return for the labour than wild food gathering. Hence shifting of the village periodically is not simply a matter of choice but an adaptation no a subsistence base whose most effective utilization is continuous rather than seasonal15.

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16. What does this saying suggest about the conse-quences of moving? 17. What factor? 18. Why is social organization simple?

V The inability to settle long in one

spot has certain cultural effects that can be most effectively indicated by recalling a saying current in our own culture: “Three moves are as good as a fire”.16 Even with all the opportunities for accumulation of material goods afforded to us, frequent moving inhib-its their full realization. It is often more convenient and economical to re-acquire an object than to move it. How much less incentive is there for pre-serving and transporting goods in a culture where everyone can make what he needs from materials freely avail-able in the forest. If equipment is ex-pendable, it is also not normally lav-ishly made, so that the expertise pro-vided by specialized artisans finds no market. This factor17 reinforces the small size of population concentrations in inhibiting the growth of occupa-tional specialization. Since property ownership is an effective basis for social differentiation and the concentration of power, the absence of incentive for property accumulation helps to maintain social organization on a simple, unstratified level, largely dominated by kinshp18 [11, p.28–29].

Word List

Nouns and noun phrases 1) boundary – граница 2) burn – выжигание растительности на земле,

предназначенной к обработке 3) density – плотность

52

4) development – развитие; разработка 5) endeavour – попытка; стремление 6) enquiry – вопрос; запрос; наведение справок 7) exception – исключение 8) fertility – плодородие 9) kinship – родство; сходство; подобие 10) recovery – выздоровление 11) return – прибыль 12) root – корень 13) root crop – корнеплод 14) settlement – поселение 15) slash – амер. вырубка; болотистое место; разго-

ворное сокращение 16) spot – место; пятно 17) subsistence – существование; средства к существова-

нию 18) terrain – местность; физическая особенность мест-

ности Verbs and verbal phrases

1) adapt – приспосабливать; адаптировать 2) advance – продвигаться вперед; делать успехи 3) afford – позволять 4) consider – считать; рассматривать 5) let us consider – рассмотрим 6) derive – производить; устанавливать 7) inhibit – препятствовать; мешать 8) note – отмечать; замечать, обращать внимание 9) it has been noted – было отмечено 10) offer – предлагать 11) prevent from – не позволять 12) mature – созревать

Adjectives

1) available – доступный; имеющийся в наличии 2) expendable – потребляемый; невозвратимый 3) feasible – выполнимый, осуществимый; возможный 4) incentive – побудительный

53

5) inevitable – неизбежный 6) pertinent – уместный; подходящий; относящийся к делу 7) shifting – меняющийся; движущийся 8) slight – незначительный 9) staple – основной 10) temperate – умеренный 11) urban – городской

Adverbs

1) by and large – в целом, в общем 2) lavishly – расточительно; щедро 3) readily – легко; охотно, быстро 4) relatively – относительно 5) slightly – слегка

SECTION IV

Vocabulary Study

A. The italicized words in the sentences below are found in the text. Study the sentences. Then identify the part of speech and write your own definition for the word on the line provided.

1. It has been noted many times that the centres of development of

civilization lie outside the boundaries of the tropical rain forests. Noted_________________________________________________ Outside_______________________________________________

2. This situation exercises a strong control over population density. Exercises______________________________________________

3. Such a low level of population concentration allows little room for occupational specialization.

Little_________________________________________________

4. With shifting cultivation there can be no large permanent settle-ments.

Shifting_______________________________________________

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5. Without occupational specialization, progress in technology is slight and slow.

Progress_______________________________________________

6. Dependence on slash-and-burn agriculture necessitates periodic moving of the village.

Necessitates____________________________________________

7. Harvesting must be daily or several times a week. Harvesting_____________________________________________

8. The inability to settle long in one spot has certain cultural ef-fects.

Certain________________________________________________

9. Hence shifting of the village periodically is not simply a matter of choice but an adaptation to a substance base.

Hence_________________________________________________ Adaptation_____________________________________________

10. The inability to settle long in one spot has certain cultural ef-fects.

Inability_______________________________________________ Effects________________________________________________

11. Three moves are as good as a fire. Three_________________________________________________

12. If equipment is expendable, it is also not normally lavishly made.

Expendable___________________________________________ Lavishly_______________________________________________

13. This factor reinforces the small size of population concentra-tions.

Factor_________________________________________________

14. It helps to maintain social organization on a simple, unstratified level, largely dominated by kinship.

Largely_______________________________________________

55

B. In each set of words cross out the word that does not have a sim-ilar meaning to the first. Compare your answers with those of another student. Discuss why the words are similar.

1. acquire get obtain question 2. allocate assign attract set aside 3. alternative change option possibility 4. commodity item market product 5. consumption manufacture

of items purchase of items use of items

6. enact establish represent specify 7. forego precede renounce sacrifice 8. fundamental basic essential secondary 9. hoard accumulate exchange save 10. incentive encouragement occurrence stimulus 11. intervention familiarity imposition interference 12. optimize make efficient make necessary make use-

ful 13. promote publicize obstruct advocate 14. relevant applicable dependable fitting 15. scarcity gap lack terror

C. Pay attention to the use of prepositions to, from, in, -, over, for,

of, without, with, on, by, under, at and fill them in the blanks. 1. Various explanations have been offered but the one ___ this en-

quiry is that the limitations of subsistence resources ___ tropical rain forest areas prevent cultural development ___ advancing beyond a rela-tively simple level.

2. Let us consider the manner in which these two requirements af-fect ___ cultural development.

3. This situation exercises a strong control ___ population density. 4. Such a low level of population concentration allows little room

___ occupational specialization. 5. One does not need to search ___ psychological explanations or

to point ___ geographical isolation ___ centres ___ diffusion. 6. ___ population concentration there is little specialization; ___

shifting cultivation there can be no large permanent settlements.

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7. ___ addition to a low population concentration, dependence ___ slash-and-burn agriculture necessitates periodic moving ___ the village.

8. Harvesting must be daily or several times ___ a week. 9. Even with all the opportunities ___ accumulation ___ material

goods afforded ___ us, frequent moving inhibits their full realization. 10. If equipment is expendable, it is also not normally lavishly

made, so that the expertise provided ___ specialized artisans finds no market.

11. Just as the standard climate has features ___ which the vegeta-tion must adapt, slash-and-burn agriculture has characteristics ___ which a culture must adapt.

12. The most significant of these derive ___ the short period of time that the garden remains productive.

13. The amount of land ___ cultivation ___ any time must always be slight ___ comparison with that held in reserve.

14. ___ large the smaller the community the longer it will be able to remain settled in one spot.

15. While it might be feasible a temperate climate to exploit fields ___ considerable distance ___ the settlement, this solution is not practi-cal in the forests.

D. Memorize the words and phrases given in the list on p. 51.

SECTION V

Some Problems of Translating International Words

A. Read carefully the following and share your opinions on the problems both in Russian and English.

Интернационализмы в роли «ложных друзей переводчика»

Интернационализмы – это слова, встречающиеся в ряде язы-ков и обладающие в той или иной степени фонетическим, грамма-тическим и семантическим сходством. Интернациональная лексика научно-технических текстов включает как терминологические, так и нетерминологические лексические единицы [1].

57

В научно-технических переводах постоянно встречаются ошибки при передаче как интернациональных терминов, так и ин-тернациональных общенаучных слов, причем ошибки при передаче последних существенно преобладают.

Минимальный

контекст с интерна-циональным словом

Вариант переводчика

Вариант редактора

adequate pressure адекватное давление

правильный выбор давления

candidate fumer compositions

кандидатные газо-образующие составы

представляющие интерес газообра-зующие составы

ideal delivery promise date идеальная гарантий-ная дата выпуска продукции

теоретическая гарантийная дата выпуска продукции

is only marginally larger только маргинально больше

лишь немного больше

massive tube failures массированные раз-рушения труб

сильные поврежде-ния труб

permanent change перманентное пре-вращение

необратимое превращение

laboratory control plays a critical part

лабораторный кон-троль играет крити-ческую роль

лабораторный контроль играет важную роль

Traditionally, a major ob-stacle to the efficient pro-duction of ...

Традиционно основ-ным препятствием для эффективного получения ...

Обычно основным препятствием для эффективного получения ...

This representation was originally developed as a tool for proving theorems in projective geometry

Такое представление было оригинально развито для доказа-тельства теорем ак-сонометрии

Такое представление было первоначаль-но развито для дока-зательства теорем аксонометрии

If the logic circuit receives a signal from the solenoid of the diverter valve, but does not, upon actuation, get an appropriate signal from the cycle switch, then there is a blockage some-

Если логический кон-тур получает сигнал от соленоида на от-водящем клапане, но не получает после активации соответ-ствующий сигнал от переключателя цикла,

Если логический кон-тур получает сигнал от электромагнита на отводящем клапа-не, но не получает после включения соответствующий сигнал от переключа-

58

where downstream from the master valve

то это значит, что где-то вниз по тече-нию от основного клапана имеется за-тор

теля цикла, то это значит, что где-то ниже по течению от основного клапана имеется затор

This fault reset monitor (see Fig.1) would allow a preset number of actuations of the reset button; but continued actuations of the reset but-ton would cause the fault reset monitor to count out

Этот монитор возвра-та по сбою (см. рис.1) допускает заранее установленное число активаций возврат-ной кнопки, однако дальнейшие актива-ции возвратной кнопки приводят к выключению мо-нитора возврата по сбою

Этот монитор воз-врата по сбою (см. рис. 1) допуска-ет заранее установ-ленное число вклю-чений кнопки сбро-са, однако дальней-шее включение кнопки сброса при-водит к выключе-нию монитора сбро-са по неисправности

Some extra Ga has to be added to the etch melt be-tween runs to compensate for the material dissolved from the slices

Чтобы компенсиро-вать материал, рас-творенный с пленок, между опытами сле-дует добавлять неко-торое дополнитель-ное количество Ga к травящему расплаву

Чтобы восстано-вить материал, рас-творенный с пленок, между опытами сле-дует добавлять не-которое дополнительное количество галлия к травящему расплаву

Protein concentration was determined by the method of Lowry et al (9) using bovine serum albumin as the standart

Концентрация белка была определена ме-тодом Лоури и др. (9), в котором в каче-стве стандарта ис-пользуется альбумин бычьей сыворотки

Содержание белка определяли метода-ми Лоури и др. (9), используя в качестве стандарта альбумин бычьей сыворотки

From the resulting data, correlations were obtained which can accurately repro-duce the vapor-pressure curve, the saturated liquid densities, and densities of the compressed liquid

Из полученных дан-ных были выведены корреляции, с по-мощью которых можно точно воспро-извести кривую дав-ления паров, плотно-сти жидкости при насыщении и сжатой жидкости

Из полученных дан-ных были выведены соотношения, точно описывающие кри-вую давления паров, плотности жидкости при насыщении и сжатой жидкости

59

The location of the disloca-tion etch pits can then be compared with the posi-tions of interference fringes which can also be used to measure the taper angle and thickness of the film

Положение дислока-ционных ямок трав-ления может быть сопоставлено с пози-циями интерферен-ционных полос, ко-торые могут быть также использованы для измерения угла наклона и толщины пленки

Положение дисло-кационных ямок травления может быть сопоставлено с расположением интерференционных полос, которые мо-гут также использо-ваться для измере-ния угла шлифа и толщины пленки

Group 2 shows the transi-tions which arise from vi-brational levels of the nor-mal state to various levels of the electronic excited state

В группе 2 представ-лены переходы с ко-лебательных уровней нормального со-стояния на различные уровни возбужденно-го электронного со-стояния

В группе 2 пред-ставлены переходы с колебательно-возбужденных уров-ней основного со-стояния на различ-ные уровни элек-тронно-возбужденного со-стояния

... The singularity condition is a mathematical feature signaling the limit of appli-cability of the physical model

Специфичность усло-вия является матема-тической особенно-стью, сигнализи-рующей о наличии предела в примени-мости физической модели

Условие сингуляр-ности является ма-тематической осо-бенностью, свиде-тельствующей о наличии предела в применимости фи-зической модели

SECTION VI

Translating and Writing Abstracts

A. Read and translate the following into English in writing: Аннотация представляет собой предельно краткое из всех

возможных изложение главного содержания первичного докумен-та, полученное в результате компрессии текста оригинала и в нескольких строчках дающее представление о его тематике. Аннотация не может заменить первичного документа, и ее назна-

60

чение состоит в том, чтобы дать возможность составить мнение о целесообразности более детального ознакомления с данным ма-териалом [8, p.83].

B. Read and translate the sample abstracts in writing. Mind the key

words and the Tenses characterizing the style of writing the abstracts.

Remember that the Verb (сказуемое) in abstracts is often used in Pas-sive Voice:

is concerned with… – касается…(факт) is related to… – имеет отношение к…(факт) are considered… – рассматриваются…(факт) are enumerated… – перечисляются…(факт) have been investigated… – были исследованы…(недавно) are studied…- изучаются…(факт) are being studied… – изучаются…(в течение определенного времени) have been discussed… – обсуждаются…(в последнее время)

Sample 1

ABSTRACT OF A BOOK “NEXT-GENERATION COMPUTERS”

This book discusses how new computer capabilities may change the way you do your job and affect your job life, and looks at the new products you may take part in designing.

It includes contributions from 40 recognized leaders in the fields of artificial intelligence, hardware and software, and architecture and technology assessment. Some of the topics in the book’s three parts are Tomorrow’s Computers, Advanced Technology, Research and Devel-opment, Expert Systems, Speech Recognition, Computer Architecture, and Supercomputers.

A special section provides a solid foundation in each of the major technologies discussed [8, p.86].

61

Sample 2

ABSTRACT OF THE HANDBOOK “INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS”

A Handbook of Automated Systems Design by Ken Stonecipher This is a practical resource for decision makers charged with im-

plementing and maintaining robotics systems. Beginning with an ex-amination of how to define project and system requirements and a de-scription of microcomputer control system, the author then explores robot vision systems, manipulator control systems, jointed-arm kinemat-ics, and the relationship of artificial intelligence to robot performance – all with an eye toward cost effectiveness and economy of design [8, p.86–87].

Sample 3

ABSTRACT OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

Thermal Resistance Analysis and Measurement A simplified method for analyzing the thermal resistance between

a power dissipating element and the package case is described. Methods for minimizing thermal R are also discussed. Some examples showing the practical application of these methods are given. The results ob-tained may be used for calculating hybrid power packages [8, p.87].

Sample 4

ABSTRACT OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER Production Trade-Offs1 in Laser Trimming Operations

The basic principles of laser trimming2 are reviewed. This is fol-

lowed by a discussion of numerous parameters which affect the stability of laser trimmed resistors: resistor geometry and thickness, laser power.

1 trade-off – компромисс. 2 laser trimming – лазерная подгонка (например, пленочных резисто-

ров).

62

The testing procedure used to optimize material, machine and process parameters is described. Production conditions are outlined [8, p.87].

Sample 5

ОЦЕНКА ХАРАКТЕРИСТИК ВЫЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫХ СИСТЕМ ПУТЕМ МОДЕЛИРОВАНИЯ

Evaluation of Computer Systems through Simulation Рассматривается применение методов моделирования для

оценки качества функционирования проектируемых ВС. Перечис-ляются основные этапы составления программы моделирования. Указывается, что наиболее важной ее частью является описание операционной системы [8, p.87].

C. Write a short abstract (3–6 sentences) of your course paper (di-

ploma project) or scientific article, etc.

63

PART III. ENQUIRY

SECTION I

Discussing Enquiry

Enquiry presents investigations rather than established knowledge.

It involves asking questions, suggesting possible answers, putting for-ward and verifying hypotheses, expressing relationships between obser-vations and hypotheses, and expressing doubts and possibilities.

Enquiry – исследование, расследование, запрос, вопрос, выдви-

жение гипотез и подтверждение их; выражение уверенности и неуве-ренности в том, что имеет место быть, и т.д.

A. Enquiries involve raising questions for further investigation. Read

the following paragraph about sleep and identify: 1) what is already known; 2) what is not yet known. List the questions for further investi-

gation which are raised and implied. Much research has been carried out in recent years into sleep. We

know a great deal about the mechanics of sleep and we are beginning to know about the biochemical changes involved. However, we are still a long way from finding out answers to such questions as how much sleep a person needs. While the physiological bases of sleep remain very much a matter for conjecture we do nevertheless have considerable evidence on how much sleep people do in fact obtain. We still need to know more about the kinds of effects that sleep deprivation causes. In spite of the considerable effort devoted to investigating why we sleep, there is still disagreement in this area. The fact that sleep deprivation causes numerous harmful effects suggests that the body requires sleep to restore itself. However, more research is needed to determine whether this is so or whether sleep is the result of adaptation to the environment.

64

There is also the possibility that these two alternatives may not be in-compatible.

B. Enquiries involve the interaction of observations and hypotheses.

Match each of the following hypotheses to the observations which sup-port it:

OBSERVATIONS HYPOTHESES 1. Armadillos sleep 18 hours and

more a day. 2. Sheep and goats sleep less than

4 hours a day. 3. Many travelers sleep irregular ly

for a few days after an interconti-nental air journey.

4. Some animals sleep at night, some during the day.

5. Gorillas sleep for several hours at a stretch while small rodents sleep in bursts of a few minutes.

6. Newborn infants may spend an average of 16 hours sleeping in each 24-hour period. During the first year of life total sleep time drops sharply.

7. Young organisms suffer fewer ill-effects from lack of sleep than older ones.

8. Sleep is particularly important for animals which have to maintain a constant body temperature.

a. Each species has a typical sleep pattern.

b. Age is related to the sensitiv-

ity to effects of sleep deprivation.

c. Animals of different species

require differing amounts of sleep.

d. When sleep is displaced

in time, sleep patterns are disrupted but will become reorganized in their original pattern in time.

e. Age is associated with

varying amounts of sleep. f. Sleep conserves energy in

species whose metabolic requirements are high.

C. Use your answers to complete the following statements: 1. The fact that…….(observation) suggests that……(hypotheses). 2. It is reasonable to suppose that……(hypotheses). 3. This is borne out by the fact that……(observation). D. The main passage in this unit (р. 66) concerns observations, hypothe-

ses and controlled investigation. Read this introduction and identify the topic:

65

Paranormal phenomena have long presented a serious challenge to science. Various sciences have attempted to come to grips with the phenomena, but with no clear-cut success. Ways must be found of apply-ing the scientific method to investigating the cause of the phenomena.

In order to limit the scope of the enquiry we decided to concen-trate on the phenomena of metal-bending. On the basis of a large number of observations it appears that the following effects occur:

– metal objects can be broken or bent when stroked gently but without mechanical force

– the same effect can occur with no direct contact between the sub-ject and the metal object

– scientific instruments can be influenced so that they malfunc-tion or stop working.

The first question to be raised about the metal-bending abilities of the 100 or so people who have so far come forward is: is their ability ge-nuine? The easy explanation that the whole situation is based on fraud does not stand up before the facts. Many people have observed the metal-bending effect. It is difficult to believe that in all cases the observers have been deceived or are involved in deception. If so, the deception would surely have been discovered. Moreover some of the metal-benders are very young children and it is hard to believe that they could have de-veloped the necessary conjuring skill.

The observations raise a number of questions about the nature of the phenomenon, the metal-benders and the extent of their abilities. In addition to investigating these questions descriptively we also attempted to investigate the possibility of some form of radiation being the causa-tive agent. Thus we attempted to answer the questions: how is the phe-nomenon to be scientifically interpreted?

E. Write notes to answer these questions: 1. What observations indicate that metal-bending is a challenge to

science? 2. What evidence is there that the metal-bending phenomenon is

genuine? 3. What hypothesis was investigated? 4. What was the other aim of the investigations? 5. What does the writer mean by 'scientifically interpreted’?

66

SECTION II

Extensive Reading

A. Now turn to the main passage, which begins on page 66. Read the whole passage rapidly and identify the sections which deal with the following topics:

1. Kinds of people with metal-bending powers. 2. Investigation of causal mechanisms. 3. Description of range of phenomena. 4. Conclusions. 5. Description of a typical instance of metal-bending. 6. Preliminary descriptive experiments. B. Some of the following information is given in the passage. Read

the passage rapidly and look for the answers. Note that some of the information is not given in the passage.

1. The average length of time needed to bend metal. 2. Whether people lose weight during metal-bending. 3. The minimum age of people with metal-bending powers. 4. The relationship between metal-bending and telepathy. 5. Whether wooden and glass objects can be bent. 6. The easiest metal to bend.

SECTION III

Intensive Reading and Translating

A. Now read and translate passages I, II, V in writing using transla-tion techniques. Answer the questions in the margin and analyse the en-quiries.

I Before we consider what mechanisms could

possibly underlay the metal-bending effect, we must first help ourselves by starting with a brief summary of what it is that we shall have to try to explain. The multitude of the accounts makes it

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1. Write an example of this statement. 2. What two attitudes are mentioned? 3. Why is this curi-ous? 4. What happens when the observer is not concentrating on the object? 5. What is the effect of the presence of sceptics? 6. What explains the feelings of fatigue? 7. What needs fur-ther investigation?

clear that we are dealing with a genuine effect which can happen sometimes as a result of direct contact with a subject, and sometimes without it. The main action in the case of direct contact appears to be that of gentle stroking by the fin-gers of one hand. The length of time taken to cause an appreciable bend seems to vary, but it is normally less than thirty minutes and more than two or three; moreover, for a particular sub-ject it can vary considerably from one day to the next1.

So also the attitude of the subject during the stroking process varies considerably2. Some concentrate very hard and focus on the object. Others, again, may take little direct notice of the piece of cutlery they are gently stroking.

One curious feature of the bending process is that it appears to go in brief steps; a spoon or fork can bend through many degrees in a fraction of a second3. This often happens when the ob-server's attention has shifted from the object he is trying to bend4. Indeed this feature of bending not happening when the object is being watched is very common. It seems to be correlated with the presence of sceptics or others who have a poor relationship with the subject5. Another fea-ture of the metal bending process is that it appears to require a large amount of energy: feelings of fatigue usually are experienced at the end of a bending session6.

The exhaustion which follows metal-bending can be regarded as possible evidence for the emission of energy during the bending proc-ess. No child has been weighed before and after a bending session, so as yet there are no hard data on this. But it does show that there is an ef-fect here which warrants further investigation7. Energy emission by the subject would also be

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8. A gain of energy must be balanced by …

consistent with one of the fundamental princi-ples of physics, energy conservation – the idea that energy can only be gained at the expense of something else8.

9. Draw a diagram to show what happened to the spoon. 10. What happened when the fork broke during previous ob-servations? 11. What is the evi-dence for the authen-ticity of the phe-nomenon?

II In one typical observation the subject was

handed a teaspoon which had been brought along with other materials. I held the bowl end while he stroked it gently with one hand. After about twenty seconds the thinnest part of the stem sud-denly became soft for a length of approximately half a centimetre and then the spoon broke in two9. The ends very rapidly hardened up again – in less than a second. There was also, as far as could be determined by touch, a complete ab-sence of heat at the fracture. This sequence of sudden softening and complete loss of cohesive strength, breakage, and then rapid hardening was almost identical to that observed when the fork broke during previous observations10.

The subject could simply not have surrepti-tiously applied enough pressure to have brought this about, not to mention the pre-breakage sof-tening of the metal. Nor could the teaspoon have been tampered with – it had been in my own possession for the past year11.

B. Read passages III, IV, VI. Translate them “at sight” and answer

the questions in the margin.

III The question we now have to ask ourselves

concerns the nature of the people with metal-bending powers. Our category of people with strong metal-bending powers contains thirty-eight, of whom only one is a man, three are wom-en and all the rest are under seventeen.

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12. How is this question answered? 13. What hypothesis does this evidence support?

It is interesting to note the almost complete absence of adult males on this list. Against this, there is the high proportion of children. Why? Does the developing brain possess the ability to bend metal only until adulthood?12

One might begin to answer this by consider-ing the possibility that children may have spent more time in experimenting with metal-bending than adults. There is little detailed evidence on this, but from the hundreds of letters I have re-ceived from people who claim to have some form of power, about as many adults as children appear to have tried to bend cutlery at some time or other13.

As the next possibility one could conjecture that metal-bending is a power which may have survival value in the young but is not needed in the adult. This seems unlikely, and more prob-able is the idea that the ability to bend metal may be a secondary consequence of the ability to communicate telepathically, assuming a common mechanism. After all, telepathic ability may not be so unrelated to metal-bending, since both in-volve effects at a distance.

In any case we must treat the figures with caution and be guarded in our speculations.

IV With the number of subjects now available

the possibility of a full scientific analysis of the phenomenon looks very real.

One of the first steps in the investigation was to standardize the objects being bent. It is all very well observing literally hundreds of bent or bro-ken spoons and forks, but one needs to know their past history. Accordingly, pieces of copper and aluminium strip about 10 centimetres in length, 0,6 centimetres in width and 0,2 centime-

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14. Why were pieces of this type pre-pared? 15. Why were the strips placed in a furnace ? 16. What was found to be a suitable form? 17. To do what?

tres in depth were prepared.14 Some of these were cut directly from long strips of the material; others were also heated in an electric furnace at 550°C so as to remove, as far as possible, any sources of stress. It also made them softer so that they could either be used for 'warming up' at the beginning of each bending session, or else be that much easier to bend when placed in sealed containers of various kinds.15

Another priority in the early stages was to pin down the range of materials which could be bent. Was it just metal, or were other substances susceptible? To find out, variously shaped spe-cimens of plastic, both flexible and brittle, glass, carbon and wood were introduced into the ses-sions, together with specimens of other metals – lead, tin, zinc, silver, iron, tungsten, as well as the standard aluminium and copper strips. The an-swer was that all the metals could be bent when in a suitable form16 and the best was a strip or cylinder with the same cross-sectional areas as our standard strips. Strips of plastic could also be distorted, bending if made of pliable plastic, and breaking if not. On one occasion, a subject suc-ceeded in breaking a carbon rod. Nothing has so far happened with glass.

Then arose the question of the relative ease with which the different objects could be dis-torted, if indeed it were found possible to do so.17 The aluminium strips initially proved far more difficult to bend than the copper ones, though one new subject had no problem in bending a very hard aluminium comb completely double.

V Our next step in the investigation was to de-

termine the nature of any radiation which might have been involved during the bending process –

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18. This means that electromagnetic ra-diation is considered as a possible … of … 19. List the types of tubes and the radia-tions they exclude. 20. This implies that: a) the subjects had tampered with the tubes, b) metal-bending requires practice and effort.

with the idea of its possibly being the causative agent. Electromagnetic radiation is an obvious candidate for this18. Whether electromagnetic radiation of a certain range of wavelengths is involved or not can be discerned by making use of the fact that it cannot penetrate metal shielding of a certain thickness. So, if bending of objects could still occur when effectively screened from these wavelengths, then clearly such radiation could be discounted as a factor in the bending process. Ionizing radiation producing electrically-charged particles, or ions must also be considered as the possible agent in metal-bending. Such radiation can be detected by a Geiger counter.

In preliminary experiments our subjects were asked to bend strips of softened aluminium, cop-per or silver which were sealed inside tubes that selectively excluded electromagnetic radiation of certain frequencies19. Two of the tubes were of fine wire mesh, effective against electromag-netic radiation of wavelengths in the range of less than 1 mm, and the other was made of quartz which is transparent to visible long-range waves and not much else. No one succeeded in bending the strips in any of the tubes during labo-ratory sessions. It is worth mentioning, however, that two of the best metal-benders, after a week at home with samples of all three types of tube, returned them with the aluminium strips inside fantastically distorted, and none of the seals had been broken20. This gave some hint that either very long or very short wave radiation was at work, while ordinary radio waves seemed to be ex-cluded.

It might be possible that bending might oc-cur as a result of a temperature gradient being set up across the specimen. This would result in differential expansion and therefore in distor-

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21. What temperature increase has been noticed? 22. What type of lea-kage was observed? 23. What hypothesis do these two pieces of evidence disprove? 24. Why were the results startling?

tion. In no case of metal-bending has any tem-perature increase been noted other than that which could be caused by the warmth of the sub-ject's hand21.

A further possible candidate was ionizing radiation. To detect this, I used both a gold-leaf electroscope and a Geiger counter. The electro-scope was charged so that the leaf was at a meas-ured deflection, and then a subject tried to bend a piece of metal placed on the other side of the elec-troscope or a piece held close to the plate of the instrument. If ionizing radiation had been pre-sent, there would have been a more rapid leak-age of electric charge than normal from the leaf; it was the same as when the electroscope was normally discharging, but then no bending was taking place22. In other words, no ionizing radiation was in evidence.

The position with a Geiger counter, how-ever, was not so clear cut. Many bending sessions were monitored, either with the Geiger counter or with a larger instrument. On no occasion was there any deflection above the steady background level23.

But strangely enough, deflections were ob-tained when the subjects tried to influence the larger monitor directly. The results with one six-teen-year old girl, whose metal-bending powers were not well attested, were startling24. Accord-ing to the record on the strip chart, she achieved a series of huge changes in the reading on the moni-tor: the biggest being up to about a thousand times the background level. A very curious situation had arisen. The instrument was in good working condition, yet could be affected by human beings in a way which almost suggested a malfunction, as we could be nearly certain that no high energy radiation was in fact involved.

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25. What are the two positive find-ings? 26. How do you think the passage will continue? a) By providing fur-ther instances of metal-bending. b) By considering scientific explanations for the phenomenon. c) By considering the evidence against the authenticity of metal-bending.

VI To summarize this preliminary series of

tests, there was no concrete evidence for any involvement of electromagnetic or ionizing radiation during the bending process. Nor was there any indication of temperature rise in the specimen being distorted. But what could now be said with complete confidence was that the metal-bending effect does occur, and can also occur at a distance. Apart from this, the one posi-tive finding25 was that metal-benders can make Geiger counters malfunction. It was evident that a number of the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle had been assembled, but it was not clear that they belonged to the same puzzle. The time had come to try to make sense of them in the light of the body of scientific knowledge26.

Word list

Nouns and noun phrases 1) account – счет, расчет, подсчет, отчет 2) adulthood – зрелый возраст 3) attitude – отношение (к) 4) bowl – кубок, чаша 5) consequence – следствие; вывод 6) cutlery – ножевые изделия, ножевой товар 7) degree – градус 8) emission – выделение, распространение 9) exhaustion – изнеможение, истощение 10) at the expense (of) – за счет 11) evidence – основание, доказательство 12) feature – особенность 13) feelings of fatigue – состояние усталости 14) fraction – доля, дробь 15) fracture – перелом, трещина 16) leakage – утечка, течь, просачивание 17) malfunction – неисправная работа; неправильное сраба-

тывание; аварийный режим

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18) mesh – петля 19) multitude – множество 20) the question

arose – возник вопрос

21) relationship – родство, отношение, взаимоотношение, взаимосвязь

22) sequence – последовательность, очередность, итог, результат

23) a series (of) – ряд, серия, комплект, цикл, последова-тельность

24) specimens – образцы, экземпляры 25) speculation – размышление, обдумывание, теория, до-

гадка 26) summary – резюме, конспект, сводка 27) stem – ствол, стебель, рукоятка, черенок 28) survival – пережиток, выживание 29) value – цена, стоимость, ценность, значение 30) tungsten – вольфрам

Verbs and verbal phrases

1) appears to be – оказывается 2) assume – предполагать, получать, брать на себя,

присваивать 3) attest – удостоверять, подтверждать 4) bend (bent,bent) – сгибаться, гнуться, изгибаться 5) claim – утверждать, заявлять 6) concern – касаться, иметь отношение 7) conjecture – предполагать 8) determine – определять 9) discern – различать, распознавать 10) distort – искажать, искривлять 11) experience – испытывать 12) gain – приобретать 13) give some hint – наводить на мысль 14) harden – затвердеть, застывать 15) involve – вовлекать, запутывать, приводить к 16) make sense – понять, осмыслить 17) occur – случиться, происходить

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18) pin down – дать точное объяснение 19) regard as – рассматривать, считать 20) remove – передвигать, перемещать, удалять 21) result in – приводить к 22) shift – перемещаться, изменяться, передвигаться 23) strip – сдирать, снимать 24) sum up – суммировать, резюмировать 25) survive – выживать, пережить, выдержать 26) tamper – вмешиваться, подделывать 27) treat – обращаться, относиться 28) underly – лежать в основе 29) vary – меняться, изменяться, варьировать 30) warrant – подтверждать; служить оправданием

Adjectives

1) adult (male) – взрослый (мужчина) 2) appreciable – заметный, ощутимый, поддающийся

оценке 3) brittle – хрупкий, ломкий 4) causative (agent) – причинный 5) common – простой, обыкновенный 6) consistent – совпадающий, совместимый, согласую-

щийся 7) cross-sectional – имеющий поперечное сечение 8) curious – любопытный 9) flexible – гибкий 10) genuine – искренний, подлинный, истинный 11) gentle stroking – легкое поглаживание 12) jigsaw puzzle – составная картинка – загадка 13) obvious – очевидный, явный 14) pliable=pliant – гибкий, мягкий 15) sealed – запечатанный, скрепленный печатью, не-

известный 16) startling – поразительный, удивительный 17) surreptitious – тайный, скрытый 18) susceptible – восприимчивый, обидчивый, поддающийся

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Adverbs 1. accordingly – таким образом, следовательно, соответст-

венно 2. as far as possible – насколько это возможно 3. as well as – а также 4. considerably – значительно 5. surreptitiously – тайно, тайным образом

SECTION IV

Vocabulary Study

A. Study the sentences with italicized words. Then identify the part of speech and write your own definition for the word on the line pro-vided.

1. Considering the fact that Joan has a genuine personality, it is not surprising that she is the newspaper’s leading reporter.

Genuine___(__)_________________________________________

2. She hinted her husband to take a week off from work for what would be their first vacation in two years.

Hinted___(__)__________________________________________

3. Nothing too unusual for me! I’m quite conventional in my tastes. Conventional __(__)_____________________________________

4. This winter’s record snowfall has determined the city’s supply of salt for melting the ice from the roads.

Determined __(__)______________________________________

5. After careful consideration, we discerned that idea and decided to keep to our original plans.

Discerned __(__)________________________________________

6. The team always has strong players and dominates the league. Dominates__(__)________________________________________

7. They began to exploit the mineral resources of the country by setting up a number of new mines.

To exploit__(__)________________________________________

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8. The telephone at work was ringing incessantly and I felt like I was going crazy

Incessantly__(__)_______________________________________

9. My insurance gives me limited liability in case someone has an accident while inside my home.

Liability__(__)_________________________________________

10. They tried to treat his disappointment by taking him out to lunch.

Treat__(__)____________________________________________

11. I found the desk clerk’s behavior curious so I complained to the manager.

Сurious__(__)__________________________________________

12. The first patrons to enter the store on Saturday morning will receive a small gift.

Patrons__(__)__________________________________________

13. We warranted our proposal and were awarded the contract. Warranted__(__)________________________________________

14. With the closing of that branch, its responsibilities will be shifted to the three remaining branches.

Shifted__(__)___________________________________________

15. Knowing the company’s poor performance record, I look on their new proposal with great skepticism.

Skepticism__(__)_______________________________________

16. He knew the stock market was highly speculative, but still he was shocked at the extent of his losses.

Speculative__(__)_______________________________________

17. They regarded my interest in company stock when they re-ported on its recent profits.

Regarded__(__)_________________________________________ B. In each set of words, cross out the word that does not have a

similar meaning to the first. Compare your answers with those of an-other student. Discuss why the words are similar.

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1. aggressive angry energetic forceful 2. coax compel persuade urge 3. conventional agreeable customary widely accepted 4. deplete decrease empty leave 5. discard dismiss retain throw out 6. dominate control house master 7. exploit destroy promote utilize 8. incessantly constantly illegally without end 9. liability disadvantage obligation promise 10. minimize cancel discount reduce 11. offensive attacking courageous insulting 12. patron client rival user 13. revamp patch up reveal revise 14. shuffle change confuse intermix 15. skepticism assistance doubt questioning 16. speculative risky settled uncertain 17. stimulate arouse criticize encourage 18. visionary dreamer guardian prophet

C. Pay attention to the use of prepositions with, of, by, in, up, at,

along, to, -, on, after, out, from, down and fill them in the blanks. 1. We must first help ourselves ___ starting ___ a brief summary

of what it is that we shall have to try to explain. 2. One curious feature ___ bending process is that it appears to go

___ brief steps. 3. It seems to be correlated ___ the presence of skeptics of others

who have a poor relationship __ the subject. 4. The subject was handed a teaspoon which had been brought ___

with other materials. 5. Feelings of fatigue usually are experienced ___ the end ___ a

bending session. 6. The ends very rapidly hardened ___ again. 7. Energy can only be gained ___ the expense of something else. 8. This sequence was almost identical __ that observed when the

fork broke during previous observations. 9. The question we now have to ask ourselves concerns ___ the na-

ture of the people __ metal-bending powers.

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10. One could conjecture that metal-bending is a power which may have survival value __ the young but is not needed ___ the adult.

11. It is interesting to note the almost complete absence ___ adult males ___ this list.

12. There is little detailed evidence ___ this. 13. ___ all, telepathic ability may not be so unrelated to metal-

bending, since both involve effects ___ a distance. 14. ___ the number of subjects now available the possibility of a

full scientific analysis of the phenomenon looks very real. 15. Pieces of copper and aluminium strip about 10 centimetres ___

length, 0,6 centimetres width and 0,2 depth were prepared. 16. To find ___ , variously shaped specimens of plastic were intro-

duced into the sessions. 17. But ___ the hundreds of letters I have received from people

who claim to have some form of power, about as many adults as chil-dren appear to have tried to bend cutlery ___ some time or other.

18. Another priority ___ the early stages was to pin ___ the range of materials which could be bent.

19. ___ one occasion, a subject succeeded in breaking a carbon rod.

20. The time had come to try to make sense of them ___ the light of the body ___ scientific knowledge.

D. Memorize the words and phrases given in the list on p. 73.

SECTION V

Translation of General Scientific International Words (Adverbs) into Russian

A. Read carefully the following and share your opinions on the problems both in Russian and English.

Основные способы перевода

общенаучных интернационализмов на русский язык

В научно-технических текстах на английском языке довольно часто встречаются наречия с суффиксом –ly, которые характерны

80

именно для этих текстов и многие из которых образовались в этих текстах и практически не отражаются в общих словарях. Они обла-дают яркой общенаучной спецификой, которую переводчик науч-но-технической литературы должен знать и учитывать для полно-ценной передачи информации, заключенной в данных лексических единицах [1].

Минимальный

контекст с интерна-циональным словом

Вариант переводчика

Вариант редактора

Chemically, it is al-most exactly the same as the ordinary hydro-gen…

Химически он почти ничем не отличается от обычного водоро-да

По химическим свой-ствам он почти ничем не отличается от обычного водорода

In the present analysis, the position of the transition point and the proper form of, the WKBI transformation are determined with-out any mathemati-cally restrictive assumption

В настоящем ис-следовании поло-жение точки пере-хода и собствен-ный вид преобра-зования WKBI определяется без каких-либо мате-матически огра-ничивающих предложений

В настоящем исследо-вании положение точ-ки перехода и соответ-ствующий вид преоб-разования WKBI опре-деляется без каких бы то ни было ограничи-вающих предложений математического ха-рактера

Parallel, twoline, re-versing, positive-metering, fully hy-draulically actuated lubrication systems

Параллельные, однолинейные, вентильные, воз-вратные пружины, активируемые гидравлически

Работающие на двух параллельных трубо-проводах реверсивные поршневые насосы с гидравлическим при-водом

Приведем примеры, иллюстрирующие различные способы пе-

ревода наречий рассматриваемого типа с суффиксом – ly. Анализ примеров показывает, что при переводе такие наречия чаще всего заменяются соответствующими русскими эквивалентами, носящи-ми весьма унифицированный характер. По образцу перевода репре-зентативных слов, даваемых ниже, можно переводить другие наре-чия подобного типа.

81

В определенных случаях при их переводе требуются соответ-ствующие лексико-грамматические трансформации, для того чтобы не нарушить стилистические нормы русской технической речи.

The microphone used in the 4170 is mechanically and acoustically similar to the B&K Type 4134

Микрофон, используемый в акусти-ческом зонде типа 4170, по механи-ческим и акустическим свойствам аналогичен микрофону типа 4134 фирмы B&K

Chemically, the petroleum brines studied in this small area fit the generally accepted pattern of an increase in cal-cium, sodium and chloride content with increasing salin-ity

Химический состав нефтяных рас-солов, изученных в этом небольшом районе, удовлетворяет общеприня-тому правилу об увеличении содер-жания кальция, натрия и хлорида увеличением солености

Experimentally, a best switching speed of 30 to 40 ps could be measured which, however, constituted the limit-ing time resolution of the measuring apparatus rather than the JJ response

Наименьшие экспериментальные скорости переключения составляли 30–40 пс, правда, эти величины ха-рактеризуют временное решение измерительной аппаратуры, не сам джозефсонновский переход

Experimentally, the average mean square error is often es-timated by the average sample mean square error in the given image defined by …

В экспериментах мерой усреднен-ной среднеквадратичной ошибки нередко служит среднее значение поэлементных среднеквадратичных ошибок изображения, равное …

Geographically, the supply model consists of nine regions corresponding to the nine cen-sus regions of the U.S.

В территориальном разрезе блок производства электроэнергии охва-тывает девять районов, соответст-вующих девяти районам системы переписи США

Geometrically, the distance at each point in the image is lost in the projection from the three-dimensional world, re-sulting in the kinds of ambiguities depicted in Fig. 20

Из геометрических соображений следует, что при проекции трехмер-ного пространства на плоскость те-ряется информация об удаленности точек объекта, что приводит к раз-личного рода неопределенностям, показанным на рис. 20

82

In radiography, it is impossi-ble to obtain such an unde-graded prototype photo-graphically

Получение такого неискаженного эталона фотографическим спосо-бом в рентгенографии невозможно

Photometrically, the light intensity at each point in an image can result from an in-finitude of combination, reflectance, and orientation at the corresponding scene point

По законам фотометрии интенсив-ность света в точке изображения может быть результатом бесконеч-ного числа комбинаций падающего освещения, отражательной способ-ности и ориентации поверхности в соответствующей точке сцены

Physically, Eq. (40) implies that …

Физический смысл формулы (40) состоит в том, что …

Structurally, it consists of a number of background func-tions called from the AML interpreter, a real-time task that runs every 20 ms, and a number of shared data tables that are used to keep track of device configuration, and sta-tus information

В структурном плане он состоит из нескольких фоновых функций, дос-тупных в интерпретаторе языка AML, одной программы реального времени, которая выполняется каж-дые 20 мс, и нескольких таблиц со-вместно используемых данных, ха-рактеризующих конфигурацию уст-ройства и его текущее состояние

В несколько обобщенном плане способы перевода указанных

наречий можно представить в следующем виде: по … свойствам, по … составу, из … соображений (следует), с … точки зрения, ка-ким-либо способом, в … плане.

SECTION VI

Translating and Writing Essay

A. Read and convey the main idea in English. Mind the links and phrases used in essays.

Эссе должно состоять из: 1. Введения (an introductory paragraph), в котором ставится

проблема, констатируются факты, касающиеся темы изложения.

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2. Изложения главного содержания темы (the main body) в двух или трех абзацах (body paragraphs), в которых передается точка зрения автора.

3. Заключения (a closing paragraph). В нем автор обобщает из-ложенное в форме выводов.

При написании эссе следует использовать такие связующие

слова и фразы, как to start with (to begin with); also, furthermore, moreover; for example, to sum up, all in all; I believe, in my opinion; one major advantage / disadvantage of; in the first place; secondly, thirdly; however, on the one hand / on the other hand; in conclusion, etc.

B. Translate the passages “at sight”. Notice the function of each

one.

Introductory Paragraph

Every good essay has a strong opening paragraph. One method that is useful for constructing an opening paragraph is the Generalize-Focus-Survey (обзор, рассмотрение) structure. This is a three- or four-sentence paragraph in which the first sentence makes a generalization about the topic, the second sentence focuses on what will be discussed, and the last one or two sentences survey the details you will present in the body of the essay. Consider (рассмотрим) the following examples on the topic presented in the preceding pages:

Generalize: Many find it advantageous to purchase a home, but others find

renting more suited to their needs.

Focus: While there are advantages for both options, renting is generally

the best choice for young foreign students.

Survey: Foreign students often do not have good credit histories or enough

money to buy a home and need to know that it will not be necessary to find a buyer for the home if they decide to transfer to another school or return home.

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Body: The body of the essay should follow the form of your outline

(план, схема) with separate paragraphs for each major topic. Try to avoid very short paragraphs or very long paragraphs.

Conclusion: The conclusion should sufficiently restate, but not simply repeat,

the major points that you have stated in the body of the essay. Consider the following example:

At various times of their lives, people have different needs. While purchasing a home is often the best choice for somebody with an ade-quate income and roots in a community, for the reasons discussed, it is often not the most feasible choice for young foreign students.

Sample Essay

C. Pay attention to the key words and Tenses characterizing the style of writing the essay and translate it in writing.

Introduction It has been said that many people are victims of calcu-

holism, a dependence on the use of calculators, causing a diminished ability to do mathematics on one’s own. Technology in schools, offices, and industry has re-sulted in an unfortunate overdependence on all types of modern devices, but particularly on calculators. Calcu-holism can be avoided if schools and individuals con-centrate on using the mind to do mathematics rather than relying on calculators for simple tasks.

Body Paragraph 1: What is it?

Obviously the term calcuholism has been coined with the intent to compare it to other addictions such as alco-holism. While it is not nearly as serious as alcoholism, dependence on the calculator can be harmful. Abuse of something normally beneficial may lead to a harmful reliance on it. It is not that calculators are harmful, but that overuse may cause harm by causing people to for-get how to do mathematics with their own minds.

Body Paragraph 2:

The problem arises from modern technological ad-vances. In schools, classes become more complicated

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What causes it?

because of the technology for which students must be prepared when they graduate. Calculators are permitted and essential in many such classes. In offices, calcula-tors, computers, and word processing systems are com-monplace because they increase speed and improve efficiency. Business people may spend hours working with numbers and rarely calculate mentally. In industry as well, the emphasis on advanced machines results in individuals’ solving fewer mathematical problems on their own.

Body Paragraph 3: What can be done to alle-viate?

To alleviate the problem, schools should avoid allow-ing students to use calculators too early and should re-quire sufficient in-class work without them. All of us should restrict our use of calculators and strive to do math on our own so that we will not lose our basic math skills.

Conclusion Calcuholism has increased in recent years and will con-tinue to increase due to advances in technology. To avoid dependency, we must do mathematics with our minds from time to time rather than with a machine [12, p.461–462, 468].

D. Write an essay on new research having been done in your group

(university), in our country or abroad. E. Write a 250-word mini-essay on importance of mastering

foreign languages.

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PART IV. ARGUMENT

SECTION I

Discussing Argument

Argument presents points of view rather than established knowl-edge. It involves defending and attacking points of view, persuading and recommending solutions.

Argument – дискуссия, спор; довод в пользу или против чего-либо; убеждение в принятии решений; рекомендации; отстаивание точки зрения; критика и т.д.

A. Expressing a point of view 1. Read this passage on road safety and write down the measures

for preventing road accidents that are implied in it. There are many factors which contribute to the problem of road

safety. Although cars legally must be fitted with seat belts, it is not compulsory to wear them. In spite of a great deal of publicity people still drive after drinking alcohol and the legislation on this is not suffi-ciently strong. A major factor in road accidents is speed and there are obvious ways of limiting that. Lastly, one of the most serious problems is that the police and the courts are unable to enforce adequately current legislation.

2. Use your answers to complete this passage, which expresses a strong point of view.

Every year hundreds of thousands of people die in road accidents. While you are reading this the chances are that somewhere in the world somebody is about to be killed in a road accident. And the next victim could be you. We must therefore overcome people's apathy towards ...... First of all people must be persuaded...... The legislation on ...... should be ...... It is vitally important that ...... Finally, we must make abso-lutely sure that......

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B. Defending a position 1. Study the following information on road safety, and before

answering the questions think how it could be used to support the argu-ment for making the use of seat belts in cars compulsory.

a) Seat belts prevent the wearer from being injured by the body of the car in a collision.

b) The Road Research Laboratory estimates that the wearing of seat belts would save the lives of 73% of car drivers and passengers.

c) When crash helmets were made compulsory the number of mo-tor cyclists killed decreased.

d) The wearing of seat belts would be easy to enforce. e) Only if there is legislation will people be persuaded to wear seat belts. f) Cars could be fitted with a device which would prevent the igni-

tion being turned on until the safety belt was attached.

2. Use some of the information to complete the following passage, which defends the position that the wearing of seat belts should be made compulsory.

That seat belts save lives is both intuitively obvious and supported by an impressive volume of evidence. Every driver knows that.... There is also scientific evidence which supports the effectiveness of seat belts. For example, ... However, persuasion will not be enough to convince people that they should wear safety belts. Stronger measures are neces-sary. There could be a technological solution to the problem such as…. Alternatively, ... Unlike much legislation this would be perfectly practi-cal because .... Finally there is always the economic argument that....

C. Attacking a position 1. Now study the following statements and diagram which are in

conflict with information in the previous exercises, and that of nowa-days. Match the conflicting pieces of information.

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a) Seat belts provide a sense of security and would therefore in-crease the amount of dangerous driving.

b) There was an increase in the number of fatal accidents to motor cyclists after crash helmets were made compulsory.

c) Seat belts can in some circumstances cause fatal injuries. d) After the first few months people would realize that they could

break the law without being caught. e) The cost of enforcing seat belt legislation would greatly exceed

that saved. f) In time people will voluntarily accept the use of seat belts. g) Seat belts prevent minor injuries, not fatal injuries. h) Speed limits are a more effective way of reducing accidents. i) Seat belts do not protect pedestrians or other non-motorists. j) The number of deaths in the car accidents at the beginning of the

21 century did not change.

2. Which of the above information attacks arguments in favour of the compulsory use of seat belts on the grounds that:

2.1. they are based on incorrect facts; 2.2. they are based on insufficient facts and ignore important evi-

dence; 2.3. they reach unjustified conclusions from the evidence; 2.4. they are not sufficiently precise? 3. Which of the counter-arguments attempt to deny that: 3.1. seat belts save lives; 3.2. legislation is necessary; 3.3. legislation would be economically desirable; 3.4. seat belts are a major factor in road safety? 4. Use some of the counter-arguments to complete this passage

which attacks the position in favour of seat belt legislation. Most people agree that seat belts save lives. However, ... Also,

most of the evidence relates to the voluntary use of safety belts. It is quite likely that if their use were made compulsory ... Moreover it is doubtful whether legislation can force people to use seat belts since ... Evidence from countries where they are compulsory does not show con-clusively that legislation results in a permanent reduction of fatal acci-dents. On the contrary, ... It is thus absurd to consider seat belt legisla-

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tion when a much more effective measure would be to ... In conclusion, seat belt legislation might protect motorists, will not protect ... and might even put them at greater risk and would make it a criminal of-fence to voluntarily subject oneself to a risk so small that it can only be seen by a statistician.

D. Contrasts and compromises 1. Argument involves modifying extreme positions. For example: The majority of people in rural areas are unemployed. The majority of people in rural areas are employed. Possible compromise position: The majority of people in rural areas are under-employed or work

only intermittently.

2. The following statements express compromise positions. Write two contrasting extreme positions to which they relate.

a) Population growth is an important contributory factor rather than the cause of the increase of unemployment.

b) The primary need is for jobs; therefore high output, although important, is not the main consideration.

c) Development efforts should not be concentrated on the large cit-ies.

d) Production methods should be relatively simple and developed in a fairly short time.

e) Simple equipment is normally far less dependent on materials of great purity or exact specifications than highly sophisticated equipment.

f) The distinction between capital and wages goods is not as defi-nite as economists are inclined to think.

3. Now write compromise statements between the following ex-treme positions:

a) There are two alternatives: high technology with a high capital input and high output, or low technology with very little capital input and low output.

b) We cannot afford expensive equipment; on the other hand, we cannot use cheap equipment as we want as much output as possible.

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E. Inferring points of view From the position a writer takes, we can infer the position which he

is opposed to. For example: Jobs have to be created in areas where people are liv-

ing now. Inferred contrary position: Jobs should be created in areas to

which people may move. Note that we can also infer from the position a writer opposes, the

position he holds. Writers often express not only the position they take but the position which they oppose. For example: Jobs have to be cre-ated in areas where people are living now and not primarily in metro-politan areas to which they tend to migrate.

F. Complete these statements to express the position which the

writer opposes. a) Workplaces must be cheap enough to be created in large num-

bers, not so ... that.... b) Some people claim that a lack of work opportunities results

from a lack of capital. Lack of capital can explain a low level of produc-tivity but....

c) In order to reduce migration to the cities, development effort must be devoted to rural areas. Therefore, as long as development effort ... migration to the cities ....

d) Modern industry is quite irrelevant to rural development. It has arisen in societies which are rich in capital and short of labour and therefore cannot be appropriate for societies which ....

e) Attempts to introduce high technology into countries with low technology inevitably kill indigenous technology. Therefore it is not correct to suggest that the transition from low to high technology ....

f) Countless examples can be quoted where advances in technology eliminate jobs without affecting output. It is therefore quite untrue to maintain that....

G. Predicting the development of the passage In the main reading passage (р.92), the writer mentions objections

which have been raised to intermediate technology. Match each of these objections to a counter-argument which attempts to answer it.

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Objections Counter-arguments 1. Intermediate technology means

giving people second best. a) Mechanization does not neces-

sarily result in increased output. 2. High technology always

achieves a high capital/output ratio.

b) The priority is for the unem-ployed to produce useful goods for local use.

3. When capital is concentrated on a small number of work-places, output is increased. Capital is a fixed quantity in an underde-veloped economy.

c) Products of intermediate tech-nology would be cheaper than those of modern factories.

4. Products of intermediate tech-nology would require protec-tion because they would be too expensive.

d) If sophisticated equipment is introduced in an unsophis-ticated environment, the capi-tal/output ratio will be low.

5. The products of intermediate technology would be unsuit-able for export.

e) Intermediate technology is con-cerned with help for people who lack the essential means of subsistence, not those who merely want a higher standard of living.

SECTION II

Extensive Reading Now turn to the main passage, which begins on page 92. Read the

whole of it rapidly and select a suitable title for each section from the following list:

1. Objections raised and discussed 2. Definition of intermediate technology 3. The condition of the poor 4. The nature of the task 5. Research into intermediate technology 6. Help to those who need it most 7. Government policies 8. Applicability of intermediate technology 9. Intermediate technology projects 10. What is the law which Dr Kaldor supports? What is the writer's

view of this law?

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SECTION III

Intensive Reading and Translating

A. Now read and translate passages I, IV, V in writing using trans-lation techniques. Answer the questions in the margin and analyse the arguments. 1. Why is this not an adequate explana-tion?

I What is the typical condition of the poor in

most of the so-called developing countries? Their work opportunities are so restricted that they cannot work their way out of misery. They are underemployed or totally unemployed, and when they do find occasional work their productivity is exceedingly low.

The open and disguised unemployment in the rural areas is often thought to be due entirely to population growth and no doubt this is an im-portant contributory factor. But those who hold this view still have to explain why additional people cannot do additional work. It is said that they cannot work because they lack 'capital'1. But what is 'capital'? It is the product of human work. The lack of capital can explain a low level of productivity but it cannot explain a lack of work opportunities.

The fact remains however that great num-bers of people do not work or work only intermit-tently, and that they are therefore poor and help-less and often desperate enough to leave the vil-lage to search for some kind of existence in the big city. Rural unemployment produces mass-migration into cities, leading to a rate of urban growth which would tax the resources of even the richest societies. Rural unemployment be-comes urban unemployment.

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B. Read passages II, III, VI. Translate them “at sight” and answer the questions in the margin. 2. Why is develop-ment effort concen-trated on the cities? 3. What will be re-sponsible for these harmful conse-quences? 4. What is meant by 'mutual poisoning'? 5. Why is this neces-sary? 6. The main need is to maximize ....not....

II The problem may therefore be stated quite

simply thus: what can be done to bring health to economic life outside the big cities, in the small towns and villages which still contain–in most cases-eighty to ninety per cent of the total popu-lation? As long as the development effort is con-centrated mainly on the big cities,2 where it is easiest to establish new industries, to staff them with managers and men, and to find finance and markets to keep them going, the competition from these industries will further disrupt and de-stroy non-agricultural production in the rest of the country, will cause additional unemployment outside, and will further accelerate the migration of destitute people into towns that cannot absorb them3. The 'process of mutual poisoning' will not be halted4.

It is necessary therefore that at least an im-portant part of the development effort should by-pass the big cities and be directly concerned with the creation of an 'agro-industrial structure' in the rural and small-town areas5. In this connection it is necessary to emphasize that the primary need is workplaces, literally millions of workplaces. No one of course would suggest that output-per-man is unimportant, but the primary considera-tion cannot be to maximize work opportunities for the unemployed and underemployed6.

7. What is consid-ered obvious?

III The task then is to bring into existence mil-

lions of new workplaces in the rural areas and small towns. That modern industry, as it has ari-sen in the developed countries, cannot possibly fulfil this task should be perfectly obvious7. It has

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8. This means that modern industry is: a) possibly appropri-ate; b) definitely not ap-propriate; c) possibly inappro-priate. 9. Where should workplaces be cre-ated?

arisen in societies which are rich in capital and short of labour and therefore cannot possibly be appropriate for societies short of capital and rich in labour8. The real task may be formulated in four propositions. First, that workplaces have to be created in the areas where the people are liv-ing now, and not primarily in metropolitan areas into which they tend to migrate. Second, that these workplaces must be on average cheap enough so that they can be created in large num-bers without this calling for an unattainable level of capital formation and imports9. Third, that the production methods employed must be relatively simple, so that the demands for high skills are minimized, not only in the production process itself but also in matters of organization, raw ma-terial supply, financing, marketing and so forth. Fourth, that production should be mainly from local materials and mainly for local use. These four requirements can be met only if there is a conscious effort to develop and apply what might be called an 'intermediate technology'.

10. From what to what?

IV If we define the level of technology in terms

of equipment cost per workplace, we can call the indigenous technology of a typical developing country – symbolically speaking – a £1-technology, while that of the developed countries could be called a £1,000-technology. The gap between these two technologies is so enormous that a transition from the one to the other is sim-ply impossible10. In fact, the current attempt of the developing countries to infiltrate the £1,000-technology into their economies inevitably kills off the £1-technology at an alarming rate, de-stroying traditional workplaces much faster than modern workplaces can be created, and thus

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11. What has this result on the poor? 12. What technology is required? 13. What level? 14. What consider-ations apart from finance and technol-ogy have to be taken into account? 15. To what extent does sophisticated equipment adapt to market fluctuations ? 16. What is less vul-nerable?

leaves the poor in a more desperate and helpless position than ever before11. If effective help is to be brought to those who need it most, a technol-ogy is required which would range in some in-termediate position between the £1-technology and the £ 1,000-technology12. Let us call it – again symbolically speaking – a £100-technology.

Such an intermediate technology would be immensely more productive than the indigenous technology (which is often in a condition of de-cay), but it would also be immensely cheaper than the sophisticated, highly capital-intensive tech-nology of modern industry. At such a level of capitalization,13 very large numbers of work-places could be created within a fairly short time; and the creation of such workplaces would be 'within reach' for the more enterprising minority within the district, not only in financial terms but also in terms of their education, aptitude, organizing skill and so forth14.

The intermediate technology would also fit much more smoothly into the relatively unsophis-ticated environment in which it is to be utilized. The equipment would be fairly simple and there-fore understandable, suitable for maintenance and repair on the spot. Simple equipment is normally far less dependent on raw materials of great pu-rity or exact specifications and much more adapt-able to market fluctuations than highly sophisti-cated equipment15. Men are more easily trained; supervision, control and organization are simpler; and there is far less vulnerability to unforeseen difficulties16.

V Since the idea of intermediate technology

was first put forward, a number of objections

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17. This objection considers people who ...... but not people who...... 18. Allegedly fixed implies that these ratios are probably fixed/not fixed? 19. What do the former and the lat-ter refer to? 20. What quantity? 21. Where was this referred to previ-ously?

have been raised. The most immediate objections are psychological: 'You are trying to withhold the best and make us put up with something inferior and out-dated’. This is the voice of those who are not in need, who can help themselves and want to be assisted in reaching a higher standard of living at once17. It is not the voice of those with whom we are here concerned, the poverty-stricken mul-titudes who lack any real basis of existence, whether in rural or in urban areas, who have nei-ther 'the best' nor 'the second best' but go short of even the most essential means of subsistence.

There are economists who believe that de-velopment policy can be derived from certain allegedly fixed ratios, such as the capital/output ratio18. Their argument runs as follows: The amount of available capital is given. Now, you may concentrate it on a small number of highly capitalized workplaces, or you may spread it thinly over a large number of cheap workplaces. If you do the latter, you obtain less total output than if you do the former19; you therefore fail to achieve the quickest possible rate of economic growth. Not only 'capital' but also 'wages goods' are held to be a given quantity, and this quantity20

determines 'the limits on wages employment in any country at any given time'.

The first thing that might be said about these arguments is that they are evidently static in cha-racter and fail to take account of the dynamics of development. To do justice to the real situation it is necessary to consider the reactions and capa-bilities of people, and not confine oneself to ma-chinery or abstract concepts. As we have seen before21, it is wrong to assume that the most so-phisticated equipment, transplanted into an unso-phisticated environment, will be regularly worked at full capacity, and if capacity utilization

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22. What other fac-tors ? 23. What law? 24. Mechanization may ...... or ...... the ratio. 25. What is 'the static outlook'? 26. What position does this statement support?

is low, then the capital/output ratio is also low. It is therefore fallacious to treat capital/output ratios as technological facts, when they are so largely dependent on quite other factors22.

The question must be asked moreover whether there is such a law, as Dr Kaldor asserts, that the capital-output ratio grows if capital is concentrated on fewer workplaces. No one with the slightest industrial experience would ever claim to have noticed the existence of such a 'law'23, nor is there any foundation for it in any science. Mechanization and automation are intro-duced to increase the productivity of labour, i.e. the worker/output ratio, and their effect on the capital/output ratio may just as well be negative as it may be positive24. Countless examples can be quoted where advances in technology elimi-nate workplaces at the cost of an additional input of capital without affecting the volume of output. It is therefore quite untrue to assert that a given amount of capital invariably and necessarily pro-duces the biggest total output when it is concen-trated on the smallest number of workplaces.

The greatest weakness of the argument however lies in taking 'capital' – and even 'wages goods' – as 'given quantities' in an underem-ployed economy. Here again, the static outlook inevitably leads to erroneous conclusions25. The output of even a poorly equipped man can be a positive contribution, to 'capital' as well as to 'wages goods'26. The distinction between those two is by no means as definite as the econometri-cians are inclined to think, because the definition of 'capital' itself depends decisively on the level of technology employed.

Let us consider a very simple example. Some earth-moving job has to be done in an area of high unemployment. There is a wide choice of

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27. What alterna-tives would be be-tween these two extremes? 28. Which ex-tremes? 29. How does this alternative differ from those men-tioned? 30. What does this example show? 31. What argu-ments?

technologies, ranging from the most modern earth-moving equipment to purely manual work without tools of any kind27. The 'output' is fixed by the nature of the job, and it is quite clear that the capital/output ratio will be highest if the input of 'capital' is kept lowest. If the job were done without any tools, the capital/output ratio would be infinitely large, but the productivity per man would be exceedingly low. If the job were done at the highest level of modern technology, the capital/output ratio would be low and the produc-tivity per man very high. Neither of these ex-tremes28 is desirable, and a middle way has to be found. The task would be to find an intermediate technology which obtains a fair level of produc-tivity without having to resort to the purchase of expensive and sophisticated equipment. The out-come of the whole venture would be an economic development going far beyond the completion of the initial earth-moving project29. With a total input of’ capital' from outside which might be much smaller than would have been involved in the acquisition of the most modern earth-moving equipment, and an input of (previously unem-ployed) labour much greater than the 'modern' method would have demanded, not only a given project would have been completed, but a whole community would have been set on the path of development30.

Two further arguments have been advanced against the idea of intermediate technology–that its products would require protection within the country and would be unsuitable for export. Both arguments31 are based on mere surmise. In fact a considerable number of design studies and cost-ings, made for specific products in specific dis-tricts, have universally demonstrated that the products of an intelligently chosen intermediate

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32. Which of the arguments does the writer consider: a) contradicted by evidence; b) unimportant?

technology could actually be cheaper than those of modern factories in the nearest big city. Whether or not such products could be exported is an open question; the unemployed are not con-tributing to exports now, and the primary task is to put them to work so that they will produce use-ful goods from local materials for local use32.

33. What is consid-ered obvious? 34. Examples of what?

VI The applicability of intermediate technology

is, of course, not universal. There are products which are themselves the typical outcome of highly sophisticated modern industry and cannot be produced except by such industry.

That the applicability of intermediate tech-nology is extremely wide, even if not universal, will be obvious33 to anyone who takes the trouble to look for its actual applications today. Exam-ples34 can be found in every developing country and indeed in the advanced countries as well. What then is missing? It is simply that the brave and able practitioners of intermediate technology do not know of one another, do not support one another, and cannot be of assistance to those who want to follow a similar road but do not know how to get started. They exist as it were outside the mainstream of official and popular interest. Institutional arrangements for dispensing aid are generally such that there is an insurmountable bias in favour of large-scale projects on the level of the most modern technology.

If we could turn official and popular interest away from the grandiose projects and to the real needs of the poor, the battle could be won. A study of intermediate technologies as they exist today already would disclose that there is enough knowledge and experience to set everybody to work, and where there are gaps, new design stud-

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ies could be made very quickly. Action programmes on a national and su-

pranational basis are needed to develop interme-diate technologies suitable for the promotion of full employment in developing countries [11, p.57–61].

Word list

Nouns and noun phrases 1) aid – помощь, поддержка; pl – вспомогательные

средства; пособия; training aids – учебные по-собия; сборы; налоги; дань

2) aptitude – способности; пригодность; уместность; склонность (for)

3) at least – по крайней мере 4) bias – предубеждение (against – против кого-либо);

пристрастие (in favour of, towards – в пользу кого-либо); предвзятость, тенденционность, необъективность, уклон, склон

5) decay – гниение, распад, разложение, упадок, разру-шение

6) fluctuations – колебания 7) gap – пробел, лакуна; брешь, пролом, щель; глубо-

кое расхождение, разрыв; промежуток, интер-вал, «окно» (в расписании); отставание (в чем-либо), дефицит

8) in terms of education

– в отношении сферы образования

9) in terms of figures

– языком цифр

10) in terms of money

– в денежном выражении

11) mainstream – основное направление, главная линия (в ис-кусстве, литературе и т.п.)

12) misery – нищета; страдание; невзгоды; несчастья; разг. нытик

13) objection – выражение

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14) multitude – множество; большое число; масса; толпа 15) opportunity – возможность; удобный случай 16) poison – яд 17) productivity – производительность, продуктивность 18) proposition – предложение, план, проект, утверждение, за-

явление; разг. дело, проблема; мат. теорема; человек, с которым ведутся дела (he’s a tough proposition – с ним трудно иметь дело)

19) rate – норма; скорость; тариф, расценка, цена; коэф-фициент, процент, доля; темп, ход, скорость (at an alarming rate – с запрещенной скоростью)

20) ratio – мат. отношение, пропорция, коэффициент; тех. передаточное число

21) skill – умение, навык 22) subsistence – существование; средства существования 23) surmise – предположение; mere surmise – простое пред-

положение; подозрение, догадка 24) supervision – надзор, наблюдение; руководство 25) transition – переход, перемещение; переходный период 26) vulnerabil-

ity – уязвимость; ранимость

Verbs and verbal phrases

1) absorb – всасывать, впитывать; поглощать; абсорбиро-вать

2) advance the arguments

– выдвигать аргументы; предлагать доказатель-ства

3) assert – утверждать 4) be employed

(by) – работать, служить у …

5) be inclined to think

– быть склонным думать

6) confine (to) – ограничивать; привязывать к; заточать 7) destroy – разрушать, уничтожать, истреблять, делать

бесполезным, сводить к нулю, губить, подры-вать

8) derive (from)

– происходить; выводить; получать, извлекать; наследовать

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9) disclose – обнаруживать; разоблачать; раскрывать 10) dispense – раздавать, распределять (пищу и т.п.) 11) disrupt – разрывать, разрушать, срывать, подрывать 12) do justice

(to) – отдать справедливость тому, что …; отдать

должное тому, что … 13) eliminate – устранять, исключать; уничтожать, ликвиди-

ровать; игнорировать; хим. очищать, выде-лять; удалять из организма

14) emphasize – подчеркнуть; придавать особое значение; ак-центировать; делать особое ударение (на сло-ве, факте)

15) fail – потерпеть неудачу; провалить(ся) на экзаме-нах (fo fail in mathematics); не сбываться; не исполнить, не сделать; не хватать; иметь не-достаток

16) fulfil – выполнять; исполнять, осуществлять; удовле-творять (требованиям, условиям и т.п.)

17) hold this view

– придерживаться этой точки зрения

18) lack – испытывать недостаток; не иметь; нуждаться 19) meet re-

quirements – удовлетворить требования

20) poison – отравлять; портить, развращать 21) put up (with) – принимать, давать приют (гостям); вспугнуть

(дичь); терпеть, мириться 22) raise objections – возражать; возникать (о возражениях) 23) repair on the

spot – чинить на месте

24) resort (to) – прибегать к; обращаться за помощью к …; (часто) посещать

25) search for – искать; шарить, обыскивать 26) staff with – укомплектовать штаты; набирать кадры 27) state – точно определять; заявлять утверждать; кон-

статировать, формировать 28) supervise – смотреть, наблюдать (за чем-либо); надзирать;

заведовать; руководить 29) tax – облагать налогом; подвергать испытанию,

утомлять; амер. разг. спрашивать, назначать цену; What will you tax me? Сколько это будет

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стоить?

30) withhold – удерживать, останавливать; воздерживаться (в чем-либо); не сообщать, утаивать

31) work the way out (of)

– найти выход (из); вырабатывать (план)

Adjectives

1) attainable – достижимый 2) conscious – сознающий; ощущающий; сознательный,

здравый; находящийся в сознании 3) contributory – содействующий; способствующий 4) desperate – доведенный до отчаяния; безнадежный 5) destitute – сильно нуждающийся; лишенный (of – чего-

либо) 6) developing – развивающийся 7) disguised – скрытый; переодетый; замаскированный 8) enormous – огромный, большой 9) fallacious – ошибочный, ложный 10) far less de-

pendant (on) – гораздо менее зависимый (от)

11) indigenous – книжн. туземный, местный; природный, врожденный

12) inferior – худший; низший по положению; плохой 13) insurmount-

able – непреодолимый

14) insurmount-able bias

– непреодолимое предубеждение

15) intermediate – промежуточный, вспомогательный; средний 16) much more

adaptable (to) – гораздо быстрее поддающийся; намного лег-

че приспосабливающийся (к) 17) mutual – обоюдный, взаимный; общий, совместный 18) obvious – очевидный, явный, ясный 19) occasional – случайный, редкий; приуроченный к опреде-

ленному событию; случающийся время от времени

20) restricted – ограниченный, предельный Adverbs

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1) allegedly – будто бы, якобы; как утверждают 2) decisively – решающе; решительно; убедительно 3) exceed-

ingly – чрезвычайно, очень, крайне

4) ever – всегда; навсегда, навечно (for ever); когда-либо; разг. употребляется для усиления: Why ever did you do it? Да почему же вы это сделали?; as ever – как только

5) fairly – довольно; справедливо, беспристрастно; явно, совершенно; весьма

6) im-mensely

– очень, чрезвычайно, безмерно

7) inevitably – неизбежно, неминуемо 8) intermit-

tently – скачкообразно; прерывисто; с перебоями; нере-

гулярно 9) literally – буквально 10) Rela-

tively – относительно

11) therefore – поэтому, следовательно 12) thus – так, таким образом; поэтому; до, до такой степе-

ни Conjunctions

1) both … and – как … так, и … и 2) either … or – или … или, либо … либо 3) neither … nor – ни … ни 4) since – с 5) whether – ли

SECTION IV

Vocabulary Study

A. Study the sentences with italicized words. Then identify the part of speech and write your own definition for the word on the line pro-vided.

105

1. Their work opportunities are so restricted that they can not work way out of misery.

Restrict( )_____________________________________________

2. With accessories such as a CD player, radio and a rear wind-shield wiper, the car will be considerably more expensive than the list price.

Accessory( )__________________________________________

3. The disguised unemployment in the rural areas is often thought to be due entirely to population growth.

Disguise( )___________________________________________

4. The “process of mutual poisoning” will not be halted. Halt( )_______________________________________________

5. These four requirements can be met only if there is a conscious effort to develop and apply what might be called an “intermediate tech-nology”.

Conscious( )__________________________________________

6. Simple equipment is normally much more adaptable to market fluctuations than highly sophisticated equipment.

Adaptable( )___________________________________________ Sophisticated( )________________________________________

7. You are trying to withhold the best and make us put up with something inferior and out-dated.

Withhold( )___________________________________________ Inferior( )____________________________________________

8. It is therefore fallacious to treat capital/output ratious as techno-logical facts.

Fallacious( )___________________________________________

9. It is therefore quite untrue to assert that a given amount of capi-tal invariably and necessarily produces the biggest total output when it is concentrated on the smallest number of workplaces.

Assert( )_____________________________________________ Workplaces( )_________________________________________

10. Here again, the static outlook inevitably leads to erroneous conclusions.

Erroneous( )___________________________________________

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11. Neither of these extremes is desirable, and a middle way has to be found.

Extremes( )___________________________________________

12. Both arguments are based on mere surmise. Surmise( )___________________________________________

13. The applicability of intermediate technology is not universal Applicability( )________________________________________

14. They exist as it were outside the mainstream of official and popular interest.

Mainstream( )_________________________________________

15. The task would be to find an intermediate technology which obtains a fair level of productivity without having to resort to the pur-chase of expensive and sophisticated equipment.

Resort( )_____________________________________________

16. Countless examples can be quoted where advances in technol-ogy eliminate workplaces.

Quoted( )____________________________________________ Eliminate( )__________________________________________

17. The gap between these two technologies is so enormous that a transition from the one to the other is simply impossible.

Gap( )_______________________________________________ Transition( )___________________________________________ B. In each set of words, cross out the word that does not have a

similar meaning to the first. Compare your answers with those of an-other student. Discuss why the words are similar.

1. aid assistance programme help 2. aptitude assessment talent skill 3. bias predisposition tendentious-

ness urgency

4. decay debility disintegration putrefaction 5. misery suffering wretch wrench 6. objection objective disapproval opposition 7. subsistence existence substance life 8. supervision inspection superstition supervising

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9. absorb suck soak up adsorb 10. confine conform limit restrict 11. derive originate deride form 12. fail fade break down reject 13. lack lace run out of be short of 14. put up (with) raise endure bear 15. withhold refuse keep back wither 16. conscious conscientious awake aware 17. indigenous original native indigent 18. literally strictly word for word literary

C. Pay attention to the use of prepositions on, for, about, with, at,

from, to, in, into, of, up, -, away and fill them in the blanks. 1. The lack ___ capital can explain a low level of productivity. 2. Rural unemployment produces mass-migration ___ cities. 3. Small towns and villages contain, ___ most cases, eighty ___ ni-

nety percent of the total population. 4. Where is it easiest to establish new industries and to staff them

____ managers? 5. The competition ___ these industries will further disrupt and de-

stroy non-agricultural production in the rest of the country. 6. It will cause additional unemployment outside, and will further

accelerate the migration of destitute people ___ towns. 7. It is necessary therefore that ___ least an important part of the

development effort should bypass the big cities and be directly con-cerned ___ the creation of an “agro-industrial structure” ___ the rural and small-town areas.

8. But the primary consideration cannot be to maximize work op-portunities ___ the unemployed and underemployed.

9. The task then is to bring ___ existence millions of new work-places in the rural areas and small towns.

10. The real task may be formulated ___ four propositions. 11. These workplaces must be ___ average cheap enough. 12. That production should be mainly ___ local materials. 13. The effective help is to be brought ___ those who need it most. 14. You are trying to withhold the best and make us put ___ with

something inferior and out-dated.

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15. The products of an intelligently chosen technology could actu-ally be cheaper than those ___ modern factories in the nearest big city.

16. That the applicability of intermediate technology is extremely wide, even if not universal, will be obvious ___ anyone who takes the trouble to look ___ its actual applications today.

17. The brave and able practitioners of intermediate technology do not know ___ one another and cannot be ___ assistance to those who want to follow a similar road.

18. There is an insurmountable bias ___ favour of large-scale pro-jects.

19. If we could turn official and popular interest ___ from the grandiose projects the battle could be won.

D. Memorize the words and phrases given in the list on p. 100.

SECTION V

Russian Equivalents of General English Scientific Words. Pseudointernational Words

Русские эквиваленты английских общенаучных слов – «ложных друзей переводчика»

Read carefully the following and share your opinion on the prob-lems both in Russian and English.

Начинающему переводчику следует помнить, что в сопостав-лении русского и английского языков псевдоинтернационализмы, или «ложные друзья переводчика», совпадают с русскими словами только в одном или двух значениях и расходятся в остальных [7, c.17]. Чтобы убедиться в этом рассмотрим следующие примеры, заимствованные из источника [1, c.83].

ACADEMIC 1. a) университетский академический; b) академический, отно-

сящийся к академии. 2. Академичный, чисто теоретический, отвлеченный, оторван-

ный от практики.

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3. Канонический, традиционный. 4. Фундаментальный. 5. Официальный. 6. Ученый.

...computer use in basic academic sciences.

использование ЭВМ в фундамен-тальных исследованиях.

The academic view has been (and remains) that.

Официальная точка зрения на этот вопрос была и остается неизменной.

The academic commu-nity understands very well that...

В ученых кругах прекрасно созна-ют, что...

ACTIVITY 1. Деятельность. 2. a) активность, энергия; b) активно действующая сила. 3. a) деятельность, действия (в определенной области); b) во-

енные боевые действия локального характера. 4. Учреждение, организация. 5. Состояние (положение) дел. 6. Работа; направление (тип, этап, стадия) каких-либо работ

(исследований и т.д.). 7. Исследование. 8. Задача. 9. Процесс; метод; функция.

The automobile, however, is not a data communication center, a retail outlet cash reg-ister, or a financial activity. Many of the existing micro-processors were engineered to serve the above business activities.

Однако автомобиль не похож на центр передачи данных, кассовый аппарат розничной торговли или финансовое учреждение, где нахо-дит применение большинство из существующих в настоящее время микропроцессоров.

This paper addresses the activity and trends in automo-tive electronics.

В статье рассматриваются суще-ствующее положение дел и на-правления развития автомобильной электроники.

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In parallel with effort to develop the detailed PID's for design is the activity associ-ated with...

Параллельно с усилиями, на-правленными на создание СТП для проектирования, ведется работа, связанная с...

The choice of mass mem-ory involves consideration of the system's activities.

При выборе внешней памяти большого объема необходимо учи-тывать соображения, связанные с функциональными особенностями работы системы.

The activity is wide-ranging.

Направления работ в этой об-ласти характеризуются весьма ши-роким диапазоном.

This activity is a synthesis activity.

Описанный выше тип работ от-носится к синтезу системы.

One synthesis activity is to establish automatically the control structure for the proc-ess on a PID.

Одно из направлений синтеза со-стоит в автоматическом определении структуры системы управления про-цессом, отраженным на СТП.

…three basic design activi-ties

…три основных этапа проекти-рования

These design activities can be performed manually...

На любом уровне представления проектных решений три рассмот-ренных этапа проектирования мо-гут выполняться целиком вручную...

Optimization. This activity involves adding detail within a level... to effect a better de-sign.

Оптимизация. На этом этапе осуществляется уточнение проект-ного решения в рамках достигнуто-го уровня представления за счет до-полнительной детализации...

The synthesis activity gen-erates a design at the next lower level of representation.

На этапе синтеза формируется отображение системы, которое со-ответствует уровню, находящемуся на ступеньку ниже оптимизацион-ного.

A remaining major design activity before construction commences is...

Один из основных этапов проек-тирования, осуществляемый до на-чала сооружения объекта, состоит в...

The last major activity we Последняя из затрагиваемых в

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shall touch upon is the design of the operating procedures for a plant.

настоящей работе стадий проекти-рования – стадия разработки проце-дур эксплуатации установки.

Although the system de-scribed is very similar to the IBM 7565 Manufacturing Sys-tem, it has been enhanced to support our present research activities.

Эта система аналогична произ-водственной системе 1ВМ 7565, но дополнительно обладает средствами и возможностями для проведения научных исследований.

Again, this activity is more a mechanical engineering one and we leave at this point.

Здесь можно отметить, что такие задачи относятся к области механи-ки и потому в данной работе не рас-сматриваются.

If the design activity is to construct a major facility, such as a refinery, then a set of aids based on mixed integer linear models is again frequently used.

В тех случаях, когда задача про-ектирования состоит в создании оборудования крупного предпри-ятия, например, нефтеперерабаты-вающего завода, широкое примене-ние находит комплекс средств, ос-нованных на использовании частич-но целочисленного линейного про-граммирования.

Automation is being con-sidered for most industrial activities as a way to increase productivity by removing the human element from monoto-nous, hard, or dangerous work.

Для большинства промышлен-ных процессов автоматизация рас-сматривается как путь повышения производительности труда за счет освобождения человека от моно-тонных, тяжелых и опасных работ.

Specifically, a knowledge representation system is called upon to support activities of perception, learning, and planning to act.

В узком смысле системы ПЗ нужны для обеспечения процессов восприятия, обучения и планирова-ния действий.

In the most general case, a knowledge representation sys-tem must support a number of different activities. Different techniques may be appropriate

В самом общем случае на систе-му ПЗ возлагается целый ряд все-возможных функций. Представле-ние различных классов явлений и выполнение разнообразных функ-

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for representing different kinds of things and for supporting different kinds of activities, but there is a substantial overlap in the use of knowledge for differ-ent purposes.

ций может осуществляться самыми различными методами, однако во всех случаях использование знаний имеет множество типовых черт.

ACTUAL 1. Подлинный, действительный, фактически существующий. 2. Текущий, современный, актуальный. 3. Практический.

…actual use …практическое использова-ние (применение)

...where they stand presently in the course of the system deve-lopment, how far they have gone in their efforts in putting them to actual use, and their plans for the future.

...рассмотрено современное состояние разработок и практи-ческого использования систем, а также планы на будущее.

Today, optical-fiber commu-nication systems have entered the phase of actual use at several power companies in Japan.

В настоящее время системы волоконно-оптической связи на-шли практическое применение в нескольких энергетических компаниях Японии.

ADEQUATE 1. a) достаточный, отвечающий требованиям; b) соответст-

вующий, адекватный. 2. Компетентный. 3. Правильный. 4. Надлежащий. 5. Удовлетворительный. 6. Хороший. 7. Точный. 8. Приемлемый. 9. Пригодный; годный. 10. Применимый, может быть использованным. 11. Необходимый, нужный; требуемый.

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12. Полный. 13. Подходящий. 14. Удобный. 15. Надежный. 16. Эффективный.

Consideration of this pro-gram design is thus necessary for adequate evaluation of sys-tem performance.

Поэтому для правильной оценки работы системы необхо-дим анализ построения указанных программ.

Experience has shown that the requirement for nonstandart part approval is essential for effective documentation of part requirements and adequate control of part quality.

Опыт показал, что требование об утверждении данных по нестан-дартным элементам играет важную роль эффективной документальной фиксации необходимых параметров элементов и обеспечения надле-жащего контроля их качества.

A relatively simple statistical model for gravimetric uncer-tainties is often adequate.

Часто оказываются удовлетво-рительными относительно про-стые статистические модели для гравиметрических характеристик.

Nickel is an adequate con-ductor, but experiences an oxide buildup while on the shelf.

Никель – хороший проводник, однако его поверхность окисляется при продолжительном хранении.

Adequate statistical data are only available for scintillation intensity.

Точные статистические данные получены лишь для интенсивности мерцаний.

It was found that if the tun-nel was sufficiently deep, ade-quate isolation from the ambi-ent electromagnetic environ-ment could be obtained.

Было установлено, что при дос-таточной глубине туннеля он мо-жет обеспечить приемлемую за-щиту от воздействия внешних электромагнитных полей.

A solution can be found by making available, together with the general purpose primitives, some mechanisms of mutual exclusion more adequate to the mentioned purpose.

Решение можно найти, вводя наряду с общими примитивами некоторые механизмы взаимного исключения, более пригодные для упомянутой задачи.

LED's are adequate for data Светоизлучающие диоды

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links and are already exten-sively used.

(СИДы) годятся для линий пере-дачи данных и к настоящему вре-мени уже начали интенсивно при-меняться.

Only with some eastern coals and the low-sulfur western coals is this process adequate.

В связи с этим указанные мето-ды применимы только для неко-торых восточных углей и малосер-нистых западных углей.

With coarse azimuth resolu-tion and a narrow range swath a single quadratic phase function may be adequate for signal processing the entire image.

При сравнительно плохом раз-решении по азимуту и узкой поло-се обзора для получения изобра-жений всего облучаемого участка земной поверхности можно ис-пользовать только одну опорную квадратичную фазовую функцию.

If battery-powered operation is required, the processing ele-ment must have sufficiently low-power consumption to allow enough operating time to process and adequate amount of data.

При питании от батареи по-требляемая процессором мощ-ность должна быть настолько низ-кой, чтобы запаса электроэнергии хватало для обработки необходи-мого объема данных.

By filtering at the second harmonic, one can use a narrow filter bandwidth to establish an adequate S/N.

Путем узкополосной фильтра-ции на второй гармонике можно обеспечить нужное отношение С/Ш.

... a responsibility to help en-sure an adequate supply of qualified manpower...

... ответственность за подготов-ку требуемого количества квали-фицированных кадров.

Therefore, one of our princi-pal objectives has been to se-cure adequate coverage of the substantial contributions in the Soviet literature.

Поэтому одна из главных це-лей, которую мы перед собой по-ставили, заключалась в том, чтобы дать полное освещение значи-тельного вклада в эту область со-ветских ученых.

Thus a model which gives the relationship of Fig. 7 is adequate for capacity estima-tion purposes.

Таким образом, модель, приве-денная на рис. 7, подходит для оценки производительности.

However, operation in BASIC Однако язык БЕЙСИК очень

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is adequate for many needs and is relatively easy to work with.

часто оказывается удобным и с ним сравнительно легко работать.

A neutron source, inserted prior to reactor startup to pro-vide adequate detector read-ings, may be withdrawn as criti-cality is approached.

Нейтронный источник, вводи-мый перед запуском реактора для обеспечения надежной работы приборов, контролирующих мощ-ность, может быть удален из ак-тивной зоны, как только достигну-то критическое состояние.

However, the latter are more than adequate for clusters of lowerpower, smaller devices.

Однако и последние позволяют вполне эффективно охлаждать группы небольших, сравнительно маломощных приборов.

АLTERNATIVE 1. Альтернативный. 2. Взаимоисключающий. 3. Второй (из двух возможных). 4. Спец.: a) знакопеременный; b) переменно действующий. 5. Другой. 6. Различный.

Alternative names for the proc-ess are …

Известны другие названия метода: ...

Alternative procedures are as follows …

Другая процедура заключа-ется в следующем: ...

An alternative scheme would be to attach the permission bits directly to the storage areas.

По другой схеме биты режи-ма доступа помещаются в па-мять.

Some alternative receiver ar-chitectures are discussed along with performance tradeoffs.

Рассматриваются приемные устройства различной структу-ры и их технические характери-стики.

ARGUMENT 1. Довод, доказательство, аргумент. 2. Аргументация. 3. Дискуссия; спор. 4. Краткое содержание (книги).

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5. Лог. средний термин силлогизма. 6. Мат. аргумент, независимая переменная. 7. Анализ. 8. Рассуждение. 9. Предположение.

For a more detailed argument of the problem, refer to Olsen [36].

Более подробный анализ проблемы читатель может найти в работе [36].

The arguments are very straightforward and depend only on the fact that one is minimizing the error energy of (1).

Рассуждения очень просты и основаны лишь на минимизации энергии сигнала ошибки (1).

The preceding arguments are best substantiated by comparing the shear-layer thicknesses of the unexcited and excited conditions...

Приведенные выше предпо-ложения наилучшим образом подтверждаются при сравнении толщины сдвигового слоя не-возбужденных и возбужденных струй...

COMBINED 1. Комбинированный, объединенный. 2. Хим. связанный; присоединенный. 3. Общий. 4. Суммарный. 5. Совместный. 6. Полный; обобщенный. 7. Сводный; комплексный. 8. В сочетании (с).

combined cycle time общее время цикла combined improvement общее улучшение combined acceleration factor общий показатель

ускорения Combined sales now top 300, 000 machines.

Общий объем их продажи сей-час превышает 300 тыс. машин.

combined thickness суммарная толщина combined source суммарный источник

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combined distribution суммарное распределение The assumption has also been made that the distribution of great-er dispersion contributes the lesser number of failures to the com-bined distribution.

Введено предположение, что распределение с большей дис-персией дает меньший вклад в число отказов суммарного распределения.

СRITICAL 1. Критический. 2. Решающий, переломный; критический. 3. Опасный, рискованный, критический; угрожающий. 4. Осуждающий, критикующий; разборчивый, требовательный. 5. Амер. дефицитный; крайне необходимый; нормируемый. 6. Спец. критический, граничный. 7. Важный, важнейший (очень, весьма, существенно). 8. Основной, главный. 9. Существенный, значительный; имеющий большое (перво-

степенное, принципиальное) значение. 10. Определяющий. 11. Ответственный. 12. Принципиальный. 13. Серьезный. 14. Жесткий.

the most critical factor during growth was...

наиболее важным фактором в процессе роста был...

the problem becomes some-what more critical

проблема приобретает осо-бую важность

...applied research giving in-sight into critical materials and processes.

...прикладные исследования, дающие представление о важ-нейших материалах и процес-сах.

critical hazard основная опасность critical hardware основная часть аппаратного

обеспечения critical dimensions основные размеры If a surface finish is not criti-

cal, 4140 steel can do the job and is commonly used in conjunction

Если чистота поверхности не является основным фактором, можно использовать сталь 4140

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with P-20. в соединении с Р-20. At the TRW Space Park facility

precise measurement and testing is a critical aspect of the company's activities.

Обеспечение точности изме-рений и испытаний является главным аспектом работ в кос-мическом центре «Спейс парк» фирмы TRW.

The choice of structure is not critical

Тип структурной организа-ции не имеет существенного значения.

the location is not critical.

Расположение датчика не имеет принципиального зна-чения.

The size and the shape of the pockets are rather critical.

Размер и форма углублений имеют существенное значение.

It was found that this was not

critical as long as the same pro-portional depth was adhered to in all cases.

Было установлено, что сама высота существенной роли не играет, важно лишь выдержи-вать во всех случаях одно и то же относительное заглубление датчика.

Since variations in wind are critical for the rig's operations, the reporting system must perform flawlessly around the clock.

Поскольку для работы такой установки большое значение имеют изменения силы ветра, система оперативной регистра-ции данных должна безотказно работать круглые сутки.

...careful market research, will be a critical factor for companies seeking to win a chunk of the commercial Loran C business.

Для фирм, стремящихся за-нять прочные позиции на граж-данском рынке навигационного оборудования, первостепенное значение приобретает тщатель-ное изучение спроса на этом рынке сбыта.

Basically, the ion-impact charging process is not usually a critical factor.

Процесс зарядки частиц за счет ионных столкновений, во-обще говоря, не является опре-деляющим.

The new connector will also terminate conventional flat cable used in less critical applications.

Разъем фирмы «Энсли» так-же подходит к обычному плос-кому кабелю, который исполь-

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зуется в менее ответственных случаях.

...one of the most time consum-ing and critical stages in the col-lection and interpretation of labo-ratory data.

...один из наиболее трудоем-ких и ответственных этапов сбора и интерпретации лабора-торных данных.

DRAMATICALLY 1. Драматически. 2. Драматично. 3. Мелодраматично, театрально; деланно. 4. a) живо, ясно, наглядно; b) волнующе, ярко. 5. Значительно, существенно. 6. Сильно, резко. 7. Ясно, явно. 8. Четко, отчетливо. 9. Наглядно, убедительно. 10. Очень.

By reducing the liquid-crystal thickness, both the speed at low temperatures and the viewing an-gle improved dramatically.

Путем уменьшения толщины слоя жидких кристаллов было достигнуто значительное уве-личение их быстродействия при низких температурах и угла обозрения.

This is shown dramatically by Figs 3–5.

Это ясно видно при рассмот-рении рис. 3–5.

...showing dramatically the advantage of multiple-pulse laser sources relative to CW for propa-gating higher average irradiances.

...указывая на явное пре-имущество использования им-пульсного режима для передачи пучков излучения с высокой срединной мощностью.

More important, they illustrate dramatically the practical need for safeguards designed to prevent such reactivity increases.

И что еще более важно, они наглядно иллюстрируют необ-ходимость принятия практиче-ских мер, направленных на пре-дотвращение таких увеличений реактивности.

These examples show dra- Эти примеры убедительно

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matically that spatial effects can be extremely important.

показывают, что пространст-венные эффекты бывают весьма важны.

PRAGMATIC 1. Филос. прагматический. 2. Редк. вмешивающийся в чужие дела, назойливый. 3. Редк. чрезмерно самоуверенный. 4. Реальный. 5. Практический; практичный.

The pragmatic fact that they exist and that they are appearing in the hands of increasing numbers of students...

Тот реальный факт, что та-кие приборы существуют и по-падают в руки все большего числа учащихся...

For E-class systems in particu-lar, the development process be-gins with a pragmatic analysis...

Для систем Е-класса, в част-ности, процесс создания начи-нается с практических изыска-ний...

"We never organised things on a pragmatic basis"...

«Нам никогда не удавалось проводить работы в практиче-ском плане»...

...the ever-pragmatic Swiss are eager to introduce "the more ad-vanced graphic methods of Teli-don".

...практичные швейцарцы очень хотят внедрить «более совершенные графические ме-тоды системы Телидон».

SECTION VI

Translating and Writing Summary

A. Read and convey the main idea in English. Реферирование – это не только сокращение исходного вариан-

та текста в сочетании с преобразованием прямой речи в косвенную. Реферат, в отличие от обычного пересказа, может включать в себя

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некоторые сведения, касающиеся автора текста, времени его напи-сания, указание на главную идею текста, на его жанр, а также из-ложение Вашего отношения к тексту и описываемым в нем собы-тиям и людям.

Когда мы начинаем работу по реферированию, то, прочитав текст, мысленно определяем для себя:

1) основной смысл текста, 2) основные структурные составляющие текста (абзацы), 3) основной смысл каждого из абзацев, 4) ключевые слова и выражения, которые несут основную

смысловую нагрузку во всем тексте и в каждом из абзацев. В результате этой операции получаем некий смысловой кар-

кас, построенный из ключевых слов и выражений. Этот каркас можно записать или запомнить.

Затем мы пытаемся определить, насколько полно выделенные ключевые слова и выражения передают основной смысл текста и его структурных составляющих.

Если происходит утрата существенной части смысла, нужно найти средства ее восполнения.

Следующий этап – «редактирование» смыслового каркаса: мы устанавливаем те или иные связи между ключевыми эпизодами каждого абзаца, выстраиваем сквозную логику всего реферата.

И, наконец, в случае необходимости, мы включаем в реферат изложение нашего отношения к событиям и людям, о которых го-ворится в тексте. Обычно задание сделать реферативный перевод сопровождается указанием объема перевода (например, одна стра-ница на компьютере, размер шрифта 12, интервал 1,5) [5, p.114–115].

B. Read and analyse the algorithm of writing summary: Цель написания статьи 1. The object (purpose) of the paper is to present (to discuss, to de-

scribe, to show, to develop, to give)… 2. The paper (article) puts forward the idea (attempts to deter-

mine)…

Вопросы, обсуждаемые в статье

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1. The paper (article) discusses some problems relating to (deals with some aspects of, consider the problem of, presents the basic theory, provides information on, reviews the basic principle of)…

2. The paper is concerned with (is devoted to)…

Начало статьи 1. The paper (article) begins with a short discussion on (deals

firstly with the problem of)… 2. The first paragraph deals with… 3. First (At first, At the beginning) the author points out that (notes

that, describes)… Переход к изложению следующей части статьи 1. Then follows a discussion on… 2. Then the author goes on to the problem of… 3. The next (following) paragraph deals with (presents, discusses,

describes). 4. After discussing… the author turns to… 5. Next (Further, Then) the author tries to (indicates that, explains

that)… 6. It must be emphasized that (it should be noted that, it is evident

that, it is clear that, it is interesting to note that)…

Конец изложения статьи 1. The final paragraph states (describes, ends with)… 2. The conclusion is that the problem is… 3. The author concludes that (summarizes the)… 4. To sum up (To summarize, To conclude) the author emphasizes

(points out, admits) that… 5. Finally (In the end) the author admits (emphasizes) that…

Оценка статьи 1. In my opinion (I think, To my mind)… The paper is interesting (not interesting), of importance (of little

importance), valuable (invaluable), up-to-date (out-of-date), helpful (helpless) because…

C. Translate the text “at sight”. Analyse the style of writing sum-

mary. When writing summary use the most economical wording possible.

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Where the original uses a whole clause (придаточное предложе-ние), try to sum up the same idea in a phrase; where it uses a phrase, try to use a single word; where several near synonyms restate (передают) the same idea, choose the one that gives the central common meaning.

Use a simple or complex sentence rather than a compound sen-tence (сложно-подчиненное) to summarize a paragraph (unless the original paragraph itself is poorly organized). A compound sentence implies (означает) that there are two or more equally important ideas in the paragraph. If you find that you have written a compound summariz-ing sentence, recheck the paragraph to make sure that the author did not imply some subordinating (подчиненный) relationship that you missed.

In determining the author's intent, be alert to (осторожный, вни-мательный) such writing techniques as parallel clauses and phrases (which indicate ideas of equal weight), and transitional (переходный) words and phrases (which show relationships between ideas).

Unless the original page is already severely condensed, a summary of about one-third or one-fourth the length of the original can usually preserve the essential points. The shorter the summary, however, the greater the danger of oversimplification or outright (явный) misrepre-sentation (искажение). Be careful to preserve the essential conditions or distinctions:

if – and unless- clauses; differences between is, will, and might; words like only, almost, or the phrase on the whole.

Moreover, preserve the relative emphasis of the original, giving

more prominence (обращая больше внимания) to a point treated at length than to one mentioned in passing [4, p.83].

D. Read and translate the summary in writing. Pay attention to the

words and word-combinations singled out. In retrospect, the year 1990 may well be viewed as the beginning

of a new trend in the design of household appliances, consumer elec-tronics, cameras, and other types of widely used consumer products. The trend in question relates to a marked increase in what might be called the Machine Intelligence Quotient (MIQ) of such products com-pared to what it was before 1990. Today, we have microwave ovens and

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washing machines that can figure out on their own what settings to use to perform their tasks optimally; cameras that come close to professional photographers in picture-taking ability; and many other products that manifest an impressive capability to reason, make intelligent decisions, and learn from experience [13].

E. Read the summary and translate it into English in writing.

«Русский метод» обучения инженеров

У истоков современного технического образования стоит «русский метод» обучения инженеров, разработанный в Москов-ском техническом училище в 60–70-х годах прошлого века. Выде-ление главных навыков инженерного творчества и введение их в первоначальный теоретический курс обучения, а затем работа студентов в мастерских на базе полученных знаний позволили рез-ко повысить эффективность инженерного образования, которое до этого было либо чисто теоретическим, либо чистым ученичеством. Демонстрация работ студентов училища на международной про-мышленной выставке в Филадельфии в 1876 г. произвела столь сильное впечатление на ректора Массачусетского технологическо-го института Дж. Ранкла, что в том же году метод московского училища стал применяться в названном институте и в течение де-сятилетия получил распространение во многих учебных заведениях США [8, p.17].

F. Read and translate the summary of the dissertation. Analyse the

links and cliché singled out, the Tenses characterizing the style of writ-ing the summary.

This dissertation has examined ways in which the size of a MnZn ferrite core changes the overall performance of the magnetic device of which it is a part. The goal of this work is to introduce the pertinent is-sues and examine practical modeling and analysis methods that can help predict these effects for any core shape. The early sections of the do-cument explain the fundamental physical processes and show that for a semiconducting material like ferrite the overall response in a circuit re-sults from a combination of electromagnetic effects. These include eddy currents induced in the core by time-varying flux as well as dimensional

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resonances that occur as the core cross-sectional dimensions approach the wavelength in the ferrite. The particular nature of MnZn ferrites has been highlighted since these materials are popular in the range of several hundred kilohertz and it is in this range of frequencies where electromagnetic resonance can be a significant problem for cores that are not unreasonably large.

In order for any modeling efforts to produce useful results, it is critical to have access to reliable, complete and accurate material char-acteristic data. This is true whether the modeling is based on analytical expressions such as described in Chapter 4 or on numerical models such as those in Chapters 5 and 6. Consequently, a significant portion of this dissertation deals with both the acquisition of measurement data and the use of this data in field modeling tools. This material charac-terization effort presented in Chapter 3, while useful in the analysis and simulation presented in later chapters, is quite general and can be ap-plied to a variety of materials. The need to develop such a measure-ment scheme, furthermore, reflects the fact that the currently available sources of material information do not provide adequate detail of the type needed for analytical or numerical modeling efforts. The combina-tion of specially designed thin toroidal cores for use in magnetic charac-teristic testing and thin plates of ferrite with suitable electrodes for elec-trical characterization provides a relatively simple step-by-step proce-dure for acquiring the required material information. While the mag-netic data acquisition described in Chapter 3 is performed with a particular set of computer-aided test equipment, the testing is essentially impedance testing and can therefore be performed with any set of impedance test equipment that can supply adequate voltage drive. Similarly, the extraction of complex dielectric constant information requires only a simple R-C admittance test.

Once material data is known, it can be used in either analytical or numerical solutions to give the response of the particular device ge-ometry to known excitation fields. Chapter 4 presents the infinite slab field solution and from it derives expressions for the normalized im-pedance of a core based only on a single cross-sectional dimension. While this particular problem solution has limited use in more general device modeling, the result of the closed-form solution does provide a relatively simple method for gaming insight into the performance of various core materials under different excitation frequencies. Chapter 4

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illustrates that the electromagnetic resonances in the ferrite cause a "transmission-line" effect in the device impedance and that this effect is determined by the size of the core cross-section. In addition, both the magnetic losses and the eddy current losses in the core act to damp the swings in impedance and this results in an essentially resistive device above the initial resonance frequency.

Chapter 5 shows how a commercial finite element analysis tool can be used to model a variety of devices both simple one-dimensional structures and more complicated gapped structures. This analysis pro-vides one method for examining the field distribution in real world de-signs. Through such field modeling it is possible to examine exactly which physical process dominates the overall response of the device. Such tools provide a way to visualize the effects that changes in mate-rial constant and/or core shape have on device performance and in gen-eral provide a way to predict the device performance prior to construc-tion. Several modeling issues are raised in Chapter 5, however, that present significant obstacles to the more widespread use of such tools. In particular, since the two-dimensional solvers assume an infinite depth of the structure, it is possible to set up fields that are not physi-cally realistic. This is illustrated in the discussion by the variation of the boundary H-fields on a toroidal structure due to the presence of a net current in the core material itself. Chapter 5 presents some alternative solution set-ups that provide somewhat better results through the use of additional source excitations and artificial flux paths that provide for boundary conditions closer to those expected in the actual device. These alternate strategies do in fact improve the agreement of the 2D-FEA simulation and the measured values, but this is at best a ma-nipulation of the software to provide a better match to known results. In the future this issue needs to be addressed through improved FEA tools that would provide either true 3D modeling or would provide bet-ter control of the excitation fields both the magnetic field and the elec-tric field. Even given the implementation problems of using a 2D-FEA solver to model a truly threedimensional geometry, the comparison of simulated device performance to the measured performance provides encouragement for further development of these tools. The results for the toroidal and block cores of Chapter 5 show fair agreement with the measurements performed in the lab on similar structures. The analysis of gapped structures demonstrates that while an air gap in the structure

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makes the increased losses due to non-uniform flux distribution within the core less noticeable, it does not provide for the complete elimination of dimensional effects in the core. Specifically, the presence of an air gap forces the flux to distribute more evenly, and this leveling of the flux density results in a higher effective bandwidth for the device. However, as was noted in Chapter 5, the field distribution plots illus-trate that the shift of resonance effects to higher frequencies is a com-plex function of the gap location and device geometry; it is not simply a result of the air gap lowering the effective permeability of the device and therefore increasing wavelength as has been stated in the litera-ture. Within the blocks of ferrite themselves there is no inherent bene-fit of the discrete air gaps at the boundaries since the wavelength of the material itself is unaffected by the presence of such gaps.

Chapter 6 presents a 2D-FEA analysis of the inductive charger core introduced as a motivating example of the increasing usage of large ferrite structures. The large cross sectional dimension of the disk or "puck" in the charger's primary paddle presents the most concern for dimensional effects. However, the dimensional effects in the center of the core are mitigated by the relatively large air gap in its center leg. The analysis of the structure shows that without this air gap the induc-tive bandwidth of the device would be significantly reduced. The charger performance, therefore, may change considerably if this air gap varies as the paddle is repeatedly inserted and removed through the charger's life or if different charger core designs are implemented that minimize this air gap for other design reasons (such as the resulting re-duction of charger magnetizing current). In the laboratory, the charger cores tested show an impedance phase rotation of up to 45 degrees at one megahertz. While this change in the device impedance is not as dramatic as the sharp loss of inductance demonstrated for the large tor-oidal and block cores, such an increase in the resistive component of the magnetizing impedance can still significantly impact the overall efficiency of the device [14].

G. Write a half-page summary of the book you have recently read

(translated).

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SUPPLEMENT

GRAMMAR

ARTICLES, DEMONSTRATIVES AND OTHER DETERMINERS

A. Ask yourself these questions when checking articles and de-monstratives.

1. Should an indefinite article (“a” or “an”) be used? Use “a” or “an”: a) before singular count nouns when the noun is mentioned for the

first time. Your grandparents probably never attended a class called econom-

ics.

b) when the singular form is used to make a general statement about people or things of that type.

A producer makes the goods or provides the services that con-sumers use.

(All producers make goods or provide services.)

с) in expressions of price, speed, and ratio. 60 miles an hour four times a day 50 pence a dozen half a pound of tea / a half pound of tea a quarter of a pound of coffee / a quarter pound of coffee

“A” or “an” are not used:

d) before plural nouns. Services are actions, such as haircutting, cleaning or teaching.

e) before non-count nouns. A person who makes lemonade and then sells it is producing

goods.

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2. Should the definite article “the” be used? “The” is used: a) before a noun that has already been mentioned: If a company is a producer, the company can produce only prod-

ucts for which it has the right kind of resources. or when it is clear in the situation which thing or person is referred

to: A consistent overspending suggests that the budget should be fol-

lowed more closely.

b) before adjectives used as nouns: The poor have to think hard about how to meet their needs for

goods and services.

c) when there is only one of something, e.g. the sun, the earth, the world, the best car.

d) before some nationality words e.g. the English (the people of England), the Dutch (the people of Holland), .. etc.

Note that these words all end in –sh (the English), -ch (the French), or –ese (the Japanese).

With other nationalities we use a plural noun ending in –s with or without the (e.g. (the) Italians, (the) Germans).

e) with canals, deserts, forests, oceans, rivers, seas, and plural is-lands, lakes and mountains (the Suez Canal, the Black Forest, the Ha-waiian Islands, the Atlantic Ocean).

f) when the name of a country, or state includes the word “of”, the type of government, or a plural form.

The Republic of Ireland, The United Kingdom, The Philippines.

g) with the following states, cities, and places. (the Ukraine, the Netherlands, the Argentine (but Argentina), the

Vatican, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Hague, the City (of London))

h) with the names of hotels, cinemas, museums, clubs, restaurants, pubs.

the Plaza Hotel the Odeon Cinema the Swan Restaurant

i) before names with of. the Bank of England (but: Moscow Narodny Bank, or Mellon

Bank)

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the University of London (but: London University)

j) with the names of newspapers and journals: The Times, The Washington Post.

“The” is not used with:

a) the names of planets and singular islands, lakes, mountains, and parks:

Central Park Fiji Islands Lake Baikal Mount Everest

b) the names of countries and states, continents and cities, streets: (Japan, Russia, Africa, Chicago, Mexico City, Oxford Street) 3. Which article, if any, should be used? a) The expression “a number of” means “several” or “many” and

takes a plural verb. The expression “the number of” refers to a group and takes a sin-

gular verb. A large number of producers suffer a loss when goods go bad. The number of producers has fallen because of the economic cri-

sis.

b) The following nouns do not always take an article:

prison, school, car, bus, college, train, church, plane, the names of meals, bed, home, court, jail, sea.

Look at how the meaning changes:

Jack went to bed. (= Jack went to sleep. – the general idea of sleep)

Jack went to the bed. (Jack walked over to a particular bed – the specific object)

Jack bought a bed. (Jack purchased an object called a bed.)

c) Noncount nouns are used without an article to refer to something in general.

People settle into two major economic roles: consumer and pro-ducer.

Sometimes an article is used to show a specific meaning. A knowledge of economics is important to everyone now.

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4. Are the demonstratives (“this”, “that”, “these”, “those”) used correctly?

a) The demonstratives are for objects nearby the speaker: this, these; and for objects far away from the speaker: that, those.

b) Demonstratives are the only adjectives that agree in number with their nouns.

This section will explain the basic questions. These sections are concerned with the problems of economic deci-

sions.

c) When there is the idea of selection, the pronoun “one” or “ones” often follows the demonstrative.

I need a job. I’ll get this (one). If the demonstrative is followed by an adjective, “one” or “ones”

must be used. I need a job. I’ll get this part-time one.

But: We do not usually say my one(s), your one(s), ets. Instead we say mine, yours … etc.

Your car isn’t fast enough. Let’s take mine. But one(s) can be used with a possessive if there is an adjective. Let’s take your new one. 5. What should be used in front of abbreviations? a) We make abbreviations with the first letters of the most impor-

tant words. We than treat these abbreviations like ordinary nouns and use them with a/an, the or zero.

I’ve just bought a VCR. (= a Video Cassette Recorder) We use an + vowel sound (an E.D.P. = Electronic Data Process-

ing) and a + consonant sound (a VW = a Volkswagen)

b) We use a/an and full stops with titles: She is an M.A. (= Master of Arts)

c) We use the in front of the names of institutions when we can’t say them as single words. We don’t use full stops:

I listen to the news on the BBC. (= the British Broadcasting Cor-poration)

We are members of UNESCO. (= the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)

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B. Do the following exercises:

Exercise 1 Write the correct article (“a”, “an”, or “the”). If no article is

needed, write “o”. 1. …John Martin, … Sales Manager is discussing … article he has

just read in … Times newspaper about … recent discovery of oil in … Abraca.

2. I decided to compare my monthly expenses with … expense chart of my friend.

3. ...young, like everyone else, have unlimited wants and lim-ited resourses.

4. Ambrose Harper is … old man, but he still comes to … office regularly to … board meetings.

5. … number of irreplaceable documents were destroyed when ... cane wastepaper basket caught fire in ... government office.

6. I've been thinking of that scheme of yours to sell our prod-ucts to … Netherlands. They say ... Dutch are going to raise their imports rapidly.

7. I decided to convince my relative, ... clerk at ... Bank of Scot-land, to lend me ... money to cover ... cost of my further education.

8. ... number of sources of money you can rely upon is decreasing. 9. A lot of goods are trans-shipped via ... Hague, which is more

expensive.

Exercise 2

Choose the correct form, checking demonstratives. 1. I was shocked by that / those news. 2. There is all this / these red tape involved in getting an import li-

cence. 3. A field survey shows why that / those specimen of goods is at-

tractive. 4. That / those economics courses offered at the university are

very elementary. 5. I know this / that manager over there. 6. This / these expenses are to be reduced with effective economic

decisions.

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7. The consumers buy this / these cotton shirts more than these / those silk ones.

8. Our expenses are much higher than your former one / ones. 9. She presented him with the French watch, but he wanted the Swiss

one / ones. 10. Perishable goods can be stored less than non-perishable – /

ones.

Exercise 3 Possessives usually replace articles before nouns. We can say the

car or Peter's car, but not Peter's the car or the Peter's car. But a possessive word can have its own article: the boss's car. Note also: that car of Peter’s a friend of Peter's (like a friend of mine).

Put for correct sentences; rewrite the incorrect ones. 1. Is Peter the Grant's nephew? 2. Consumer goods are products, such as food, clothing, and

cars, that satisfy people's economic needs or wants. 3. Is this the manager's file? 4. Do you know John's last name? 5. Here is the Harper's address. 6. The answers to the questions depend on a country's human,

natural, and capital resources, and also on its customs and values. 7. You also try to focus your partner's the attention on the dif-

ference between fixed, optional, flexible expenses. 8. That overspending of John's reached the peak of 1.5%. 9. What is the general relationship between a person's education

and that individual's earning power? 10. The consumer's desire for a commodity tends to diminish as

he buys more units of it. 11. What’s the Wilsons' number? 12. It’s a crazy idea of John Martin. 13. Where is that uncle of Peter? 14. We can say that the utility of a commodity decreases as the

consumer’s stock of that commodity increases.

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Exercise 4

Supply a/an, the or "–". 1. Mr. Buckhurst is … F.C.A.(=Fellow of the Institute of Char-

tered Accountants). 2. John got ... B.Sc. (=Bachelor of Science) from Durham Univer-

sity in 1988. 3. Do you know how much … MP (=Member of Parliament) earns? 4. We studied ...BASIC (=Beginners’ All-purpose Symbolic Instruc-

tion Code) at the computer class. 5. Does Ukraine belong to … NATO (= North Atlantic Treaty Or-

ganization)? 6. Modernizing a business requires a management team which is

aware of – … O.R.(=Operational Research), ... D.C.F. (=Discounted Cash Flow – a method of calculating the profitability of new plant and machinery), P.E.R.T. (Project Evaluation and Review Technique), etc.

7. The shareholders are invited to attend … A.G.M. (= the Annual General Meeting).

8. … NASA (=National Aeronautics and Space Administration) had a setback in 1986.

9. …I.Q. is a common abbreviation for an Intelligence Quotient. 10. … EEC (=the European Economic Community) established

common tariffs against products from non-EEC nations. 11. … GATT (=General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) en-

compassed 12 countries in 1947, later the group expanded to somewhat about 100 Countries.

Exercise 5

Choose the article or demonstrative that is incorrect. 1. Goods that have to be trans-shipped via Netherlands turn to come

A B sooner than the other ones.

C D 2. When they go to college, young want to use their income

A B effectively and learn to economise on every two pence and to keep the

C D budget thoroughly.

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3. Those consumers, who drink tea four times in a day usually buy A B

less than a half pound of tea and often of the best quality. C D

4. I do not know if there are any correspondent banks in the Ukraine A B

to transfer money from our account with Bank of England. C D

5. Producers like these are one pence a dozen, you'd better look A

for some other ones. B

6. Germans, Italians as well as Dutch use English to communicate. A B C D

7. Milk belongs to the category of perishable goods, the shoes A B C

do not, as they can be stored for a long time without going bad. D

8. A number of the rich among the Italians does not vary much A B C

from that among other nations. D

9. Nakamurasan is a Japanese. Having studied his preliminary desk A

research, the manager made a conclusion that Japanese are very clever B C D

people. 10. Mr. Denis Stocks, a retired policeman, has just been given

A а B.Sc. for twelve years' research into an ancient Egyptian industrial

B C D methods.

Exercise 6

Translate the following into English. Use the articles properly.

1. Секретарь не видит, что я на неё смотрю, так как читает что-то с большим интересом. Она выглядит такой занятой.

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2. Позвоните ему сейчас. Я думаю, что он не беседует с клиен-том.

3. Существует разрыв между тем, что люди хотят иметь, и тем, что могут иметь.

4. Когда мы начинаем какое-то строительство, то всегда нуж-даемся в определенных ресурсах.

5. Экономическая модель помогает специалистам анализиро-вать экономические проблемы, искать решения и находить их.

6. Это склад, где обычно содержится крупногабаритное обо-рудование. Сейчас мы содержим там запас товаров, пользующихся повышенным спросом, чтобы можно было выполнять срочные за-казы со склада.

7. Посмотри! Этот раздел состоит из целого ряда грамматиче-ских упражнений.

8. Прекрасное решение проблемы! Должно быть, автор – ум-нейший человек.

9. На днях мы встретимся с человеком, который обладает фе-номенальными способностями.

10. Следующим этапом исследования было определение при-роды радиации.

11. Возник вопрос относительно легкости, с которой испытуе-мый передвигает предметы.

12. Интересно отметить, что в этом списке отсутствуют фами-лии взрослых мужчин.

13. Множество отчетов свидетельствует о том, что мы имеем дело с уникальным явлением в природе.

Exercise 7 Context

Below are some flashes of conversation in which different students speak about their life at college. Tick () the correct words or word combinations.

Use the patterns in the role-play “MAKING A PERSONAL BUDGET”.

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Roger: I’m in my third year at | college | the college | a college | on the

computer course and I have already learnt how to programme computers using | a BASIC | an BASIC | BASIC |.

Most of | work | a work | the work | is practical with a lot of time spent at the keyboard.

I’m looking forward to getting |the my own | my own | my the own| car soon. At present a taxi | transport | the transport | transports | me between home and college and this is a bit expensive.

Keith: This is my second year at college. I am in a “sandwich” course in-

volving | three years of theory | three years theory | three year of theory |

and a year spent in industry. I do | part-time job | a part-time jobs | a part-time job | at weekends – except when I have to play in a football match – working in a hotel.

| The means | These means | This means | that, with pocket money from my parents, I’ve usually got enough to do the things I want.

David: Most higher education | students receive | student receive | student

receives| some financial support from LEAs (local education authorities) with | the rest their money | rest of their money | the rest of their money| made up through parental support or through the Student Loans Company set up by central government to provide subsidized loans for students.

Frank: Over 90 per cent of students of first degree | receive | receives | a

receive | awards covering tuition fees and maintenance. Parents also contribute | the amount | the number | a number | depending on their income. In addition, students are eligible for an interest-free loan.

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NOUNS

A. Ask yourself these questions when checking nouns. 1. What nouns are not normally countable in English?

accommodation advice assistance baggage behavior bread business (trade) capital (money) cash chaos chess china clothing conduct cookery countryside courage cutlery damage dancing education equipment evidence food fruit

fun furniture garbage gossip grass hair (all the hairs on the head) happiness harm help homework hospitality information jealousy jewelry knowledge laughter leisure linen luck luggage machinery meat money mud music

news nonsense parking permission poetry the post/mail (letters) produce progress rubbish safety scenery shopping smoking spelling strength stuff timber traffic transport travel underwear (jeanswear, etc.) wealth weather work (housework, etc.)

2. Is there a quantifier with the noun that can be used to identify

the nature of the noun? A quantifier is a word that indicates an amount or quantity. a) Some quantifiers are used with both plural count nouns and non-

count nouns. all a lot of most any plenty of some enough more lots of

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Goods which cannot be stored for any length of time without going bad are called “perishables”.

Any scarcity forces you to decide what you want most. Children find that there are a lot of things in the world they want

in early childhood. A lot of money is needed to meet personal needs.

b) Some quantifiers are used only with noncount nouns. a little much a large/small amount of a bit of

Too much money is needed to satisfy non-essential wants.

c) Some quantifiers are used only with plural count nouns. both a few a couple of the majority of/a majority of many several a number of dozens of hundreds of

You probably want many things – clothes, entertainment, money for traveling.

d) Some quantifiers are used only with singular count nouns.

another Each every Later young people learn another lesson. Each country will answer three major questions in a different way. 3. Is the form of a noun correct? The plural form for most nouns has an –s or (after –o; -s; -x; -ch; -

sh) –es ending. a) Some nouns form their plurals with a vowel change or an ending

change (man/men). Penny can have a regular plural pennies when we are referring to separate coins (ten pennies) or a collective plural, pence, when we are referring to a total amount (tenpence).

Note the following nouns, which have irregular spelling in the plu-ral:

Singular Plural

alumna alumnus phenomenon datum

– бывшая студентка – бывший студент – явление – данная (величина)

alumnae alumni phenomena data*

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stratum analysis criterion medium memorandum basis crisis 'caput 'bureau/bu'reau

– слой (общества) – анализ (разбор) – критерий – средство – меморандум – базис – кризис – голова (на душу населения) – бюро, отдел, управление, комитет

strata analyses criteria media* memoranda bases crises capita (per capita) bureaus/bureaux

________________ * is used with a singular or plural verb (L.G. Alexander, “Longman Eng-

lish Grammar”) b) Some nouns form their plurals by changing a consonant before

adding -s or -es, (wolf – wolves; leaf – leaves; wife – wives) or by changing -y into -ies (country – countries); except -ay, -ey, -oy, -uy (boy – boys).

c) Some nouns form their plurals by adding an ending. (child – children, ox – oxen)

d) Some have the same plural and singular forms. bison deer offspring series means (средство) corps fish spacecraft species works (завод)

Exports, imports (количество или стоимость вывезенных то-варов) take a plural verb but export, import (процесс ввоза или вывоза) are singular.

Note that dozen and score have the same plural and singular form if they go after the numeral: two dozen (of) eggs, three score (of) years (but scores/dozens of people).

e) When a noun is used as an adjective, it takes a singular form. The goods can be stored for two weeks. (noun) This is a two-week store of goods.

We also use – ‘s with (or –s’ with plural words) periods of time. I’ve got a week’s / three weeks’ sick leave.

f) Collective nouns (crowd, firm, team, group, etc.) refer to an en-tire group. When these are groups of people we often think of them as a number of people (= “they”), not as one thing (= “it”). So we often use a plural verb:

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The staff at the firm (= they) are not happy with outside consult-ants.

When a collective noun indicates a period of time, a sum of money, or a measurement, it takes a singular verb.

Two weeks is enough time to provide goods. Ten dollars is not enough to meet the needs of a family.

g) Some nouns end in -s but are actually singular and take singular verbs. Academic subjects: economics, statistics, politics, mathematics ...; news.

Economics if studied thoroughly influences how you earn a living. But when the reference is specific, the verb must be plural. Their statistics are extremely helpful (статистические данные). Nouns like crossroads, headquarters, kennels, series, species, and

works (=factory) are singular when they refer to one: John has just read a series of articles about the recent discovery of

oil. They are plural when they refer to more than one: There are a lot of TV series about turning a business into success

or failure.

h) Many compound nouns are formed by using one noun (as an ad-jective) in front of another noun. When this happens, this first noun is almost always singular (even if the meaning is plural).

a toothbrush (a brush for cleaning teeth) a shoeshop (a shop which sells shoes) We normally form plurals of compound nouns by adding -(e)s to

the second word. Foodstuffs belong to the category of perishable goods. But note that compounds ending in -in-law, -in-chief and -by add -s

to the first word. one brother-in-law – two-brothers-in-law a passer-by – some passers-by editor-in-chief – editors-in-chief But where men or women is prefixed both parts are made plural. men drivers women drivers

i) Goods (товар), clothes (одежда), riches (богатство), proceeds (выручка), wages (заработная плата), contents (содержание) nor-mally* occur only in the plural and are followed by a plural verb.

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By “perishable” we mean goods which cannot be stored for any length of time without going bad. ______________

*But in modern English one may come across the following: Scarcity is the situation that exists when demand for a good, service or

resource is greater than supply. B. Do the following exercises:

Exercise 1

Read the extract and construct 9 sentences on the pattern with the words in italics. Translate the sentences into Russian.

There is/are … at the factory of Harper & Grant LTD. The factory consists of workshops where the actual making of a

desk or filing cabinet is done. These are divided into the Tool Room (1), Works Stores (2), Press Shop (3), Machine Shops (4), Assembly Shop (5), Paint Shop (6), Inspection (7), Packing and Despatch Departments (8). There is also the Warehouse (9) where finished articles are stored waiting for sale.

Exercise 2

Choose the correct form. e.g. There were/was some imported goods in the store.

1. Economics is/are the study of how people use their resources to produce, distribute and consume goods.

2. The news that he was enable to earn a living was/were quite surprising.

3. Two weeks isn’t/aren’t a very long time to become used up, is it/are they?

4. Money isn’t/aren’t the most important thing in life, is it/are they? 5. Seven pounds is/are an average weight for a new-born. 6. Politics is/are Professor Brown’s speciality. 7. The knowledge gained from the experience was/were invaluable. 8. Several Japanese was/were reported to complain that the fish

had gone bad. 9. The imports has/have greatly increased which may influence the

supply.

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10. A knowledge of statistics, the analysis of how people and coun-tries use their resources to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services is/are so important.

11. Sooner or later even very expensive clothes is/are used up. 12. What is/are his politics as to breaking into the South American

market?

Exercise 3

Choose the correct form. e.g. I’d like some information/informations about the supply of

goods.

1. Sue is a woman with blond hair/hairs who lives opposite. 2. Did you have a good travel/journey from Switzerland? 3. We have the problem of scarcity and we’d like some ad-

vice/advices. 4. The supply of a bread/some bread did not correspond the de-

mand fo5. it. 5. I’d like to find out the cost of tuition, have you got an informa-

tion/any information? 6. He is trying to find a work/job at the moment, he must do it to

earn a living. 7. Economists studied different phenomenon/phenomena in order

to solve the problem of scarcity. 8. Foodstuff/foodstuffs belong to the category of goods that go

bad if are stored too long. 9. Pennies/pence are made of bronze. 10. The tin of cola costs 60 pennies/pence and you won’t econo-

mize much. 11. Mass medium/media are a good source of job openings. 12. In the English speaking countries eggs are sold in doz-

en/dozens.

Exercise 4 If the underlined word or words are used incorrectly, make correc-

tion. 1. More people are involved in ilk production than in any another

activity in the district.

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2. One of the two major economic roles is that of a consumer and other is that of a producer.

3. Some consumer goods last long, other goods go bad and become used up soon.

4. Another goods, such as furniture, or refrigerators, last longer. 5. Teaching is yet another action called service. 6. Some goods are bought for personal use while another are

bought for resale. 7. People make other economic discoveries when they are still

young. 8. Another advice will help you to develop a useful personal budg-

et. 9. One expense may turn higher than planned while another may

be lower.

Exercise 5

Choose the underlined word combination that is incorrect. 1. Hair found on the victim’s jacket were studied by the police,

A B C which helped them to find the criminal.

D 2. The knowledge of economics was passed from one generation to

A B C another generations.

D 3. One series of statistical booklet that was used at the seminar was

A B C written by the students themselves.

D 4. Examples of fixed expense are rent payments, higher purchase

A B C installments, tuition.

D 5. Make a family budget with your adult childs identifying its

A B monthly income and expenses.

C D

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6. There are the data of our field survey over there on the files cabinet. A B C

They are very important. D

7. It was so difficult for a poor man to earn his living because he A B

had to provide for his numerous son-in-laws and other relatives. C D

8. John Martin has just read an article in “The Times” about A B

the recent discovery of a large number of oil in the North Sea. C D

9. There have never been any woman-managers at this works. A B C D

10. The contents of the letter were not made public, but bad news A B C

travel fast. D

11. The Managing Director stopped to cool his temper a bit and the three stood motionless, like sheeps in the stare of a python.

A B C D 12. Tony’s FBI criminal file described him as five-feet-eight,

A B medium build, a hundred and forty-six pounds, black hairs, strong nose,

C D brown eyes, arrested and charged with a bank robbery.

Exercise 6

Translate the following into English: 1. Содержание письма было совсем неожиданным, и Джон

решил выяснить, возможно ли экспортировать (продукцию) в сто-лицу.

2. Его зарплата очень высокая, но и его потребности велики. 3. В этой статье вы найдете свежие данные о том, как за по-

следние месяцы изменился доход на душу населения, а также экс-порт и импорт Италии.

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4. Экономика труда занимается проблемами рынков труда, ис-следует данные о деятельности предприятий, их сотрудников и общества в целом.

5. Производитель сообщает, что на экспорт этого товара тре-буется лицензия. – Не думаю, что это очень приятные новости для потребителей.

6. Студенты, которые работают после занятий или во время каникул, зарабатывают деньги, чтобы затем потратить их на свои нужды. Причем во многих странах даже в обеспеченных слоях об-щества родители за то, чтобы их дети шли своим путем.

7. Этот скоропортящийся товар еще не поставлен потребите-лю, а ведь он может испортиться.

8. Экономические кризисы – это одно из явлений, которые изучают экономисты и постоянно освещают средства массовой ин-формации.

9. Статистика утверждает, что в последнее время уменьшилось количество семей с двумя детьми, ряд семей вообще не имеет детей по материальным соображениям (for money reasons).

10. Хорошо известно, что бывшие студенты нуждаются в со-ветах и помощи при поисках работы (job-hunting).

11. Вы отдаете всю эту одежду? – Нет, большая часть её вы-глядит превосходно.

12. Я купил эти часы в Берне. Они очень хорошие, но дорогие. Оправданны ли эти расходы? Будут ли они облагаться таможенным сбором?

13. В целом эти новости очень интересные. А вы узнали, кому принадлежат эти деньги? – Бюрократические преграды оставили мне мало шансов.

Exercise 7

Context

Read the text below. In most of the lines there is one wrong word or word combination. Some lines, however, are correct.

If a line is correct, put a tick () in the space in the right-hand column.

If there is a mistake in the line, write the correct word in the right-hand column.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

The firm has a history of slow, steady growth. Hector Grant firmly believes that he knows the best way to run firm. However, his nephew Peter Wiles (son of the Mr.Grant’s sister), who joined the company six years ago and is Production Manager, and John Martin, appointed two years ago to be Sales Manager, is more adventurous. They want to treble Harper & Grant’s business over the next a few years and are certain that, with modern businesses techniques and increased exports, they can achieve this. A small firm cannot possibly afford to have on its staff experts in all modern management technique. It usually hires expert advise from outside consultants and bureaux. On the other hand, it is important that members of the firm’s management are aware of the more sophisticated techniques. It’s a common knowledge that, while this changeover from the old way to the new is taking place, there are often difficulties and conflict. But Harper & Grant Ltd., like the majority their rivals, must get right up-to-date and enlarge their business, or they will be outpaced by a firm whose business organization is better than their own.

a firm

SUBJECT

A. Ask yourself these questions when checking nouns. 1. Does the sentence contain a subject? All complete sentences contain a subject. Exception: the command

form, in which the subject is understood. ("Buy some tea.")

Various structures may be used for subjects. • Noun The subject may consist of one or more nouns:

A producer makes the goods or provides services. People or businesses can produce goods.

• Pronoun You find that there are lots of things in the world you want,

• Clause (contains noun + verb) The first Persian carpet I bought was very expensive.

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Several different clause structures can be used for subjects. Wh-structures:

Where we go depends on the job opportunities. Yes/no structures

Whether I develop a personal budget or not doesn't matter. "The fact that" structures (the fact is frequently omitted in these

structures): The fact that he pays his expenses regularly is a miracle. That he pays his expenses regularly is a miracle.

• Gerund ( -ing forms) and Gerund phrase Working became hard. Working ten years on the mine was

enough. • Infinitive and Infinitive phrase

To save is important. To save on optional expenses is the only way out.

2. Does the subject agree with the verb? The subject (S) and the verb (V) must agree in person and number. Entertainment, personal care, or college supplies are optional

S V expenses for a student.

Note the following subject-verb agreement rules: a) A prepositional phrase does not affect the verb. All sources of money in the budget have been listed. S V

b) The following expressions do not affect the verb. accompanied by along with among in addition to together with as well as Allowance and part-time jobs, along with interest on savings

S are money resources. V

c) Subjects joined by "and" or " both. ..and..." take a plural verb. Both rent payments and higher purchase instalments are expenses.

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d) When "several", "many", "both" and "few" are used as pro-nouns, they take a plural verb.

Several keep track of their actual income and expenses for a month.

e) When the following phrases are used, the verb agrees with (he subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence: cither ... or, neither ... nor, not only ... but also.

Neither rent nor transportation costs have_ been included into the list of spending.

f) The expression a number of (meaning "several") is plural. The expression the number of is singular.

A number of items have been deducted from the paycheque. The number of deducted items is small.

g) When a word indicating nationality refers to a language, it is singular. When it refers to people, it is plural.

Japanese was a difficult language for me to learn. The Japanese are very inventive people.

h) When clauses, infinitives or gerunds are used as subjects, they usually take a singular verb.

What it takes is not worth money or effort. Investing in capital resources is wise.

i) Some words are often confused by students as being plural. The following words must be followed by singular verbs and pronouns in formal written English.

any+singular nobody some+singular every each noun noun anybody no one somebody everybody either* anyone nothing someone everyone neither* anything something everything

_________________ *either and neither are singular if they are not used with or and nor.

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Evervbody who has not sorted an import license should apply for it.

If either of you takes a leave now, we will not be able to complete the survey.

3. Have "it" and "there" been used correctly? We use there+be to say that something exists; we use it, they+be

to more details. a) Sometimes a speaker wants to focus on the type of information

that is expressed by an adjective. Since an adjective cannot be used in a subject position, the word "it" is used as the subject:

It was late and nobody could use the lost money. Sometimes a speaker wants to emphasize a noun and its relative

clause. The speaker uses "it" in the subject position followed by the verb

"be": It is my mother who makes the family budget.

b) Sometimes a speaker wants to say that something exists, or wants to mention the presence of something. The word "there" is used as the subject and agrees with the nearest noun or noun phrase. (NPHR)

There are very high tariffs and duty on certain products. S V NPHR "There" can be an adverb which tells where something is (2). "There" can also be used to fill the subject position (1). There (1) is my preliminary desk research over there (2) on the

shelf. B. Do the following exercises:

Exercise 1

Write "R" (right) if the subject agrees will the verb, and "W" (wrong) if it does not.

1. Sam, along with other students, plans on protesting the change in academic requirements.

2. Neither her sons nor her daughter know what their annual income is.

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3. Accumulating play money are what seems to be the attraction of many board games.

4. What was decided during the meeting has been well docu-mented.

5. The chairmen, together with the Board members, are meeting the partners.

6. Two weeks is plenty of time to finish the course. 7. Peter Wiles, who joined the company six years ago and is Pro-

duction Manager, and John Martin, appointed two years ago to be Sales Manager, are very adventurous.

8. Modernizing a business to increase its profits is a complicated affair.

9. Tom Douglas together with some critics of the new export mar-kets ask whether the field survey will actually do any good .

10. Several theories on this subject have been proposed. 11. The view on these management techniques vary from time to

time. 12. The General Manager as well as his staff are trying to sort out

the import license. 13. Anybody who have lost his ticket should report to the desk. 14. Nobody works harder than John does/ 15. Everybody who have labour trouble can't meet the delivery

dates. 16. There were some people at the Board of Trade who had a dif-

ferent way of looking at things. 17. Every forward-looking manager's convinced there’s quite the

right time for this probe now. 18. There are tariffs on certain products, but the Board of Trade as-

sure me that our office equipment would not be liable for duty. 19. After he had received a reservation for a first-class return

flight, John decided that everything were in order. 20. There are a couple of likely competitors for this project. The

rest of the firms are indifferent.

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Exercise 2

Choose the correct subject from the possible choices. 1. Even though 26 % of Californian residents do not speak English

in their homes, only ___ do not speak English at all. (A) that 6 % of them (B) those of the 6 % of them (C) to the 6 % of them (D) 6 % of them

2. ___ are effective means of communication. (A) Theatre, music, dance, and folk tales (B) That theatre, music, dance, and folk tales (C) To use theatre, music, dance, and folk tales (D) Using theatre, music, dance, and folk tales

3. When China's dramatic economic reforms began to encourage private enterprise, ___ began to set up a variety of businesses immedi-ately.

(A) that entrepreneurs (B) to be an entrepreneur (C) entrepreneur (D) entrepreneurs

4. __ is a big waste of time and money for very little profit. (A) The firm breaks into the new market (B) Breaking into the new market (C) Break is taken into the new market (D) The new markets

5. In the city centre ___ noisy market stalls set in narrow alleys. (A) it (B) it is (C) there (D) there are

6. In America, ____ a growing demand for Indonesian food. (A) there is (B) it is (C) it (D) there

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7. Nowadays people in most countries use money because __ impossible to carry on trade in the modern world without it.

(A) it (B) there (C) there is (D) it is

8. _____unnecessary red tape and promote research were the main objectives of the committee.

(A) To stop (B) That to stop (C) The stop of (D) Stopping

9. When we want to economise, ___ that helps us to spend money, more effectively.

(A) that the personal budget (B) it is the personal budget (C) the personal budget (D) there is the personal budget

10. ______ were produced because of the scarcity of resources. (A) The number of goods (B) A number of goods (C) Number of (D) Number of a good

11. ______ know next to nothing about the difference between flexible, and optional expenses.

(A) Both of (B) Both Alex and you (C) Both you (D) Of you both

12. Either Sara or the Seddons ____ how much is spent on tuition. (A) knows (B) is knowing (C) know (D) are knowing

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Exercise 3

Translate the following into English: 1. Никто из вас не сможет доказать это. 2. Ни мой сын, ни его друг не знают, что предпринять в дан-

ной ситуации. 3. Чтобы усвоить эту тему, достаточно четырех недель. 4. Никто из нас не читает так много книг. 5. Модернизация любого предприятия – очень сложное дело. 6. В Америке наблюдается огромный спрос на эти товары. 7. Председатель вместе с членами Совета встречает делегацию

из Китая. 8. Либо вы, либо ваша семья знает о случившемся. 9. В центре находится известный всем жителям города рынок. 10. То, что он заболел, никто не знает. 11. Учитель вместе со всеми студентами собирается принять

участие в экологической конференции. 12. Борьба с коррупцией – основная цель нашего правительст-

ва. 13. Тратить деньги таким образом – глупо. 14. Научиться снижать расходы невозможно, если не имеешь

прямого отношения к бюджету. 15. Стоит запомнить слова и выражения, указанные выше.

Exercise 4

Context

Read the conversation below. In six of the lines there is one wrong

word or word combination. Other lines, however, are correct. If a line is correct, put a tick () in the space in the right-hand

column. If there is a mistake in the line, use the correct word.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

G. – Morning, Alex! What's up? A. – Hello, George! Oh, these expenses,...! It is the problem that annoys

me so much. Don't you think that a number of items we bought last week is unnecessary? Spending money this way is not wise.

G. – I'd agree with you to a certain extent. But both I and Paul knows next to nothing about the way to use our money as effectively as possible.

A. – Fair enough! What we are to do is to develop a useful personal budget.

G. – Come off it! You can't be serious! It is all a big waste of time for very little profit! It is plenty of things we can do instead of this scheme of yours to keep track of our actual incomes and expenses. Neither me nor Paul knows what to do with expenses.

Р. – I'm not sure I quite agree. When I was in Germany, I noticed that the Germans record how much they spend for food, entertainment, clothing, college supplies, personal care, transportation, etc. To be able to reduce expenses it is impossible if you do not know what changes you would make in your budget.

A. – It's quite true. That one should make the budget is clear. On balance, we should list all the sources of money and see that expenses should not be higher than income. The ability to deal realistically with scarcity and to promote effective spending are the first things we are to learn.

G. – That may well be true. Every efforts to be smarter is worth trying! I am bound to agree. Let's try. He who hesitates is lost!

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VERB

A. Ask yourself if you remember the Groups of Tenses. Use the following Tables. Table 1 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF INDEFINITE (неопределенных) TENSES FUTURE (Simple) (простых)

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

ACTIVE VOICE (действительный залог) сказуемое одноместно, подлежащее активно.

PRESENT

I you в ед. и we V – мн. числе they Vs, es – he, she, it

Что я (ты, мы, вы) делаю? Что он (она) делает? (регулярно)

I ask you. Я спрашиваю тебя. (регулярно, часто)

PAST

Ved – для правильных глаголов; V – для неправильных глаголов; См. колонку №2 табл. непр. гл.

Что я (ты, он, она, мы) делал (-а, -ли)? (регулярно)

They wrote me. Они писали мне. (часто, регулярно) Они написали мне. (факт)

обычность действия повторяемость действия, регулярность, частотность фактологичность (факты, общеизвестные истины)

Выражения: every day – (каждый день) the other day-(на днях) one of these days-(на днях) Наречия: always (всегда) usually (обычно) often (часто) sometimes (иногда) never (никогда) seldom (редко) regularly (регулярно) today (presently, nowadays) yesterday (last year, last week, a month ago, a year ago) tomorrow (next year, next month, in a month…)

FUTURE

Shall+ Vinf. – для I, we Will+ Vinf – для остальных лиц.

Что я (он, ты, она, мы) буду (-ешь, -ем) делать? (регулярно)

I shall help him. Я буду помогать ему. (регулярно, часто) Я помогу ему. (факт)

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Table 2 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF INDEFINITE (неопределенных) TENSES FUTURE (Simple) (простых)

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

PASSIVE VOICE

(страдательный залог или пассивный залог) сказуемое двухместно, подлежащее пассивно.

be + P2

V ed – для правильных глаголов V – для неправильных глаголов

(см. кол. №3 таблицы неправильных глаголов)

PRESENT

am asked are + is written

Что мне (ему, тебе, им) делают? (регулярно)

I am written. Мне пишут (всегда, часто) The house is built. Дом строится. (Каждый день)

PAST

was asked + were written

Что мне (ему, тебе, им) делал (-а, -ли)? (регулярно)

He was written. Ему было написано (факт) Ему писали (всегда)

обычность действия повторяемость действия, регулярность, частотность фактологичность (факты, общеизвестные стины)

Выражения: every day – (каждый день) the other day (на днях) one of these days (на днях) Наречия: always (всегда) usually (обычно) often (часто) sometimes (иногда) never (никогда) seldom (редко) regularly (регулярно) today (presently, nowadays) yesterday (last year, last week, a month ago, a year ago) tomorrow (next year, next month, in a month…)

FUTURE

shall asked be + will written

Что мне (ему, тебе, им) будет сделано? (будут делать?) (регулярно)

I shall be written. Мне будут писать. (регулярно) Мне напишут. (факт)

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Table 3 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF CONTINUOUS (продолженных) TENSES FUTURE

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

ACTIVE VOICE

(действительный залог) сказуемое двухместно, подлежащее активно

be + P1

V ing

PRESENT

am playing are + is writing

Что я

(ты, мы, вы) делаю?

(в данный момент)

I am asking you.

Я спрашиваю тебя. (сейчас)

PAST

was playing + were writing

Что я

(ты, он, она, мы) делал?

(с …… до……)

We were reading from

6 to 7. Мы читали с 6 до 7.

процесс, длительность в прошедшем, настоящем, будущем

Выражения: аt this (that) moment (в этот (тот) момент) during (в течение) from….. to (c …..до) just (как раз) at ….. o’clock (в….. часов) now (сейчас) right now – (именно сейчас) Союзы: when (когда) while (пока)

FUTURE

shall playing + be will writing

Что я (он, ты, она, мы)

буду делать? (когда …; в тот

момент, когда)?

She will be watching TV when you come. Она будет смотреть

телевизор, когда ты при-дешь.

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Table 4 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF CONTINUOUS (продолженных) TENSES FUTURE

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

PASSIVE VOICE (страдательный залог или пассивный залог)

сказуемое трехместно, подлежащее пассивно be + being + P2

V ed – для правильных глаголов

V – для неправильных глаголов (см. кол. №3 табл. неправильных глаголов)

PRESENT

am written are being is helped

Что мне (тебе, ему, ей, нам, им)

делают? (в данный момент)

I am being helped. Мне помогают.

(в данный момент)

PAST

was written being were helped

Что мне

(тебе, ему, ей, нам) дела-ли?

(в тот момент)

They were being explained something

when I came in. В тот момент,когда я вошел, им что-то

объясняли.

процесс, длительность в прошедшем, настоящем, будущем

Выражения: аt this (that) moment (в этот (тот) момент) during (в течение) from….. to (c …..до) just (как раз) at ….. o’clock (в….. часов) now (сейчас) right now –(именно сейчас) Союзы: when (когда) while (пока)

FUTURE НЕРАЦИОНАЛЬНО

_________

_________

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Table 5 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF PERFECT (совершенных) TENSES FUTURE

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

ACTIVE VOICE (действительный залог) сказуемое двухместно, подлежащее активно.

Have + P2

V ed – для правильных глаголов V – для неправильных глаголов (см. кол. №3 табл. неправильных глаголов)

PRESENT

have asked + has written he, she, it

Что я

(ты, он, они) сделал?

(к ''сейчас'')

He has not written me

yet. Он мне еще не написал.

PAST

asked had + written для всех лиц

Что я

(ты, он, они) сделал?

(результат)

She had already come.

Она уже пришла.

результат, завершенность действия к определенному моменту в настоящем, прошедшем, будущем действие, которое произошло раньше другого

Наречия: recently (недавно) already (уже) just (только что) yet (уже в вопросительных, еще не в отр. предложениях) lately – в последнее время ever – когда-либо Cоюз since (c) Предлоги: by (к) for (years) (в течение не-скольких лет) for (ages) – целая вечность

FUTURE

shall asked have + will written

Что я

(ты, он, они) сделаю?

( к определ. моменту в буд.)

I shall have answered you by the end of the week. Я отвечу вам к концу

этой недели.

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Table 6 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF PERFECT (совершенных) TENSES FUTURE

Признаки Носители признака Группа неопре-деленных времен

Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

PASSIVE VOICE

(страдательный залог или пассивный залог) сказуемое трехместно, подлежащее пассивно Have + been + P2

V ed – для правильных глаголов

V – для неправильных глаголов (см. кол. №3 табл. неправильных глаголов)

PRESENT

have asked been + has written he, she, it

Что мне (ей, им, ему) сдела-ли?

Что было сделано? (кем-то)

(к ''сейчас'')

I have been recently

written a letter. Мне недавно написали

письмо.

PAST

asked had been + written для всех лиц

Что мне (ей, им, ему) сдела-ли?

Что было сделано кем-то?

(результат)

They said that a child had been just found.

Они сообщили, что только что был найден

ребенок

результат, завершенность действия к определенному моменту в настоящем, прошедшем, будущем действие, которое произошло раньше другого

Наречия: recently (недавно) already (уже) just (только что) yet (уже в вопросительных, еще не в отр. предложениях) lately – в последнее время ever – когда-либо Союз since (c) Предлоги: by (к) for (years) (в течение не-скольких лет) for (ages) – (целая вечность)

FUTURE

shall asked have been + will written

Что мне (ей, им, ему) будет

сделано? Что сделают (к ..)

(к моменту в будущем)

The texts will have been translated by Sunday.

Тексты будут переведены (переведут)

к воскресенью.

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Table 7 PRESENT PAST GROUP OF PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES FUTURE

Признаки Носители признака Время Формы глагола-сказуемого

Вопросы к глаголу-сказуемому Перевод

ACTIVE VOICE

(действительный залог) сказуемое трехместно, подлежащее активно. Have + been + P1

V ing

PRESENT

have been has washing he, she, it

Что я

(ты, он, они) делал? делаю? (все это время.)

The trainer has been washing his dog, but he

isn’t now. Инструктор мыл собаку, а сейчас (уже) не моет.

PAST

had been washing для всех лиц

Что я

(ты, он, они) делал?

(уже 5 часов.)

Many people had been swimming when the shark

was sighted. Когда обнаружили акулу, многие еще

купались.

протяженность действия; протекание действия, предшествование действия; начало действия в указанный момент, период времени; в указанный момент (или до него, или включая его); временность действия; важность действия

Наречия: recently (недавно) just (только что) long (долго) Предлоги: for (в течение) since (с) by (к) by… for Cоюзы: when (когда) while (пока) before (до, перед) Контрастное now (сейчас) в придаточ-ном предложении

FUTURE

will have been washing shall I, We

Что я

(ты, он, они) буду делать? сделаю?

( в течение трех лет; за три года.)

They started out at sunrise. By 8 o’clock they will have been walking for 3 hours.

Они отправились на рассвете.

К 8 часам утра они будут находиться в пути уже

3 часа.

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B. Do the following exercises:

Exercise 1 Choose the correct form. 1. We use various resources when we produce / are producing

goods or services. 2. They count / are counting the costs not only in terms of money,

but in terms of resources used. 3. We always make / are making choices between people's wants

and needs. 4. When people make a choice between two possible uses of their

resources they make / are making a tradeoff between them. 5. We always require / are requiring natural resources when we

are building a bridge. 6. Everybody assumes / is assuming that this decision is the best

to fit the goal. 7. Economists always seek / are seeking solutions and make / are

making comparisons between the economic model and real world. 8. An individual makes / is making careful decisions now about

how to allocate personal resources. 9. When we talk about "the national labour force" we think / are

thinking of all those people available for work within the nation. 10. People always lose / are losing their money when they start

their own business without special education. 11. He is trying / tries to find a job at the moment, he must do

something to earn a living.

Exercise 2

Translate the following sentences: 1. Существует разрыв между тем, что люди хотят иметь, и тем,

что могут иметь. 2. Когда мы начинаем какое-то строительство, то всегда нуж-

даемся в определенных ресурсах. 3. Экономическая модель помогает специалистам проанализи-

ро-вать экономические проблемы, искать решения и находить их. 4. Секретарь не видит, что я на нее смотрю, так как читает что-

то с большим интересом. Она выглядит такой занятой.

164

5. Позвоните ему сейчас. Я думаю, что он уже не беседует с клиентом.

6. Это склад, где обычно содержится крупногабаритное обо-рудование. Сейчас мы содержим там запас товаров, пользующихся повышенным спросом, чтобы можно было выполнять срочные за-казы со склада.

7. Посмотри! Этот раздел состоит из целого ряда грамматиче-ских упражнений.

Exercise 3

Choose the correct form. 1. The capital resources included / were including a variety of

tools and machines. 2. The society understood / was understanding the true costs of

making one decision rather than another. 3. He was always losing / always lost his money when he pro-

vided capital for new businesses 4. Employers obtained / were obtaining their net profits only after

they had paid all expenses. 5. Formally the term "market " denoted / was denoting a place set

aside for buying and selling. 6. He realised / was realising the real costs of things and found

the right solution. 7. When John studied / was studying at college he had to make

very important decisions. 8. People who were willing to sell a commodity contacted / were

contacting people who were willing to buy it. 9. The engineers discussed / were discussing the scheme at the

meeting the whole day. 10. The manager of the repair department explained / was ex-

plaining the poor quality of the work by the lack of the qualified work-men.

11. He spoke / was always speaking too fast. I could hardly un-derstand half of what he said then.

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Exercise 4

Translate the following sentences: 1. Стоимость жизни повышается по мере того, как растут це-

ны, а также увеличивается плата за квартиру (rents) и проезд в транспорте (fares).

2. Гектор Грант внимательно слушал своего коммерческого директора, но не спешил принимать решение. Он всегда колебался, когда дело касалось больших затрат.

3. Когда я работал в коммерческом отделе, я вечно делал ошибки.

4. Наш школьный советник по профориентации разговаривал с нами о том, как найти работу. – Это было великолепно!

5. Не могу сказать, чтобы я разделял твою точку зрения. Твои родители предупреждали тебя, что если пойти в колледж, то будут большие затраты денег и времени.

6. Все утро, когда Том обслуживал клиентов, он думал о том, сколько он может заработать.

7. Пока я разговаривал с миссис Саймон, кто-то вошел в мой офис и украл компьютер. – Ты шутишь!

Exercise 5

Choose the correct form of the verb. 1. I hear the government has announced they will raise / are going

to raise taxes again. 2. At what point will the consumer stop buying /is the consumer

going to stop buying the commodity at the current price'/ 3. My car won't start / isn't going to start. It must be cold,

I think. 4. Why don't you come round tomorrow and I shall cook / am go-

ing to cook you a meal? 5. I'll start / am going to start a new job next week. 6. A consumer will go on buying / is going on buying a product

for as long as he continues to be satisfied. 7. The demand for the commodity will go down / is going to go

down if the quantity of the commodity increases.

166

8. – Someone told me that you are delivering the console control desks for a big computer company. – Yes, we will / are going to sign one more contract with it next month.

9. The suppliers have got some trouble. I'm afraid they will be / are going to be late with delivery.

10. – Would you like to come to the Sales Office and discuss the penalty clause with us? – All right. I shall come / am going to come at 11.

11. – Have you changed your mind about accepting the offer? – No, 1 shall accept / am going to accept it.

12. – I've come out without any money. – Never mind, I'll lend / am going to lend you some. How much do you want'?

13. Look what I've just bought at an auction! – What an extraordi-nary thing! Where will you put it / are you going to put it?

14. I've planned my actions for the next week. – That is very clever of you What will you do/are you going to do with that penalty clause?

Exercise 6

Translate the fallowing sentences: 1. Каждый день я планирую проходить три километра. 2. В сводке погоды говорится, что сегодня будет дождь. 3. Если позволят цены, я куплю эту машину. 4. Ваш поезд отправится завтра в 9 часов. 5. Когда она решит эти задачи, то сможет уйти домой. 6. На следующей неделе наша компания примет на работу еще

пятьдесят служащих. 7. Как только пойдет дождь, наш урожай будет спасен. 8. Мама считает, что я разберусь в химии, если буду занимать-

ся с репетитором. 9. В этом году наша команда не будет принимать участия

в международных соревнованиях.

Exercise 7 Put the correct verb form in the blank. Use the Present Perfect

tense.

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Farm families (1) __ (move) away from rural areas for hundreds of years. Industrialization (2) __ (cause) people to move to cities in many parts of the world. Small farmers (3) __ (leave) their land and (4) __ (have) to look for work in cities or on larger farms. Farms (5) __ (be-come) industrialized also. Farmers and governments (6) __ (put) many small plots of land together to make agriculture a more efficient busi-ness.

Exercise 8

Translate the fallowing sentences: 1. Поскольку нет спроса на химическое оборудование, произ-

водство его резко сократилось к весне этого года. 2. Раньше мы не занимались планированием семейных расхо-

дов. А теперь понимаем, что это крайне необходимо. 3. Это вечернее платье было только что продано за 1000 дол-

ларов. 4. Тебе когда-нибудь приходилось работать в сфере обслужи-

вания? 5. Недавно наш завод приобрёл новое оборудование по выгод-

ной для завода цене. 6. Мы начнем производство этих товаров после того, как экс-

перты докажут, что они (товары) пользуются спросом у населения.

Exercise 9

Put the correct verb form in the blank. Mind Present, Present Per-fect, Present Progressive, and Present Perfect Progressive Tenses.

(A secretary is speaking on the telephone.) Thank you for returning our call. Mr. Edson (1) __ (try) to reach you all morning. He (2) __ (work) on the final bids that will be submitted on Friday. We (3) __ (have) difficulty getting firm prices for materials to be delivered six months from now. Mr. Edson (4) __ just__ (talk) to your competitors to get their prices. He (5) __ (wait) for your response, but he must have it today. He cannot wait any longer.

Lee (6) ___ (live) in Miami. He (7) __ (live) there for two years, ever since he (8) __ (be) in the United States. He (9) ___ (study) English every morning and (10) __ (work) at a restaurant every afternoon and

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evening. Sometimes he (11) _____ (have) to work until after midnight. He (12) _____ (try) to find a different job even though the restaurant owner (13) ___ just __ (promote) him to night manager. He (14) __ (live) with his uncle until he (15) ____ (save) enough money to buy fur-niture to have his own apartment.

Exercise 10

Translate from Russian info English. Mind Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous.

1. Я выплатила все долги. Теперь можно жить спокойно. 2. У нее нет денег. Она выплачивает долги. 3. Мы планируем расходы с прошлого года. 4. В этом месяце они отремонтировали всего четыре машины. 5. Эта семья живет здесь всего несколько дней. 6. Недавно мы купили эти вещи по сниженной цене. 7. Студенты работают над проектом уже два месяца. 8. Я еще не закончил переводить книгу.

Exercise 11

Fill in the blanks with Past or Past Perfect Progressive forms. The Chinese (1) ___ (invent) printing with movable type long be-

fore Gutenberg (2) ___ (develop) it in Europe. The Chinese (3) ___ (use) wood blocks for at least seven hundred years before Europeans (4) ___ (discover) the principles of modern printing. Four hundred years before Gutenberg, Pi Sheng (5) ___ (make) individual ideographs out of clay, but because Chinese has thousands of separate characters, the in-vention (6) __ (simplify) printing much less for Chinese than it later (7) __ (simplify) copying in languages with alphabets based on twenty to thirty sounds. The Chinese (8) ____ (print) with a process that later (9) ____ (change) communications greatly when Gutenberg (10) ___ (rein-vent) it in Europe. Because of the nature of the Chinese language, the process (11) ___ (have) a much less revolutionary effect in China even though the Chinese (12) ___ (develop) it for a much longer time.

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Exercise 12

Translate the following sentences: 1. Когда я вернула книги в библиотеку, я смогла взять еще не-

сколько необходимых для меня книг. 2. Прежде чем поехать в Англию, она изучала английский

язык на курсах английского языка. 3. Когда я услышала голос мужчины по телефону, я поняла,

что раньше знала этого человека. 4. Мы не могли выйти на улицу, так как с самого утра шел

сильный дождь. 5. Студенты прождали в приемной декана около часа, прежде

чем он их принял. 6. Ученый сказал, что он работал в научном центре двадцать

лет. 7. Ученый объяснил, что давно работает над этой темой. Од-

нако до конечного результата еще, по-видимому, далеко. 8. Потребитель покупал товар по текущей цене в течение не-

скольких недель. Затем цены поднялись, и он перестал это делать.

Exercise 13

Fill in the blanks with Future Perfect and Future Perfect Progres-sive forms.

1. By the end of the winter season, more tourists____ (visit) the is-land than ever before.

2. I left several letters unfinished on my desk, but I ____ (finish) them before noon tomorrow.

3. Many countries ___ (wipe out) illiteracy. 4. Looking to the future people like to plan for special anniversa-

ries. In the year 2010 people ___ (think) about anniversaries that will occur that year.

5. By the year 2020 we ___ (lived) in the Atomic Age for fifty-five years.

6. At that time the United States government ___ (be) in operation for 211 years from the time George Washington was inaugurated as President in 1789.

170

7. The oldest university in the Western Hemisphere, the University of Santo Domingo in the Dominican Republic, was founded in 1538; by the year 2015 it____ (be) in existence 477 years.

8. Far older than any university in the Western Hemisphere is the University of Al-Azhar in Cairo; founded in 970, by the year 2015, it ___ (function) 1045 years.

Exercise 14

Translate the following sentences into English: 1. Футуристы изучают направления развития общества, кото-

рые будут иметь место в будущем. 2. Они задумываются над тем, как новые технологии будут

влиять на жизнь простых людей. 3. Кроме того, они ведут поиск тех изобретений, над которыми

уже работают ученые и которые, безусловно, постепенно будут менять сложившиеся экономические и политические отношения в обществе.

4. Многие считают, что биологические, а не технические нау-ки станут причиной наиболее радикальных изменений, которые будут оказывать огромное влияние на жизнь людей в XXI веке.

5. Иногда мне кажется, что я буду учить английский язык всю свою оставшуюся жизнь.

6. Наш продавец будет звонить вам до конца августа. 7. В конце этого года исполнится 100 лет, как семья Андерсена

живёт в этом доме. 8. К концу зимнего сезона в три раза больше иностранцев, чем

в прошлом году, посетят наш музей.

Exercise 15

Translate the following sentences into Russian: 1. The statement of stockholders' investment is suspicious, it can-

not be relied upon. 2. Minority shareholders are well taken care of by GKN. 3. Why was a chart of financial highlights laughed at? 4. The General Manager is always listened to with great interest.

171

5. The Sales Manager has never been spoken to like that. 6. The income statement is very well spoken of. 7. The Chief Accountant who was immediately sent for said that

this amount must have been added twice in the balance sheet. 8. The security Officer's warning was not taken notice of. 9. I should like to read the statement of account referred to by

Mr. D. 10. This subject will be dealt with at the next meeting. 11. The Managing Director promised that the matter would be

looked into. 12. The time of shipment has been agreed upon. 13. As an agreement had not been arrived at, the dispute was de-

cided by arbitration. 14. The car components were disposed of by auction. 15. The clause proposed by the Board of Directors was objected to

by the shareholders.

Exercise 16

Choose the correct form: active or passive. 1. Society often (is measured / measures) success in terms of mo-

ney. 2. Countries also (try / are tried) to measure the success of their national economies.

3. Each time a new product (sold / is sold), GNP increases. 4. Outside consultants (can call / can be called) in to study work

system thoroughly. 5. The study of office systems and paperwork (calls / is called)

O. & M. (Organisation and Methods). 6. Some economists (may study / may be studied) changes in the

unemployment rate. 7. We think productivity (could increase / could be increased) as

a result of our proposed activities. 8. Microeconomists (use / are used) various methods to measure

the performance of the economy. 9. GNP (is included / includes) only goods sold for the first time. 10. If the survey (conducts / is conducted) in conjunction with the

scheme, it'll suit us.

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11. The factory (produces / is produced) millions of cars every year and most of them (export / are exported).

12. Pensioners (have given / have been given) a new pay rise by the government. The news (announced / was announced) earlier today.

Exercise 17 Complete the sentences putting the verbs in brackets in the passive

form. 1. I so _____in this sample survey, (to interest). 2. Not every good or service produced or sold during the year can

____ (to count). 3. When goods _____ (1), no wealth _____ (2). (1. to resell;

2. to create). 4. GNP is a standard by which the economy as a whole can ______

(to judge). 5. The payments left $ 1 million which _____ (1) to reserves in or-

der______ back into business. (1. to transfer; 2. to put). 6. Explain why an investor should ______in the balance sheet of

the company he wants to invest in. (to interest). 7. Last year $29 million _____ back from investments and GKN's

share of profits in related companies. (to add). 8. At 10 a.m. the Managing Director found that mail _____ cor-

rectly. (not to sort). 9. I regret to say that an important letter cannot _____ in the file.

(to find). 10. Recently everyone ____ on group rates as a spur to productiv-

ity. (to put). 11. We couldn't use the computer yesterday morning. It _____ (re-

pair) at that time. 12. By the time I arrived at the office there were no fill-in forms

left. They ____. (All / use). 13. We didn't discuss the results of O. & M. and work study be-

cause it ____ (not/ complete) yet. 14. I couldn't evaluate the performance of the new manager last

Monday. He _______ (to interview) by the Managing Director from 10 to 2 a.m.; and at 3 I had to leave.

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Exercise 18

Rewrite the following paragraph, turning active verbs into passive ones. You may want to change words and add some transitional words. In most sentences you can leave out the agent when you turn the active verb into a passive one.

All over the world (1) people drink tea. (2) People prepare it dif-ferently in different places. In China (3) people make tea by pouring boiling water over tea leaves, but in Japan (4) people pound the leaves into a powder. Then (5) they mix the powder with boiling water. (6) People often associate the English with tea drinking, but their discovery of tea actually came much later. In England at first (7) people considered tea a medicine, and (8) both the English and the French added milk to it for medicinal value. (9) A tea salesman in the United States developed iced tea. (10) He invented it during a heat wave at the Saint Louis World's Fair in 1904. (11) Someone in the United States also invented the tea bag. In Russia (12) people make a strong essence of tea in a small teapot; then (13) they pour it into a glass and thin it with hot water from a samovar. (14) People in Tibet make very strong tea, probably the strongest anywhere. (15) People in Tibet boil tea for several hours to get the full flavor of the leaves.

Exercise 19 Translate the following sentences into English. Make use of the

passive form. 1. Предложение о повышении налогов было одобрено налого-

вой комиссией. 2. Только что было внесено предложение об увеличении платы

за обучение. 3. Говорят, что товары были отправлены за границу несколько

часов назад. 4. Похоже, на активы и пассивы нашей компании часто ссы-

лаются. 5. О методах оценки доходов и расходов спорят давно. 6. Акционеры ушли, поскольку им не удалось прийти к еди-

ному решению.

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7. Когда он сказал, что акции этой компании – хорошее капи-таловложение, над ним смеялись.

8. Президента всегда слушают с большим вниманием. 9. В данный момент в фирме идёт проверка её финансового

состояния. 10. Данный вопрос будет рассмотрен на следующем заседа-

нии арбитражной комиссии. 11. Некоторые детали машины будут заменены к концу меся-

ца. 12. Товары не будут распроданы к концу сезона, так как

у покупателей нет денег. 13. Мы уверены, что холдинг необходимо реорганизовать. 14. Сроки доставки товара уже давно были оговорены

[2; 10; 6].

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ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Борисова Л.И. Ложные друзья переводчика. Общенаучная лексика. Английский язык : учеб. пособие по научно-техническому переводу. – М. : НВИ – ТЕЗАРУС, 2002. – 210 с.

2. Дубынина Г.А., Драчинская И.Ф. Английский язык. Прак-тикум для развития навыков профессионально-ориентированного общения : учеб. пособие для вузов. – М. : Экзамен, 2002. – 192 с.

3. Казакова Т.А. Практические основы перевода. English – Russian. – Серия: Изучаем иностранные языки. – СПб. : Союз, 2001. – 320 с.

4. Lazarenko A.M. Focus on Economics. – Минск : Лексис, 2003. – 207 с.

5. Миловидов В.А. 10 консультаций по английскому языку. – М. : Рольф, Айрис-пресс, 1997. – 320 с.

6. Мутовина М.А. Англоязычная научно-техническая реклама: стилистико-прагматический анализ. – Братск : БрГУ, 2001. – 168 с.

7. Слепович В.С. Курс перевода (английский-русский язык) Translation Course (English – Russian) : учеб. пособие для вузов. – 5-e изд. – Минск : Тетра Системс. – 320 с.

8. Чтение научно-технической литературы на английском язы-ке. Reading Science and Technology : учеб. пособие для электротех-нических вузов / Л.В. Азарова, К.А. Иванова, В.М. Шадрова, Т.С. Гурьева. – Л.: Изд-во Ленинградского ун-та, 1990. – 128 с.

9. Kral T. Economic Considerations. English Though Content: Ap-plied Economics / T. Kral. – USA : Colorado Springs, 1990. – 135 с.

10. Maclin A. Reference Guide to English / A. Maclin. – New York : Holt, Rinechart and Winston, Inc, 1987. – 486 p.

11. Moore J. Reading and Thinking in English / J. Moore. – GB : Oxford University Press, 1980. – 118 p.

12. Pyle M.A. Test of English as a Foreign Language Preparation Guide / M.A. Pyle, M.E. Munoz. – USA : Cliff Notes, 1991. – 482 p.

13. Schwatz G. David. [Электронный ресурс] Concurrent Mar-keting Analysis: a Multy-agent Model for Product, Price, Place and Promotion. – Режим доступа: http://www.emerald-library.com.

14. Skutt R. Glenn. High – Frequency Dimensional Effects in Fer-rite – Core Magnetic Devices / Skutt R. Glenn. – Blacksburg : Virginia, 1996.

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15. Voltage Collapse with a Laboratory Power System Model. In: Proceedings of Power Systems. Paper Ps-07-01-0113. – Stockholm Power Tech., June 18-22, 1995. – p. 191–196.

Дополнительная литература

16. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. – Lon-don : Macmillan A and GB, 2007. – 1749 p.

17. Michael Swan. Practical English Usage. – Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2007. – 658 p.

18. Victoria Oschepkova, Kevin McNicholas. Macmillan Guide to Country Studies. Student's Book 1. – Oxford : Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2007. – 96 p.

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Мария Алексеевна Мутовина

ЧТЕНИЕ, ПЕРЕВОД И ПИСЬМО

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ ЦЕЛЕЙ Учебное пособие по английскому языку

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READING, TRANSLATING & WRITING

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М.А. Мутовина

ЧТЕНИЕ, ПЕРЕВОД И ПИСЬМО

ДЛЯ СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ ЦЕЛЕЙ

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