1

Chapter I- The Problem and its Scope

1.1 Introduction

No man is an island— a classical maxim which entails the social

dimension of man. Man lives in a society in which he interacts and grows as

a social being. Society is such a complex reality. It includes government,

culture, way of life, etc. Everyone, the researcher believes, desires for a

peaceful and harmonious society to live in. However, some people find

themselves in a chaotic society due to a corrupt and distorted government.

These people suffer from civil wars, conflicts among government leaders,

and other anarchical phenomena. But, what is the ideal society? Wait, the

first question should be this: Is there such thing as an ideal society? If it

does, is it subjective with its constitution with regards to the person who

defines it, or can we have an objectively defined ideal society? Herein, the

researcher does not give that answer. Rather, he would have a survey of the

two ancient philosophers on their views of the said topic. Now, given that

there is really such thing as an ideal society, what constitutes it? What kind

of rulers that it should have? What would be the things that the common

people should acquire and embrace? Are those things referring to values?

Virtues?

2

Many political philosophers would suggest that a society governed by a

set of rules with corresponding punishments is the ideal one. Some

philosophers also advocate a variety of concepts on ideal rulers who have

different ways of governance. One example is that of Machiavelli’s concept

of a ruler. He says that a ruler is better to be feared than loved. However,

two great influential philosophers named Plato and Confucius are to be at the

center-stage here. During their lives, they both experienced political and

social struggles. Plato was born during the Peloponnesian War and Confucius

was born “during the time of the decline and downfall of that magnificent

feudal system which had been highly developed in China during the Western

Chou dynasty (1122-771 B.C.).”1 Having that in their midst, their social and

political philosophy emerged. An author once said, “Political and social

conditions determine the type of philosophy of a period.”2

They would both suggest that an ideal society has to be occupied by

people of virtues. Logically, it must be ruled by men of superior virtue and

wisdom being the role-models. Needless to say, a society has to be led by

leaders whose main objective is to take care of the people.

On the one hand, Plato is an ancient thinker who dwelled on political

philosophy, ethics, rational psychology, epistemology, rhetoric, friendship,

and others. He is “one of the world's best known and most widely read and

1 Leonard Shihlien Hsu, The Political Philosophy of Confucianism: An Interpretation of the Social and Political ideas of Confucius, his forerunners, and his early Disciples, New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1932, 8.

2 Ibid.

3

studied philosophers.”3 However, his political philosophy has been his main

theme as a philosopher. “The two major influences on him were Socrates, his

teacher, whom Athens put to death, and his disillusion with contemporary

Athenian (democratic and radical oligarchic) politics.”4 According to his vision

of the ideal society, on the one hand, a society should have hierarchical

structures. He suggests that it has to be constituted by three levels of

society, namely the Guardians, the Auxiliaries, and the Artisans or

Craftsmen. First, the Guardians are the leaders who are called philosopher-

kings; the Auxiliaries, the military, who are devoted exclusively to the

conduct of war and to the implementation of the rulers’ commands; and the

Artisans who are weavers, farmers, poets, musicians, shoemakers, nurses,

smiths, cooks, etc. Each class of the society corresponds to each part of the

tripartite human soul which consists the Reason, Spiritedness, and Appetite.

Plato identifies political justice as the harmony in a structured political body.

These structures have something to do with justice, which Plato tries to

profoundly define. A society is ultimately just when relations between those

three classes are harmonious and well-executed. Thus, an ideal society is

engaged in political justice that Plato emphasizes. This society is called the

Kallipolis.

3 Thomas Brickhouse, “Plato (427—347 B.C.E.)”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed February 9, 2016. http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/.

4 Janet Coleman, A History of Political Thought from Ancient Greece to Early Christianity. Oxford. Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2000, 69.

4

On the other hand, “Confucius, or Kong Fuzi or Master Kong, is the

most influential person in Chinese History.”5 In fact, after his existence,

Chinese people accumulated his teachings and made his philosophy a set of

ethical principles. With regards to the main topic, Confucius envisions the

ideal society in which relationships—especially those within the family—were

more important than laws. It is the tension between the ‘Rule of Virtue’ and

the ‘Rule of Law’. “He thinks that laws with corresponding punishments only

make people learn how to avoid being caught.”6 From this, the importance of

The Five Relationships described in the Doctrine of the Mean is emphasized.

Those relationships are those between ruler and subject, father and son,

husband and wife, older and younger brother, and friends. If all involved in

these relationships behave properly and with full human respect toward the

other party, society would be orderly and considered to be the ideal one.

That is to say everybody is involved within the society. The ideal society of

Confucius, called the Humane society, according to one Confucian scholar, is

a society grounded on virtue, especially the fundamental virtues of Ren and

Li. This is the heart of Confucian philosophy—cultivation of oneself which

takes place within a dynamic society. Confucius also considers the

hierarchical structure of the society. The hierarchy is as follows: the emperor,

the nobles of the various states, their ministers, the ministers’ household,

stewards, and the common people. An orderly society is a well-governed

one, but here the knowledge, sincerity, and wisdom of the ruler is as

5 Meher McArthur, Confucius. Quercus: Great Britain, 2010, 1.6 Lee Dian Rainey, Confucius and Confucianism The Essentials. UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010, 50.

5

important as his behavior. “The ruler must be a gentleman who exemplifies

Confucian excellence.”7 “Moreover, becoming a gentleman (junzi) is a

realistic goal one might strive for.”8 However, this realistic goal can be

achieved through education. Nonetheless, “this cultivation and education is a

life-long process.”9 Yet, this is not just for people who would rule, but it is

everybody’s business.

Furthermore, Plato and Confucius agree with the notion of hierarchy.

For them, an ideal society is to be divided into different levels so as to have

order and harmony. Furthermore, both ancient thinkers recognize the

importance of the relationship between the individual and the state, and the

importance of shaping virtuous leaders who would then lead the people in

virtue. More importantly, “both the Confucian and Platonic visions of society

include super-humans—the Sage King for Confucius and the Philosopher King

for Plato.”10 They seem to have almost the same outlooks on ideal society,

but they actually differ in some remarkably distinctive ways.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

A question like ‘What is the ideal society?’ arises when a society is

bombarded with chaotic phenomena which include different forms of

corruption as well as social divergences. The problem in its question form is:

What is the best way to create an ideal society where peace and harmony 7 Robert Alexander Woodend, The Political Thought of Confucius and Plato, Honors thesis, 2010, 6.8 Ibid.9 Rainey, 45.10 Woodend, 6.

6

reign? What kinds of rulers it should have? Hence, this study attempts to

expose, compare the two viewpoints of Confucius and Plato, and later come

up with a holistic view or a synthesis out of the two exposed philosophies.

Thus the problem is divided into these following questions to guide the

readers in this study:

1.) What is the view of Confucius on Ideal society?

2.) What is the view of Plato on Ideal society?

3.) What are the convergence and divergence between the two?

4.) What are the strengths and limitations of the Platonic- Confucian view

of the ideal society?

1.3. Significance of the Study

This endeavor is so experiential that each one of us is involved. It is

because each of us belongs to a society wherein there is a set of social and

political divergences. We have various ways of life which define the kind of

society we have. Unfortunately, there are civilizations experiencing political

turmoil due to different forms of corruption; they may be on the part of the

rulers, governance, or culture.

This study attempts to convey a picture of an ideal society wherein strife

and corruptions are theoretically absent. This study mainly presents clear

distinctions and similarities of the concepts of ideal society, according to the

western and eastern ancient thinkers. Moreover, this study offers a remedy

7

for a chaotic society by exposing the two political thoughts of Plato and

Confucius on the said topic. Later, as the researcher’s contribution, he would

come up with a holistic view of a good society or a synthesis out of the two

viewpoints. This may not provide an answer to every social and political

problem present today. However, this would widen the horizon of readers’

minds regarding political and social matters in the light of Confucius and

Plato. This thesis would attempt to touch students’ interest to study those

two influential and ancient thinkers of the west and of the east. Lastly, this

study also aims to invite the readers to reflect on what is really the best

society we could have.

1.4. Scope and Limitation

This study does not dwell on the question on the subjectivity or

objectivity of the topic. Rather, this only explores the thoughts of Confucius

and Plato on ideal society. The two expositions will be contrasted. Ideal

Society does not refer only to a specific place, country, or state, but in

general sense of what society is.

Regarding the Confucius’ view of ideal society, this comprises

Confucian virtues which an individual in a society should acquire. Also, this

talks about the ideal ruler of the society. This focuses on the Confucian

virtues such as Ren and Li. Moreover, Confucius has teachings which are

vague. Because of that, the researcher would get some ideas from his

students namely Mencius and Xunzi. Another thing is that the researcher

8

would not focus on the traditions, cultural practices, and religion of the

ancient Chinese people except those which are related to the topic. Lastly,

this does not include the whole history of Chinese civilization except those

events which are of help to the completion of the exposition of the topic.

On the other hand, Plato’s view of ideal society includes the structure

specifically of the different roles and classes of people within the society.

This also discusses the three parts of the human soul and the virtues that

correspond to each of the three social classes in Plato’s political society.

Also, this will discuss the qualities of the ruler which are essential to have a

harmonious and peaceful society. However, Plato has written many literary

works. This research does not include any of his writings like the Apology,

the Laws, because they are not related to the main topic on ideal society and

its ideal ruler. Although this talks about a society, this does not present any

religion, the details of the structural laws and the structure of the

government which are present in his other book The Laws. Lastly, Plato, in

his writing The Laws, he envisions another ideal society which came later

than The Republic. My only reference of his ideal society is drawn from the

book, The Republic.

1.5. Research Methodology

This research is by nature a comparative study. With that, the

researcher will do his best to read as many articles and books as he deems

relevant to the topic. The researcher has only limited sources, but that does

9

not stop him to pursue this research. The researcher will take his main

sources from the library while the secondary sources are taken from the

internet and from other persons’ sources.

1.6. Theoretical Framework

The researcher exposes the thoughts of Plato and Confucius on ideal

society and compares them. The two ancient philosophers have greatly

influenced the western and eastern political and moral spheres. In Jennifer

Moore’s Understanding Confucianism, she says that ethical principles and

virtues are the heart of Confucian philosophy. This has been the tradition in

China and other eastern civilizations. Moreover, according to Rainey’s book

entitled Confucius and Confucianism The Essentials, society is the ideal one

if it has virtuous rulers which are considered as the role-models. If the rulers

are seen as bad examples, then the common people will go the same way. In

the article of Kessler, gentlemen are the ones who are in authority. They are

rulers who are bound with virtues like filial piety, benevolence, and other

Confucian virtues. Those writings mentioned help to build the skeleton of the

concept of ideal society according to Confucius.

On the other hand, Kraut’s book entitled Cambridge Companion to

Plato says that “Plato (427-347 B.C.) stands at the head of our philosophical

tradition, being the first western thinker to produce a body of writing that

touches upon the wide range of topics that are still discusses by philosophers

today under such headings as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political

10

theory, language, art, love, mathematics, science, and religion.” 11 An article

contained in the book of Karl Popper entitled The Open Society and Its

Enemies criticizes Plato’s idea of a ruler that is called the Philosopher-king.

Herein, Plato’s Utilitarian and totalitarian principles overrule everything, even

the ruler’s privilege of knowing, and of demanding to be told the truth. “The

motive of Plato’s wish that the rulers themselves should believe in the

propaganda lie is his hope of increasing its wholesome effect, i.e. of

strengthening the rule of the master race, and ultimately, of arresting all

political change.”12

These reviews are of great value to the research for they are essential to this

undertaking.

1.7. Organization of the study

In this section, the readers will be guided by the structure of this 6-chapter

research.

Chapter one basically provides the general introduction and the

problem and its cope. This gives the readers a sort of overview and foretaste

of this research and guides them in the journey of this endeavor.

Chapter two mainly exposes the concept of Confucius on ideal society

which includes the kind of governance and the ideal ruler. This also includes

the discussion on the Confucian virtues.11 Richard Kraut, Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, 1.12 Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies. Routledge: London, 1945, 142.

11

Chapter three thoroughly exposes Plato’s imaginary ideal society and

its ideal ruler.

Chapter four states the similarities and differences of the two

expositions on ideal society and its ideal ruler.

Chapter five presents the strengths and limitations or weaknesses of

the Confucian-Platonic views on ideal society.

In the last chapter, the researcher gives the summary, conclusion, and

recommendations of the research.

1.8. Definition of Terms

1.) Filial piety, filial (xiao) – “The virtue of being a dutiful and respectful

son or daughter, considered by Confucius to be the key to other virtues

developed later in life.”13

2.) Gentleman (junzi) – “it comes to refer to anyone capable of becoming a

kind of moral aristocrat or a ruler: an exemplar of ritually-correct

behavior, ethical courage, and noble sentiment—in short, a possessor

of Goodness.”14

3.) Goodness, Good (ren)- “In the Analects, Goodness refers to the highest

of Confucian

virtues.”15

13 Confucius, Analects with selections from Traditional Commentaries, trans. Edward Slingerland. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2003, 238.14 Ibid.15 Ibid.

12

4.) Philosopher-kings- the rulers of Plato’s Utopian Kallipolis.

5.) Ritual, ritual propriety (li) – “A set of traditional religious and moral

practices, which in the Confucian context were believed to have been

revealed to the Zhou kings by Heaven.”16

6.) Virtue (de) – “it refers to moral worthiness (“virtue” in the more

common sense) as well as the particular “power” residing in a person

or thing.”17

7.) Wisdom (zhi) – “an important virtue that seems to involve a

cognitive understanding of the Way, as well as an ability to accurately

perceive situations and judge the character of others.”18

1.9. Review of Related Literature

Moore, Jennifer Oldstone. Understanding Confucianism. UK &

Ireland: Duncan Baird Publishers Ltd, 2003.

This book offers a historical background of Confucianism how this

tradition came about and how it influenced the eastern civilization. It is an

accessible introduction to one of the great religious traditions of the east. In

addition, the book articulates the ethical principles of Confucianism which

are considered as the heart of this tradition. Specifically, this offers an

understanding of the Confucian notions of social harmony, virtue, and

16 Ibid., 241.17 Ibid., 242. 18 Ibid., 243.

13

benevolence, filial piety, etc. Hence, this book is related to the research

specifically in the understanding of the virtues bestowed by this book.

Rainey, Lee Dian. Confucius and Confucianism The Essentials. UK:

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010.

The values and virtues of each individual determine the quality of a

society. This book explains how an individual affects the quality of a society.

If an individual does not have a good relationship with his family, then he will

be a black sheep in the society. In addition, behaviors of an individual would

also depend on the ruler’s way of governing. If the ruler’s way of handling a

state is rooted in bad values, then the common people would be wandered

away. Therefore, a society with a virtuous ruler is harmonious and peaceful.

This book has a great significance with the research in terms of what

constitutes a harmonious society which is considered to be the ideal one.

Kraut, Richard. Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006.

This book mainly discusses the life and works of Plato. This

basically includes the political background during Plato’s time. He was born

in the midst of political turmoil and civil war. The Peloponnesian war took

place during the youth years of Plato. It ended when he was at the age of 22.

Plato greatly influenced by Socrates, his teacher, and that made Plato

14

oppose Democratic kind of government. This book is an enlightenment

regarding the political interest of Plato.

Kessler, Gary. Voices of Wisdom: A Multicultural Philosophy

Reader, 5th edition. Wadsworth: Wadsworth, Inc., 2004, pp. 32-40.

There is an article entitled Confucius and Moral Character in the book

that contains an introduction to Confucian philosophy. This is abundant with

Confucian ideas including gentleman, virtues, moral implications in the

society, etc. Some of the statements in the article are quoted from the book

Analects which is actually the research’s source. This tackles most

importantly the Confucian virtues, e.g. benevolence, filial piety, etc. which

are the central focus of this research.

Pooper, Karl. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Routledge:

London, 1945, pp. 142-144.

This article talk about the criticism of the author on the

Philosopher-king of Plato. According to Plato, Philosopher-kings should be the

rulers for they love truth. But, Plato also says that it is the business of the

rulers of the city, if it is anybody’s, to tell lies, deceiving both its enemies and

its own citizens for the benefit of the city; and no one else must touch this

privilege. Because of that, the author says that Plato himself is not truthful

when he makes this statement. It seems to be contradicting notions. This

somehow gives some ideas of criticisms on Plato.

15

Chapter II- Confucian View of Ideal Society/ Humane

Society

2.1. Human Nature

Prior to the discussion on the teaching of Confucius on the ideal

society, it is best to first discuss the human nature as a tool to understand

the next topics. Unfortunately, Confucius is vague with regards to human

nature. Little there is said about human nature by Confucius. That is why

after his death, his students discussed and even debated on the human

nature. They have different claims, yet have a common vision—the

16

achievement of Ren which is to be discussed in the next topic. In fact, “the

disagreements between Mencius and Xunzi shaped the early development of

Confucian philosophy after Confucius.”19

For now, the researcher would different views of two of his many

students namely Mencius and Xunzi.

2.1.1. Mencius

“Mencius, one of the prominent early second-generation disciples of

Confucius, argued that human nature is originally good.”20 He “claims that

human nature is good by approaching the issue in five ways.”21 The first way

is that everyone has a mind/heart that contains within it compassion, shame,

respect, and the knowledge of right and wrong. The second is that we are all

the same. “There is no difference between us and a sage, except that a sage

has cultivated the sprouts within.”22 Yet all of us, whether sage or not, are

capable of cultivating the said sprouts. The third one is that “Humanity or

ren can be seen to be naturally present within us because, just as when

seeing a child about to fall into the well, even the worst of us will, if

surprised, feel a sense of alarm.”23 Mencius is trying to say that this is man’s

natural reaction to things that are in emergency or surprise. If there is

something urgent to be done for good, one naturally helps out without taking

19 Karyn Lai, An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, 36.20 Ibid.21 Rainey, 90.22 Ibid., 91.23 Ibid., 92.

17

advantage out of the situation. The fourth “is to defend his theory that

human nature is good from those who point out that there are clearly evil

people in the world.”24 Mencius says that if there is no proper cultivation of

the sprouts in the person, he loses his connection to what is within us. This

does not mean that the innate goodness has vanished. Rather, it has just

gotten distorted resulting to our blindness of it. The last approach is that

“like water that will always flow downhill, so, too, human nature will tend

toward the good.”25 Thus, the common people are not really difficult to

govern. Yet, the role-model should be there. If the ruler acts in accordance

with virtue, then the common people follow for the human nature would tend

towards the good.

2.1.2. Xunzi

“Xunzi is often hailed as the most scrupulous of the early Confucian

philosophers because of the rigor in his argumentation.”26 He, indeed, is

quite different. He “countered that human nature was morally bad to begin

with and that it needed to be corrected to avoid the further disintegration of

the human condition.”27 Herein, Xunzi is quite pessimistic in his approach. In

Western philosophy, he may be equated with Thomas Hobbes which says

that the state of nature is selfish or self-interest. Xunzi “emphasizes the

actively selfish character of xing (human nature) and its antisocial effects.”28

24 Ibid.25 Ibid., 93.26 Lai, 40.27 Ibid., 36.28 Ibid., 41.

18

These anti-social effects, suggested by the term itself, would result strife,

hatred, and other negative effects to the society and to the selfish person as

well.29 That is why, for Xunzi, the regulation of human behavior is very

important. On this matter, this regulation is contrary to Confucius’ way of

regulating. Xunzi’s way is called fa or penal law which Confucius rejected.

No matter how these two Confucian philosophers deal with the idea of

the human nature, they would end up a common goal- achievement of ren.

2.2. The Ideal Ruler: Gentleman/ The Superior man (Junzi)

Any society is impossible to be lived in without the presence of a ruler.

Without a ruler, the society surely tends toward conflict and worst, division.

In Confucian society, rulers lead by virtue and not so much by punishments.

2.3. The master said, ‘Guide them by edicts, keep them in line with punishments, and the common people will stay out of trouble but will have no sense of shame. Guide them by virtue, keep them in line with the rites, and they will, besides having a sense of shame, reform themselves. 30

A Confucian ruler, moreover, leads his people in accordance with rites or

Ritual propriety (Li). “It is by the rites that a state is administered.”31 Since

the Confucian Society is a phenomenon wherein people cultivate themselves

to become benevolent/ humane, Hsei- Yung Hsu says,

The starting point of Confucian society is self-cultivation since for a society to be humane requires the members of the society

29 Cf, Lai, 41.30 Confucius, The Analects (Lun yu), trans. D.C. Lau. England: Penguin Group, 1979, 63.31 Ibid., 111.

19

to make it humane, and they can do this only by making an effort to recover human-heartedness (ren) in themselves.32

Confucian way of envisioning society is that it is in achieving human

potentials. It is not solely for the rulers to achieve human-heartedness to fit

to become rulers, but for everybody. But, “when it comes to realizing human

potential, ‘Sage King’ is the highest level one can achieve.”33 Yet, such sage

kings just existed in the past. Confucius says,

7.26 The Master said, ‘I have no hopes of meeting a sage. I would be content if I met someone who is a gentleman.’ The Master said, ‘I have no hopes of meeting a good man. I would be content if I met someone who has constancy. It is hard for a man to have constancy who claims to have when he is wanting, to be full when he is empty and to be comfortable when he is in straitened circumstances.’34

A Confucian society has its leader called gentleman or Exemplary persons

(Junzi). The notion of the superior man can be found in four features in the

Analects: Confucius himself, the civil servant, the virtuous man, and the

virtuous civil servant.35This ideal ruler must be educated and inculcated with

virtue.

Confucius says,

2:1TheMastersaid, ‘The rule of virtue can be compared to the Pole Star which commands the homage of the multitude of stars without leaving its place.’36

32 Hsei-Yung Hsu, Just State and Just Man- A Dialogue between Plato and Confucius. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, 1998, 33.

33 Woodend, 8.34 Confucius, 89.35 Yih-jing Lin, “Confucian Notion of Chun-tzu ", The Exploration of Confucian thought, Lin, Yih-jing,

(Taipei, 1987), pp. 69-70.36 Confucius, 63

20

There is no other way in governing than being man of virtue. Governing is

effected by example. In the Confucian view an orderly society can be

achieved not by severe law but by setting up exemplars for people to

emulate. 37

II. 19. Duke Ai asked, ‘What must I do before the common people will look up to me?’ Confucius answered, ‘Raise the straight and set them over the crooked and the common people will look up to you. Raise the crooked and set them over the straight and the common people will not look up to you. 38

To have a clear and distinct idea as to who will emulate virtues, there

should be specific group of persons that are the exemplars of such virtues.

The emulation plays an important part in Confucius' political thought, since the objects of emulation are the superior men whom Confucius endows with the influence that enables them to transform people. 39

There should be a need of rulers who are practicing virtue because

“guidance by virtue cannot be effective unless the ruler sets a moral

example for his people.”40 More importantly this is the first and foremost the

quality of a ruler—the master of virtues. To attain it, “the first step for a man

to be a genuine man or a superior man is for him to undergo a process of

self-cultivation”.41 In Confucian Philosophy, there are several virtues or

Confucian virtues that are necessary to acquire as a gentleman or a superior

man (Junzi). They are to be studied in the next subtopics.

37 Hsu, 33.38 Confucius, 65.39 Hsu, 33.40 Confucius, 34.41 Hsu, 24.

21

2.2.1. Humaneness (Ren)

The central focus of Confucian philosophy is the virtue of human-

heartedness (Ren), which is clearly expressed in two passages in the

Analects, where Confucius says,

4.5. The gentleman never shuns humaneness even for the time it takes to finish a meal. If his progress is hasty, it is bound to arise from this; and if his progress is unsteady, it is bound to arise from this. 42

15.9. The determined public servant and the humane man never seek to preserve life in such a way as to injure humaneness, but they will sometimes even sacrifice their lives in order to achieve humaneness. 43

Ren appears in 58 of the Analects’ 499 chapters and is, perhaps, the most

important term in the text.44 It is held above all other virtues. Confucius says,

“If a man sets his heart on benevolence [humane heartedness], he will be

free from evil.”45 It is then the most fundamental virtue that a man can

acquire—to be free from evil. It entails all other virtues like prudence,

temperance, wisdom, etc. To be free from evil is to be perfectly virtuous. It is

“one’s entire person: one’s cultivated cognitive, aesthetic, moral, and

religious sensibilities as they are expressed in one’s ritualized roles and

relationships.”46 Yet, Ren is so hard to translate in English language that it

depends on the interpretation the translator makes.

42 Confucius, 72.43 Ibid., 133.44 Woodend, 23.45 Confucius, 72.46 Roger Ames, and Henry Rosemont, Jr., The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. New

York: Random House Publishing Group, 1998, 49.

22

Humanity/ Humanness is a moral attitude. Humanity is the umbrella that includes all the virtues – being honest, sincere, wise, courageous, practicing filial piety, and sympathy toward others. All of these moral building blocks bring us to the attitude of humanity.47

In Confucian philosophy, humaneness is so important that it is equal to

the value of life. This is the most central virtue in the ethical realm of

Confucius. As Wei-ming Tu points out, “human-heartedness is basically

linked with the self-reviving, self-perfecting, and self-fulfilling process of an

individual.”48 Since every person in the Confucian society is greatly

encouraged to develop his potentials by the image of the superior man, it is

then in the society that is considered “the best place in which people can

interrelate with one another and have mutual aid, and it is in society, for

Confucius, that man can achieve human-heartedness.”49 People learn from

each other since we are social beings.

Confucius believed that men are essentially social beings. They are to a very considerable extent (though by no means totally) made what they are by society. On the other hand, since society is nothing more than the interaction of men, society is made what it is by the individuals who compose it.50

This is why the superior men, those who are in authority, have to set

themselves as the very good examples in making the society what it should

be—humane society. The superior men should first to be the ones who would

subject themselves to the “process of self- cultivation to find inwardly one's

47 Rainey, 34.48 Wei-ming Tu, The Creative Tension Between Jen and Li, Philosophy East and West, vol. XVIII (1),

1968, p. 34.49 Hsu, 24.50 Herrlee Creel , Chinese Thought From Confucius to Mao Tse-Tung. London: University of Chicago

Press, 1953, 31.

23

true self, and to dig out the covert human- heartedness in oneself.”51 It is the

core, according to Confucius, of the human life.

Ren is what makes us truly human, to abandon it is to give up a fully human life. Ren is worth sacrificing one's life for; it is the basis of all human value and worth. It is Ren, ultimately, that makes life worth living.52

It is clearly said that it is the basis of all human value and worth. It is

therefore for a superior man to acquire such fundamental virtue which is

“the root of filial piety and fraternal duty”53 for the common to people to

emulate. “Confucius' assertion that an orderly or unified society can be

achieved only through the rule of virtue, and the emulation of

exemplars…”54 With that, every member of the society gains “paramount

point of self-cultivation which is to enable him to find out his inner self, i. e.

to actualize the potential of his being.”55

2.2.2. Ritual Propriety (Li)

The next fundamental virtue for a superior man is the Ritual Propriety

(Li). Chinese culture is very rich in rituals and traditions. The mourning

period of a son whose parent has died is three years for example. Another

example is that “Confucius would also have taught all the proper forms of

noble etiquette: that a lord enters a room before a duke; proper salutations

from one rank to another; how to carry on diplomatic negotiations with 51 Hsu, 25.52 J. M. Koller, Oriental Philosophies. Basingstoke, 1985, 266.53 Confucius, 59.54 Hsu, 34.55 Tu, 189.

24

another state, and so on.”56 That is part of Chinese culture. However,

“Confucian Li has three meanings.”57 “It means religion; it means a

customary code of social behavior; it also means that Li conforms to the

norms of human- heartedness.”58 Furthermore, Li is considered as the norms

or guidelines given by the society. “It is the set of rules of social life.”59 With

that, as long as one is in the society, he has to learn such rules. “It is the

rules of propriety.”60 Another author would describe Li this way: “It is of two

kinds: first the religious rituals of the time, such as ancestral veneration, and,

second, the rituals of noble etiquette and proper behavior.”61 Confucius

would demand this ritual propriety or behavior because of two reasons:

Confucius demanded ritual behavior, first, because it is the basis of tradition; that tradition had, in the past, led to good behavior, good government, and a unified China. We inherit rituals from the past and the people in the past had good reasons for setting them up. Second, ritual is the web of social and political relationships. So, when ritual is practiced with moral intentions, individuals and society benefit. If we all treat each other with respect by performing the proper rituals, it is not just the individuals involved who benefit, but, in a ripple effect, all of society. We will see how ritual works into moral behavior, society, and government as we go on.62

This obviously states that ritual propriety is of vital help for the development

of the society. As for the rulers or superior men, it would be necessary to

acquire this virtue for the emulation of the common people. Confucius says,

16.13. If you do not study the rites, you will have no way of taking your stand. 63

56 Rainey, 36.57 Koller, p. 267-8.58 Hsu, 97.59 Ibid.60 Creel, 2961 Rainey, 36.62 Ibid., 39.63 Confucius, 141.

25

20.3. If one does not understand the rites, one has no means of taking one's stand. 64

Without this virtue, “the harmony of human interrelation and orderly society

will diminish.”65 This is how important the virtue is. For the rulers to employ

their ministers, it should be guided according to ritual. If the rulers choose

their ministers with no sense of propriety, how can they govern well?

Confucius says,

3.19. Rulers in employing ministers do so in accordance with ritual, and ministers in serving rulers do so in accordance with loyalty. 66

Overall, Li connotes moral principles of human interaction since it has

something to do with propriety being a member in the society. One author

says that “the five moral principles of human interaction, namely, affection,

righteousness, separate functions, proper order, and faithfulness are

predicated on propriety.”67 Confucius says,

8.2. If one is courteous but does without ritual, then one dissipates one's energies; if one is cautious but does without ritual, then one becomes timid; if one is bold but does without ritual, then one becomes reckless; if one is forthright but does without ritual, then one becomes rude. 68

If an act is done not in accordance with ritual, it brings out negative

connotation. Here, Confucius really puts great emphasis on this virtue

because it is the basis of the orderly and harmonious human interactions

within the society. Another author says that Li has important functions.64 Ibid., 160.65 Hsu, 28.66 Confucius, 70.67 Hsu, 28.68 Confucius, 92.

26

In the first place, li furnished a kind of unwritten law in political control; and should be observed by sovereigns, ministers, subordinate officers, and by the people themselves […] Second, li is a socializing factor in moral discipline; Confucius says, ‘Subdue one’s self and conform to the ideal of li.’ Third, it is a harmonizing factor of arts and literature…”69

Given this very substantial value of this virtue, it is proper and right for a

superior man to acquire this virtue.

To put this section in a nutshell, these virtues in Chinese terms do not

have an accurate translation in English. It depends, as the researcher stated

earlier, on the manner of explaining of the various authors. Yet, more or less

they mean the same thing; they refer to the same connotations. These

virtues aforementioned are of great importance for the constitution of the

ideal ruler, according to Confucius, the “Superior men” or “gentlemen” which

is Junzi in Chinese term.

2.2.3. Wisdom (Zhi)

Confucius is a lover of wisdom; he is into antiquity. Yet, he is not one of

those who are born with knowledge.70 Confucius says, “I was not born with

knowledge but, being fond of antiquity, I am quick to seek it.”71 Despite his

rejection of being one among those who are born with knowledge, he loved

learning. It is through learning he became wise. Yes, wisdom is acquired.72

Confucius says, 69 Leonard Shihli En Hsu, The Political Philosophy of Confucianism: An Interpretation of the social and

political ideas of Confucius and His early disciples. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1932, 90-91.70 Confucius, 23.71 Ibid., 88.72 Ibid., 23.

27

16.9. Confucius said, ‘Those who are born with knowledge are the highest. Next come those who attain knowledge through study. Next again come those who turn to study after having been vexed by difficulties. The common people, in so far as they make no effort to study even after having been vexed by difficulties, are the lowest.’ 73

Confucius made a distinction among men. However, he is a lover of wisdom

in which he loved to learn. He would assert that to be wise is to study the

wisdom of the ancients. That is why he is considered to be a superior man

during his time. However, he never considered himself as a sage, which is

the highest achievement of human potential, yet he is a superior man. One

of his disciples says so.

14.28. The master said, ‘There are three things constantly on the lips of the gentleman none of which I have succeeded in following: “A man of benevolence never worries; a man of wisdom is never in two minds; a man of courage is never afraid.” Tzu-kung said, ‘What the Master has just quoted is a description of himself.’74

Thus, one of the requirements to be a superior man is wisdom. “Wisdom

should be regarded as one of the requisites for being the superior man.”75 Since one of the fundamental roles of a ruler is to provide the things

essential for the common people, he should be wise by showing reverence.

Confucius says,

6.22. Fan Ch’ih asked about wisdom. The master said, ‘To work for the things the common people have a right to and to keep one’s distance from the gods and spirits while showing them reverence can be called wisdom.’76

73 Ibid., 140.74 Ibid., 128.75 Hsu, 101.76 Confucius, 84.

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Furthermore, a superior man should be firm and convinced in his judgment

about right and wrong. Confucius says, “The man of wisdom is never in two

minds…”77

“A man who lacks wisdom, however, can easily mistake the specious

for the genuine.”78 This is how important the virtue of wisdom is. More

importantly, the superior man should be a master about right and wrong. It is

a crucial role for a superior man because choosing between right and wrong

is so practical that it occurs in our daily life. It is there where we measure our

moral wisdom on things. Therefore it is proper and right for a superior man

to be a master on this field. Confucius says,

12.17. Chi K’ang Tzu asked Confucius about government. Confucius answered, ‘To govern is to correct. If you set an example by being correct, who would dare to remain incorrect?’79

How can a ruler correct if he himself is not the master of any moral

endeavors. Moreover, to be able to correct, the ruler himself should have a

deep knowledge of his people. One cannot correct a mistake if he himself

does not know what the mistake is in the first place. Confucius then says,

“Know your fellow men.”80 The nature of man is good as established earlier.

Yet, we cannot deny the fact that somehow the nature of man is

77 Ibid., 100.78 Ibid., 22.79 Ibid., 114.80 Ibid., 115.

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unpredictable. To address this issue, the ruler should study the human

character.

Thus, the study of human character, through which the only hope of gaining some degree of control over future events lies, was considered a matter of vital importance to the ruler, as the present and future stability of his state often depended on his choice of ministers.81

It is clearly stated that the ruler should choose wise ministers to be able to

govern well. One of the traits of being wise that the ruler should have is to

examine himself every now and then. With that, the ruler should be away

from any worries and fears that may hinder his leading the common people

into a humane society. Confucius says,

12.4. Ssu-ma Niu asked about the gentleman. The Master said, ‘The gentleman is free from worries and fears.’‘In that case, can a man be said to be a gentleman simply because he is free from worries and fears?’The Master said, ‘If, on examining himself, a man finds nothing to reproach himself for, what worries and fears can he have?’82

A ruler should be confident with what he is doing and firm with what is right

for the welfare of his people. Wisdom is thus needed to be a superior man as

the ruler of the state.

2.3. Ren and Li

Ren and Li are fundamental concepts in Confucianism. It has been

established their relation as interrelated to each other; one is of no meaning

without the other. It is so because Li conforms to the norms of human-

81 Ibid., 22.82 Ibid., 113.

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heartedness (Ren). “Analogously, to understand the depth of human feeling

is to be able to express it appropriately; and one’s ability to express human

feeling is an indication of one’s emotional maturity.” 83However, Li is the

outward expression of Ren. “Simultaneously, they (members of the society)

have to behave virtuously in accordance with ritual or propriety (Li) for the

virtuous behavior is the embodiment of human-heartedness (ren).”84

Furthermore, there are different main faces of Li such as Filial Piety,

and Reciprocity “for Ren is the ethical and motivational basis of Li acts” 85

which are to be discussed in the next subtopics.

2.3.1. Filial Piety (Xiao)

Chinese civilization puts much value on family. “The cultivation of Ren

begins with the development of family relationships with their correlative

emotions and special obligations.”86 In fact, they worship their ancestors to

pay honor and respect to them. This practice is deeply rooted in Chinese

culture. Confucius says, “Filial piety and fraternal duty - surely they are the

roots of humaneness.”87 It is by this virtue the individual can achieve

humanness (ren) which is the key to having humane society.

It is not only that, but also they associate family with governing.

Confucius says,

83 Lai, 30.84 Hsu, 33.85 Lai, 28.86 Ibid., 23.87 Confucius, 59.

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2.21. Someone said to Confucius, ‘Why do you not take part in government?’The master said, ‘The Book of History says, “Oh! Simply by being a good son and friendly to his brothers a man can exert an influence upon government.” In so doing a man is in, fact, taking part in government…’88

In other words, if you fulfill your obligations as a son, you are as well fulfilling

the obligations as in the government. He really emphasizes this virtue

because “there is a similarity between filial piety and government.”89 He

bears analogy between family and government. If one is in the government,

he engages in political affairs. To apply the previous statement, if one in the

family is filial towards one’s parents, then in the state one can be loyal

towards one’s ruler, and so on. “One does not necessarily have to hold an

office in that what one does in the family is exactly the same as what one

does in the society.”90 If everybody acquires this virtue, the society will be

harmonious and humane.

2.3.3. Ethical Wisdom

“The Analects offers many examples of how ren shows itself in the life

of the Confucian paradigmatic individual.”91 One of them is the ethical ideas

which Confucius claims to be manifestations of ren. Confucius says,

Tzu-chang asked Confucius about benevolence (humanness/ ren), Confucius said, ‘There are five things and whoever is capable of putting them into practice in the Empire is certainly “humane”.’ ‘May I ask what they are?’ ‘They are respectfulness,

88 Ibid., 66.89 Hsu, 37.90 Ibid.91 Lai, 24.

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tolerance, trustworthiness in word, quickness and generosity…’92

These virtues mentioned are the ethical wisdom offered by Confucius. He

emphasizes that this ethical wisdom should be translated into practical

wisdom. Earlier, it is said that Ren without Li is meaningless. In this case,

ethical wisdom should be put into practice and be made into practical

wisdom. But where it is realized? It is in the society where people interrelate

with one other. In society, one can realize it in different contexts (e.g.

domestic, public and social). Confucius says,

Fan Ch’ih asked about benevolence. The Master said, ‘While at home hold yourself in a respectful attitude; when serving in an official capacity be reverent; when dealing with others do your best. There are qualities that cannot be put aside, even if you go and live among the barbarians.’93

This is what Confucius wants to drive at. It is to cultivate oneself within the

society thus making oneself humane.

2.3.4. Reciprocity

Reciprocity is an ethical principle which is also emphasized by

Confucius. It is also called the Golden Rule. Confucius said it even before the

time of Jesus of Nazareth. The principle of reciprocity is the result of

development of ren in that “the humane man helps others to take their stand

in so far as he himself wishes to take his stand, and gets others there in so

far as he himself wishes to get there.”94 This is another expression of the

principle of Reciprocity. Confucius says it this way, “While I do not wish 92 Confucius, 144.93 Ibid., 121.94 Confucius, 85.

33

others to impose on me, I also wish not to impose on others.”95 This is the

negative of way of saying it whereas Jesus of Nazareth said it positively.

“This negative formulation of the golden rule is sometimes dubbed the ‘silver

rule’ because it has a more passive approach: it does not require good or

moral action but only ones that do not bring about harm.”96 This is a principle

which teaches a person not to think solely for himself, but for others. This is

very important in a society. This denies the culture of Individualism which is

prevalent in today’s modern world. For Hsu, “Social Conflicts would be

diminished if each individual can practice reciprocity.”97 Thus, ren is

manifested by means of relating with each other under the principle of

Reciprocity.

2.4. Governance

Mencius, Confucius’ disciple, says “that government exists for the

benefit of the people.”98 Just like any other government, it is established for

the common good. In fact, this idea of the common good is supposedly the

main vision of all governments around different civilizations or societies. The

starting point of Confucian society is self-cultivation since for a society to be

humane requires the members of the society to make it humane, and they

can do this only by making an effort to recover human-heartedness in

themselves.99 However, there are necessary principles for its constitution.

95 Ibid., 78.96 Lai, 23.97 Hsu, 30.98 Rainey, 114.99 Hsu, 33.

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2.4.1. The Rectification of Names

In Confucian society men are born into social roles. Confucius proposes

that disorder and disharmony in the society is the confusion with one’s task.

He says,

12:11 Duke Ching of Ch’i asked Confucius about government. Confucius answered, ‘Let the ruler be a ruler, the subject a subject, the father a father, the son a son.’ The Duke said, ‘Splendid! Truly, if the ruler be not a ruler, the subject not a subject, the father not a father, the son not a son, then even if there be grain, would I get to eat it?’100

This is the way to effective governance. If you are the secretary of the

president of the country, you should do what the ideal secretary does. You

are imprudent if you do the vice-president’s job. The efficacy of the empire

depends on “a correct definition of each individual’s function, identity,

duties, privileges, and responsibilities, and everyone executing this ritually

assigned role to the best of their ability.”101 We cannot just do anyone’s job

without proper decorum. In Chinese culture, playing one’s role is of great

importance. If it is violated, Chinese people are expected to submit

themselves to the process of the Rectification of names. The essence of this

is that “names have to match the reality”.102 The social role of each

individual in the society should be done in accordance to his proper

responsibility and obligation. If he happens to be the ruler, given his required

virtues, he should live out his being a ruler.

100 Confucius, 114.101 Woodend, 47.102 Hsu, 36.

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Confucius says,

13.3. Tzu-lu said, ‘If the Lord of Wei left the administration (cheng) of his state to you, what would you put first?The master said, ‘If something has to be put first, it is, perhaps, the rectification (cheng) of names.’103

It is clearly seen the levels of priorities of the ruler. First things first. In this

case, it is the rectification of names. “People have to act virtuously and

responsibly before they can properly be called parents or teachers– the

words must correspond to real behavior.”104 In short, one’s title should justify

it by simply acting out his title with dedication and love. If you are a parent,

act accordingly as a parent.

2.4.2. The Rule of Virtue

In the first topic, it is stated that Confucius is vague with regards to the

idea of the human nature. Despite that, there is still this inclination towards

self-cultivation either the human nature is evil or good. This makes the

emulation of virtue by rulers possible. People, according to Confucius, are so

good that they live moral life without strict laws imposed by the state.

“Confucius' political views are based on ' the rule of virtue ', he does not

think that law is the best remedy for curing a disorderly society, which is

contrary to the Legalist claim.”105

Confucius says,

103 Confucius, 118.104 Rainey, 47.105 Ibid.

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12.19 Chi K’ang Tzu asked Confucius about government, saying, ‘What would you think if, in order to move closer to those who possess the Way, I were to kill those who do not follow the Way?’ Confucius answered, ‘In administering your government, what need is there for you to kill? Just desire the good yourself and the common people will be good. The virtue of the gentleman is like the wind; the virtue of the small man is like grass. Let the wind blow over the grass and it is sure to bend.’106

It is obviously seen in the passage that there is this emulation coming from

the ruler himself. That is why it is very important to have rulers who have

acquired virtues as discussed earlier. “Confucius claims that the person who

possesses political power or holds the office should be virtuous because it is

not his possessing political power but his possessing virtue that makes

people obedient. Thus the unity of society in Confucius' view can be

achieved by the emulation of the superior man.”107 Another passage wherein

we can see this is in the chapter two, number three in the Analects.

2.3. If you lead them by means of government and keep order among them by means of punishments, the people are without conscience in evading them. If you lead them by means of virtue and keep order among them by means of ritual, they have a conscience and moreover will submit.108

It is called the rule of virtue, and the emulation of exemplars or superior

men. “For in Confucius' view to be a good or virtuous ruler is not merely a

matter of being capable of administering, but a matter of being a virtuous

ruler who is able to be a model people can follow.”109 It is by which there is a

unified society. Therefore, what kind of society one wants to live in will

106 Confucius, p. 115-116.107 Hsu, 34.108 Confucius, 63.109 Hsu, 87.

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depend upon what kind of person one wants to be.110 This shows how

important the character of the ruler is.

That is, although, in Confucius' view, the virtuous ruler occupies an important role for achieving an orderly society, what is more important is that every member of the state has to make an effort to engage in self-cultivation, for by nature men are close to each other. 111

In the end, everyone in the society should take part in forming the ideal

society by cultivating one’s self.

2.4.3. Socio-political Structure

Confucian Society, a humane society, is neither democratic nor

oligarchic. Ancient Chinese civilization, during the time of Confucius, was by

empire. It was hierarchical and feudal one. The ‘five relations’ form the

general structure of Chinese society. Hsei-Yung Hsu says,

It is undoubted that Confucian society is a hierarchical and feudal one that is because, although Confucius asserts that by nature men are close to each other, yet he does not advance a step towards abolishing the class division in ancient Chinese society. [-4 In Chou dynasty (1027-256 BC) the socio-political system is patriarchal, and social division is roughly as follows: the Son of Heaven, duke of prince, minister, scholar, the common people, artisan and producer, and slave.112

Confucius, as has been stated as man of antiquity, he did not create a new

systematized or imaginary society which he prefers. Rather, he intended to

“reform the society on its original basis.”113 This socio-political system may

110 Ibid., 39.111 Ibid., 90.112 Hsu, 29.113 Hsu, 29.

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seem to be tending towards tragic wars, Confucius believes the rule of virtue

—the emulation of the virtues of the superior men.

To summarize the whole Governance according to Confucius, he says,

Those who wished to bring order to their states would first regulate their families. Those who wished to regulate their families would first cultivate their personal lives. Those who wished to cultivate their personal lives would first rectify their minds. Those who wished to rectify their minds would first make their wills sincere. Those who wished to make their wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The extension of knowledge consists in the investigation of things. When things are investigated, knowledge is extended; when knowledge is extended, the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, the mind is rectified; when the mind is rectified, the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, the family will be regulated; when the family is regulated, the state will be in order; and when the state is in order, there will be peace throughout the world. From the Son of Heaven down to the common people, all must regard cultivation of the personal life as the root or foundation. There is never a case when the root is in disorder and yet the branches are in order…114

Chapter III- Platonic View of Ideal Society/ Kallipolis [The

Republic]

114 Wing-tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. (Princeton, 1973), p. 86.

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3.1. Human Nature

Plato’s Republic is essentially a metaphysical anthropology that asks

the question: What is the nature of man? However, his theory of human

nature depends on his theory of the tripartite soul—human soul has three

parts. Hsei-Yung Hsu says,

The notion of the tripartite soul underpins Plato’s view that there are three main kinds of individual. The soul of the first kind of individual is dominated by reason, the soul of the second kind is dominated by spirit, and the soul of the third kind is dominated by appetite. And this in turn underpins the class division in the state.115

Each part of the soul corresponds to the each class of the society.

Furthermore, this “theory is essentially teleological – that is, it assumes an

ideal to which we aspire and which allows us to measure our progress as

human beings.”116 Man is journeying towards the liberation from the cave

(Allegory of the cave) to the discovery of the world of ideas. However, as said

earlier, human soul has three parts; “the nature of man depends on how he

forms his soul.” 117Furthermore, who we are depends on what kind of a soul

we have—a philosopher soul, a guardian or warrior soul, or an artisan soul.

With that, it should be manifested in our roles in the society. If your soul is

that of a philosopher, you should act accordingly—being a ruler; that also

applies to the other classes. Thus, it is clear that for Plato one’s place in the

ideal state is decided by one’s soul or nature [415a-c].118

115 Hsu, 105.116 “Human Nature”, Philosophy- Core. Accessed December 7, 2015.

http://www.sevenoaksphilosophy.org/core/human-nature.html. 117 Rachelle Rona, “Ancient Philosophy Views of Human Nature”, Slide Share, July 6, 2014. Accessed

December 7, 2015. http://www.slideshare.net/rachellerona/human-nature-ancient-philosophy . 118 Plato, pp.122-23.

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3.2. The Noble Lie

The Noble lie is called noble because of its good effects. Plato is like

Jesus proclaiming his teachings by means of stories. “In general, Plato uses

myth to inculcate in his less philosophical readers noble beliefs and/or teach

them various philosophical matters that may be too difficult for them to

follow if expounded in a blunt, philosophical discourse.”119 The myth is about

the myth of the metals. Plato uses this deception so as to make people care

for their land, their motherland in times of unfavorable times. At 414e, it

says that “so now they must think of the land in which they live as their

mother and protect her if she is attacked, while their fellow-citizens they

must regard as brothers born of the same mother earth.”120 In other words,

every citizen is said to be born out of the earth of the State and every other

citizen is his brother or sister. Yet God has framed them differently, mixing

different metals into their soul: the Gold is for Guardians, silver for

Auxiliaries, iron and bronze for the craftsmen.121 This is so that all the

citizens should be told a useful lie so as to promote allegiance to the State

and enforce its three-tied social order.

119 Cataline Partenie, “Plato’s Myths”, Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, July 23, 2009. Accessed: December 5, 2015. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/.

120 Ibid., 122.121 Plato, The Republic, translated by Desmond Lee 2nd Ed. England: Penguin Group, 1974, 123.

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3.3. The Theory of Tripartite Soul

For Plato, aside from his idea of immortal soul, he asserts the concept

of the Tripartite soul—reason, spiritedness, and desire/ appetite. Each part

has its own function. “This idea comes from the Principle of Opposites or

Principle of Conflict.”122 The principle states that [436b] “Clearly one and the

same thing cannot act or be affected in relation to the same object; so if we

find these contradictions, we shall know we are dealing with more than one

faculty.”123 In other words, it is impossible for a thing to be at rest and in

motion at the same time and in the same part of it [436c].124 As Hsei-Yung

Hsu says, “Plato at 436c-e deals with two likely objections to the principle to

remove ambiguities in using it.”125 It is wrong to say that a man, who is

standing still and moving his hands, is at rest and in motion simultaneously.

The correct one is that [436c-d) a “part of him is standing still and another

part of him is moving.”126

Applying the principle to the tripartite soul, the three parts of the soul

are in conflict with each other for each part has its own way of functioning.

“The Republic’s theory of the constitution of the soul envisages it as a

composite entity, composed of three parts with their own ways of acting and

being acted on; each with its own concerns, its own distinctive way of

122 J. Annas, An Introduction to Plato’s Republic. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981, 137.123 Plato, 151.124 Ibid.125 Hsu, 61.126 Plato, 151.

42

desiring, and its own emotions.”127 It is true that they have their own

distinctive ways, but there should only one that is to rule. If all of them rule,

chaotic phenomenon will take place. Plato says that it must be the “reason”

that governs the whole soul. By that, man’s life is harmonious and thus

worth living.

3.3.1. Reason

Man has appetites such as hunger, anger, sexual desire, thirst, etc. If

man lives without reason as a part of his soul, he can act out such appetites

inappropriately. He engages in sex even in the middle of the street as he

wants to; he eats even he is already full as his appetite dictates to. Thus, one

of the functions of reason is the capacity for prevention; it is the element

which prevents men from giving way to unhealthy cravings. 128 Moreover, it is

not only the function of reason, but also “the desire to learn”.129 The object of

reason is truth towards philosophical contemplation. It is therefore proper

and fitting for man to let the reason govern his whole being.

3.3.2. Spiritedness

This aspect of the tripartite soul is the auxiliary of reason. “There must

be a third element.”130 It acts as the force commanded by reason over the

appetites. It makes sure the adherence of appetite to reason’s commands.

“The spirit seems to take the side of reason to prevent the appetite from 127110 Gerasimos Santas, The Blackwell Guide to Plato’s Republic. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006,

146.128 Hsu, 61.129 Ibid., 62.130 Plato, 157.

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doing immorally.”131 It is said that appetites are the ones to be ruled by

reason. Yet, reason cannot do it alone. It needs the spirit to force the rules

commanded by reason. However, in The Republic, spirit is given distinction

from reason. Plato explains that they are different. He says,

441b. ‘There must be third element.’ ‘Yes there must,’ I said, if spirit can be shown to be distinct from reason, as it is from appetite.’ ‘But that’s not difficult to prove,’ he answered. ‘You can see it in children, who are full of spirit as soon they are born; but some never seem to acquire any degree of reason and most of them only at a late stage.’132

Like “in the ideal state, the Auxiliaries are always to be supportive to the

Guardians, so in the soul spirit is ‘reason’s natural auxiliary’.”133 Is there a

possibility that the Auxiliaries overpower the Guardians? The answer is that

the “spirited part, unlike the irrational appetitive part, has certain passive

rational capacity.”134 This passive rational capacity does not entail something

like the spirit has the power of reasoning; it is rather the capacity to listen

and accept the commands of reason without hesitation. 135

3.3.3. Desire/ Appetite

This aspect of the tripartite soul is that which is irrational. It is also

present in all other animals. It is something the same with what we call

instinct. This is the element that [436a-b] refers to the “desire of the

pleasures of eating and sex and the like.”136 Moreover, it is [439d] “the 131 Hsu, 67.132 Plato, p. 157-8.133 Hsu, 67.134 Ibid.135 Ibid.136 Plato, 150.

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element with which it feels hunger and thirst, and the agitations of sex and

other desires, the element of irrational appetite—an element closely

connected with satisfaction and pleasure.”137 However, this element is

closely associated with money since the pleasures above-mentioned are

sought through money. It is seen at 580d which says “…wealth is the means

of satisfying desires of this kind.”138

3.4. Social Class System and its corresponding Virtues

This is the ideal society composed of three classes namely the Rulers,

Auxiliaries, and the Craftsmen and which is “inextricably tied up with virtues

of temperance, courage, wisdom, and overarching virtue of justice.” 139“People are placed into a category based on early childhood testing and do

one job for the rest of their lives.”140 Rulers obviously are the ones who rule,

Auxiliaries who fight or assist the Rulers, and Craftsmen who work. In order

to have a just and harmonious society, each class should be in

complementary with each other. At [435b] it says, “But we agree that a state

was just when its three natural constituents were each doing their job, and

that it was self-disciplined and brave and wise in virtue of certain other

states and dispositions of those constituents.”141 Thus, the ideal society has

wisdom, courage, and temperance if each corresponding class that acquires

each virtue does its job well. If each does his job well, the city has justice.

137 Ibid., p. 155-6.138 Ibid., 342. 139 Woodend, 82.140 Ibid.141 Plato, 149.

45

Hence, Rulers should be wise, Auxiliaries should be courageous, and

Craftsmen should be temperate.

3.4.1. Philosopher-King- Wisdom

The Platonic ruler named the Philosopher-king governs the state by the

aid of reason. “The ideal state has wisdom and good judgment not because

of the knowledge of farmers and artisans, but because everyone does his or

her job under the supervision of the Guardians.”142 Without the proper

knowledge of the guardians, it is impossible for the state to be wise and

achieve harmony. However, the knowledge of the guardians should be

exercised on behalf of the city as a whole making it wise. At 428d-e it says,

“Well then, is there any form of knowledge to be found among any of the citizens in the state we’ve just founded which is exercised not on behalf of any particular interest but on behalf of the city as a whole, in such a way as to benefit the state both in its internal and external relations? It is the guardians’ knowledge and is to be found with those we called Guardians in the full sense. I say it has good judgment and wisdom.”143

Why is it that the other two classes cannot rule? The answer seems to

be at 428c stating that “carpenters’ knowledge can only make him good at

carpentry for everything which has a function has its own excellence.”144

What makes philosophers worthy of ruling? “Philosophers are ones whose

soul is in harmony, i.e. reason is properly control, and understands what is

good.”145

142 Hsu, 73.143 Plato, 139.144 Hsu, 73.145 Ibid., 74.

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There are three traits of a philosopher that is worth noting for. First, he

has this readiness to learn. He loves “any branch of learning that reveals

eternal reality, the realm unaffected by the vicissitudes of change and decay

[485b].”146 He does not leave any stone of any aspect of the reality unturned.

One way to do it is to be in love with knowledge. With that, philosophers rule

the state knowledgeably. It is proper and wise for the philosophers to take

over the governance of the state. The second trait of a philosopher is

truthfulness. At 485c onwards, it says “he [philosopher] will never willingly

tolerate an untruth but will hate it, just as he loves truth.”147 Indeed, a

philosopher is that whose goal is truth. With that, he loves truth and hates

what is not true. It is so because “it is an absolutely necessary characteristic

of the lover that he should be devoted to everything closely connected with

the object of his love [485c].”148 Lastly, a philosopher should have a good

memory. He learns so many things that he tends to forget them. In that

case, he would be not effective. The ruler uses his knowledge for his

governance and therefore not good for him to forget what he has learned. If

he does, then “he will labor in vain and in the end be driven to hate himself

and the whole business of learning.”149 Yet, there are other traits that he

should acquire other than good memory, readiness to learn, friend of truth,

but also the breadth of vision and grace.

146 Plato, 217.147 Ibid.148 Ibid.149 Ibid., 219.

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3.4.2. Auxiliaries- Courage

Guardians who are not chosen as rulers should no longer be known as

“guardians” but Auxiliaries whose role is “to assist the rulers in the execution

of their decisions” 150[414b]. Needless to say, they are the soldiers of the

state. They can never do their thing without courage. Yet, all other classes

have also courage, but not the same with that of the Auxiliaries. Auxiliaries’

courage constitutes “the ordinary citizen’s bravery” [430c]. 151 However, it

cannot be considered as the true courage because “strictly speaking, only

the Rulers can have true courage based on full knowledge.”152 Having

established that the ideal state can be brave if the Auxiliaries are truly brave,

how can it be since the bravery of the Auxiliaries are only secondary?

Logically speaking, the ideal state cannot be truly brave if it is only based on

Auxiliaries whose bravery is only secondary. How does Plato address this

issue? “The state’s bravery does not merely depend upon the Auxiliaries’

bravery but upon everyone standing fast to their stations and listening to the

instructions of the Guardians.”153 As established earlier, Guardians’ main task

is to guide the other classes to have them in the right position and to do

their own job proper to them. In other words, the state’s bravery depends

upon the interaction of all classes in accordance with the wisdom of the

Guardians.

150 Ibid., 121.151 Ibid., 141.152 Ibid., 200.153 Hsu, 75.

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3.4.3. Craftsmen- Temperance

Craftsmen belong to the lowest class of the social system. They are

only the ones who can acquire properties unlike the other two classes. “The

third class in Platonic Kallipolis is the producers, the freest of all, yet the

inferior to the upper two classes.”154 That is why the virtue of this class is

temperance since they are prone to owning things excessively. Temperance

for Thomas Aquinas is that it “concerns the moderation of physical

pleasures, especially those associated with eating, drinking, and sex.”155 How

can a state temperate? “The state is temperate because the masses, which

work and pursue their appetites, agree to let the rulers govern the state

without interference.”156

“This feature too you can see in our state, where the desires of the less respectable majority are controlled by the desires and the wisdom of the superior minority.” [431c-d]157

The state should agree who should rule so as to avoid chaos and to maintain

the harmonious interaction among the classes. At 431e, it says, “And of our

state, if of any, it will be true that government and subjects will agree about

who ought to rule.”158 This is one of the main issues in many governments

today. Conflict arises from this specific phenomenon. If there is a

disagreement as to who should rule, there is a great possibility of division. If

154 C.D.C. Reeve, Philosopher-Kings: The Argument of Plato's Republic. (Princeton University Press, 2006), p.179-183

155 Shawn Floyd, “Thomas Aquinas: Moral Philosophy”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed December 4, 2015. http://www.iep.utm.edu/aq-moral/#SH3b.

156 Woodend, 83.157 Plato, 143.158 Ibid.

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division occurs, and if each side has conflicting ideas, the society will be

chaotic in a form of civil war. That is why the state should be temperate

represented by the craftsmen’s virtue of temperance by letting the

philosophers to take over the ruling class.

3.5. The Analogy of State and Soul

Plato creates theoretically a society which consists of three classes

which correspond to each part of the tripartite soul. Rulers/Guardians

corresponds to reason, Auxiliaries/Military to spiritedness, and Craftsmen to

appetites. In the ideal state, it has been established the idea of “one man

has to do one job for which he is by nature suited.”159 It is for the harmony of

the state. To apply this idea to the tripartite soul as its analogy, it seems to

create a problematic phenomenon. If those who are in ruling class shall be

the only who rule and so also with the other classes, then literally speaking,

each part of the tripartite soul should also does its own job. For in the third

class for example, the artisans have different functions according to their

natures for which they are suited, “whereas the function of appetite seems

to be the desires for food, drunk and any physical pleasure.”160 The tendency

is that the appetite pursues excessive pleasures. If that would happen, there

would be an oddity in the analogy of the state and the soul. But Plato

addresses this issue by saying that at 586e-587a,

159 Hsu, 131. 160 Ibid.

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“Then if the mind as a whole will follow the lead of its philosophic element, without internal division, each element will be just and in all other respects perform its own function, and in addition will enjoy its own particular pleasure, which are the best and truest available to it… But when either of the other two elements is in control, it cannot achieve its own proper pleasure, and compels the other two to pursue a false pleasure hat is not their own.”161

That is why the education for the soul is much needed which “simply makes

spirit listen to the voice of reason without any reflection, and the education

of appetite is to nurture the necessary desires and wither away the

unnecessary ones.”162 With that, there is really “an internal

communication”163 within the soul.

3.6. Justice

At 434d, it says that, “when each of our three classes (businessmen,

Auxiliaries, Guardians) does its own job and minds its own business, it is

justice and makes our state just.”164 If the other way around happens, it will

create injustice which “does the greatest harm to our state, and we are

entirely justified in calling it the worst of evils [434c].” 165 That is interference

by the three classes with each other’s job. Thus, justice is only attained only

if the three classes fulfill their functions. To be specific, the Rulers must

govern the state with wisdom; the Auxiliaries must assist the Rulers with

courage; lastly, the businessmen must willingly let the rulers to govern them.

With that, justice is attained. 161 Plato, 351.162 Hsu, 132.163 J.Moline, Plato on the Complexity of the Pysche”, Archiv Fur Geschichte Der Philosophie, vol.60,

1978, 14.164 Plato, 147.165 Ibid., 146.

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3.7. Education

“Plato’s education of music, gymnastics, mathematics and dialectics in

the Republic helps to ensure that these three components of the soul are in

harmony with each other.”166 In other words, education creates a balance

among the classes. The lowest class is to be educated to obey their rulers

and offer important economic services to the state. Moreover, the Guardians

are to be educated in mind and body. At 376e-377a, it says,

“What kind of education shall we give them (guardians) then? We shall find it difficult to improve on the time-honoured distinction between the physical training we give to the body and the education we give to the mind and character… and we shall begin by educating mind and character, shall we not? […] we must start to educate the mind before training the body.”167

The young and tender years of children are “the time when they are

easily molded and when any impression we choose to make leaves a

permanent mark.”168 Plato says that they are told stories which are judged to

be suitable. The first business, then, is “to supervise the production of

stories, and choose only those we think suitable, and reject the rest.”169 In

other words, for the mind to be formed, the students are taught with poetry

and music. Later on, it would the physical training. The question is: How do

we choose among the guardians to be the rulers? Plato says that the

students should be subject to hard tests capable of evaluating their

capabilities. This evaluation includes memory testing, resistance to pain and 166 Evan Tang, “A Summary of Education in Plato’s Republic” EvansPhilosophy.com, October 23, 2013.

Accessed December 8, 2015. http://www.evansphilosophy.com/2013/10/a-summary-of-education-in-platos-republic/.

167 Plato, p.71-72.168 Ibid., 72.169 Ibid.

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seduction, and leadership skills.170 The chosen guardians to be the rulers are

called the philosopher-kings. They should be acquiring wisdom through the

educational processes. They are expected to understand the difference

between the visible world and the intelligible world, between the realm of

opinion and the realm of knowledge, between appearance and reality. In

other words, they are expected to be living out of being philosophers. They

are expected to get out of the cave to experience the sun and to go back to

the cave to pronounce the discovery. Yet, it cannot be done overnight. It

profoundly requires great dedication and efforts to achieve the ideal—the

discovery of the Good.

170 Renato José Oliveira, “Plato and Philosophy of Education” Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory, June 6, 1999. Accessed December 8, 2015. http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=plato_and_philosophy_of_education.

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Chapter IV- Convergence and Divergence between Plato’s

Kallipolis and Confucius’ Humane Society

Plato journeys to attain an end. He theoretically creates an ideal society,

tending towards an end. It is to discover the essence of justice. In his book

The Republic, he creates the ideal society which comprises the three classes

corresponding to the three parts of the human soul. For Plato, the harmony

among the classes is the practical translation of justice—the just society.

Thus, Plato considers the just society as the ideal one. Confucius, on the

other hand, is a little bit different with regards to the kind of society. He

works for the attainment of the humane society. It is a society in which all

people live in accordance with ritual propriety, deference, and especially with

ren; it is to live for the fulfillment of one’s potentials. It is to cultivate oneself

for the betterment of the society as a whole. With that, we can achieve

humane society. Here are some ideas which Confucius and Plato diverge and

converge.

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4.1. On Human Nature

Confucius and Plato say that man has an end to achieve. For Plato, the

human nature is dependent upon the concept of the tripartite soul. Man, in

his journey of life, forms himself either he is fit in the spirited, appetitive, or

rational sphere. As he forms himself according to his tendencies, he lives it

out throughout his life with dedication and love. How does a person discover

his nature? It is through hereditary and education. According to the myth of

metals, if one is an offspring of a parent whose nature is gold, he has the

greatest possibility to become a ruler. And so with the other classes.

On the other hand, Mencius and Xunzi, despite their difference in their

views, they argue that man is called to cultivate himself and to achieve

Confucian virtues especially Ren and Li.

Thus, Plato and Confucius both believe that human nature has

something to do with cultivation. Both agree that man has an innate task to

cultivate himself. For Plato, man has to form his soul according to his

capacities; he lives out his cultivated nature all the days of his life. If he

intervenes what the other classes are doing which he is not fit to carry out, it

will create injustice which “does the greatest harm to our state, and we are

entirely justified in calling it the worst of evils [434c].”171 Yet, this mindset

disregards the idea of change. We cannot absolutely deny the reality that

people change. People, in one way or another, change their ways. For

171 Plato, 146.

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Confucius, however, there is really main goal of a human being, which is the

cultivation of oneself regardless of one’s role in the society. Nevertheless,

Confucius is not saying that one should disregard his role in the society,

rather he is just saying that the common goal of man is to cultivate himself

and fulfill his potentials as a person regardless of his social role. And Plato

differs from Confucius by saying that the goal of man is to cultivate himself

in line strictly with his nature.

4.2. On Governance

Confucius and Plato are both born into the world filled with turmoil and

civil wars. They were both moved to enter into the world of politics by their

political situations during their times. However, the call of their times was

the great desire for a harmonious and just society. In response to the call,

they entered into teaching profession preaching their own teachings.

4.2.1. On Deference

With regards to governance, the great difference between the two is that

in Plato’s society, “the political voice of the masses is, essentially, mute”172

whereas in Confucius’ ideal society, there is the virtue of deference wherein

the rulers seek advices from other people. The three different classes of the

Platonic society are already fixed, and the interference by the three classes

with each other’s job which “does the greatest harm to the society

172 Woodend, 90.

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[434c].”173 That is why the lowest class in the society has no political voice. It

is only the rulers [philosopher-kings], who are the people in-charge of the

political sphere, are the only ones who govern. This is also due to Plato’s

experience wherein Socrates, his beloved mentor, was killed in times of

democratic realm. In other words, Plato hated Democracy as the form of

government as conceptualized as the rule of the mob.

On the other hand, Confucius argues that in the society, “there is a lot of

back-and-forth between the upper and lower orders of society; roles are

fixed but the barriers are somewhat permeable in both directions.”174 There

is this interference of role of each class in the society. Deference is the key

word here. “At the center of the pattern of deference is the emperor, with

the nobles, ministers, household stewards, and commoners following

[16.2].”175

Nonetheless, it does not mean that in Plato’s society, there is no

deference. There is still deference in a way that the lowest class of the

society has the obligation and duty to obey the rulers; the soldiers have also

the duty to implement the guidelines made by the rulers. In this way, there is

a cooperation and collaboration within the society. However, Confucius’ view

of governance is that there is a sense of humility on the part of the

emperors. They have advisers to whom they seek advices. Yet for Plato,

173 Plato, 146.174 Woodend, 90.175 Ibid., 89.

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there is no such thing as advisers of the philosopher-kings for they are only

the ones who know the truth and are only discoverers of the good, the

beautiful, and true.

4.2.2. On the Rectification of Names

Confucius and Plato both agree on one-role to one-duty policy which is

also called the Rectification of Names. Each member of the society has his

own social duty. For Plato, if one is a ruler, he carries out being a ruler for the

rest of his life. This goes the same with the other classes. On the other hand,

Confucius focuses on social duty in the context of family. If you are a son,

you carry it out well; if you are a father, you carry out being a father, etc.

This, in effect, brings peace and harmony in the society. In fact, Confucius

associates family with governing. He says that being a good member in the

family is already an act of taking part in government.176 This is the way

Confucius emphasizes the value of family in the Chinese civilization in his

time. However, Plato does not give value to family in his imagined society.

Despite that, Plato and Confucius both agree on the idea of rectification of

names—one role to one duty.

4.2.3. On the Rule of Virtue

For Plato and Confucius, punishments are to be of less value. Yet, it

does not mean that law is of no use. In fact, peace and order can be

achieved with the aid of law. “However, obeying laws does not make people

176 Confucius, 66.

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have a sense of shame, nor does it make people have a good character.”177

Thus, Confucius and Plato give more emphasis on the building of a good

character. Plato maintains that the “human well-being (eudaimonia) is the

highest aim of moral thought and conduct.”178 That would be the very basic

idea in his philosophical endeavors. Thus, Plato and Confucius would

consider the idea of establishing a good character as the basis of peace and

order in the society. However, they think that “law is the second best means

to run a state.”179 And so what is the best way? “It is by having a virtuous

ruler as a model for emulation, and by regulating people by rules of proper

conduct.”180

Yet, they differ as to who are the persons who can be virtuous.

Confucius believes that human beings share a similar and good nature and

that they all have the potential to be virtuous. On the other hand, Plato

believes that “only the philosophers can be said to be truly virtuous, for

Plato’s theory of human nature (415a-d) does not allow the lower classes

have the opportunity to be truly virtuous.”181 It is only in the hands of the

philosophers by which social harmony is achieved.

177 Hsu, 187.178 Dorothea Frede, “Plato’s Ethics: An Overview”, Internet of Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 16,

2003. Accessed January 4, 2016. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics/. 179 Hsu, 187.180 Ibid.181 Ibid., 90.

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4.3. On the Ideal Ruler

Both Sage kings and Philosopher-kings are rare. Yet the very big

difference between the two is that the former have existed in reality while

the latter remained in fiction. “In fact, the Book of History or Documents (a

book of nearly as much importance as the Book of Songs) provides more

detail into the reigns of the various Sage kings of the early Western Zhou

dynasty (1066-711 BC).”182 Yet the researcher would not dwell on the history.

The point is that they existed in reality. However, Sage King and Philosopher-

kings are such leaders chosen based on their abilities and virtues.

Furthermore, Confucius sees that to be a sage king is near to impossibility.

That is why second to the sage king is the Junzi or gentleman/ superior man

which Confucius considers as the ideal man destined to be the ruler.

There are similarities that both a Junzi and a Philosopher-king have.

They lead for the betterment of the society. To lead for that noble reason,

they have to be bearers of wisdom. One very great way to acquire wisdom is

education. For Confucius, Junzi has to intensely subject himself to the

process of self-cultivation to find inwardly one’s true self and to dig out the

cover human-heartedness in oneself. This is nearly similar with the quality of

Philosopher-king as a lover of the good, the beautiful, and the true. This is

the way by which Philosopher-king and Junzi rule the society to attain the

ideal— humane and just societies.

182 Woodend, 56.

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For Confucius, however, being good in the context of the family exerts

an influence upon government. In fact, in doing so, he who is good in the

family is already taking part in government. In other words, anyone can take

part in the government by his own little ways. It does not mean that anyone

can go to government offices and replace who are already there without any

proper process. Confucius here is just emphasizing the relevance of the

family to the society. He gives importance on the value one can get from

one’s family. In that way, he already contributes to the good of the society.

Otherwise, if one is a blacksheep of the family, the researcher doubts he can

contribute something good to the society. Unlike Confucius, Plato abolished

the reality of family with regards to the convenience for the rulers. In other

words, in Platonic society, family is never a concern. Thus, “for Plato, the

ideal state can be realized only by the combination of philosophy and

political power; and for Confucius, the superior man does necessarily take

part in politics because the family is the society writ small.”183 Furthermore,

the main difference between the two philosophers centers on the notion as

to who can be a ruler. “For Confucius everyone, as long as he makes his

effort to cultivate himself, can be a superior man; on the contrary, for Plato it

is impossible for a person whose nature is iron to be a genuinely just man,

since to be a just man is to mean that one’s nature is gold not iron, and one

has a balanced soul.”184

183 Hsu, 116.184 Ibid.

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Chapter V- Strengths and Limitations/ Weaknesses of the

Confucian-Platonic Views on Ideal Society

5.1. On Plato’s Kallipolis

5.1.1. Strengths

Plato envisioned the ideal society as a just one—harmony among

the three classes.185 To attain such goal, there should be no

interference of each class bearing its own role to other classes. There

is this strict implementation of the “one role-one duty” policy. This is

not just limited to one person only; this can also be applied to a wider

scope. It can be applied to the different departments of a government

for example. Here in the Philippine government, it is the duty of the

department of education to take charge of the public educational

system of the country; it is the duty of the department of health to

take charge of the health concerns of the citizens, etc. If a certain

department who would take another role not in accordance with its

nature, it would create chaos within the government. However, this is

only with regards to the public services of the government. The point is

185 Cf. Plato, 147.

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that one role-one duty policy is very important and practical in

maintaining harmony and peace.

Another strength that the researcher has found is the virtue-

bound aspect of the Platonic society. It is the unity of the virtues for

the establishment of the just society. This is the Just society composed

of the virtues of temperance, courage, and wisdom. Plato, in his book

The Republic, described the imperfect societies. Each imperfect society

is lacking one of those virtues mentioned. The failure of wisdom

creates a timocracy; the failure of courage, an oligarchy; the failure of

temperance, a democracy; the failure of justice, a tyranny. So for Plato,

aristocracy is the ideal state in which the Philosopher-kings, the lovers

of truth, rule.

5.1.2. Limitations/ Weaknesses

There are several limitations that the researcher and some

philosophers have found in Plato’s Kallipolis. First and foremost, Plato’s ideal

society has never existed in the past. The researcher would judge that it is

impossible to take place and is impractical in today’s modern world.

Secondly, Plato’s Kallipolis is absolutely based on a lie, a noble lie as said in

the first part of the chapter 3. Karl Popper, a critique of Plato, commented on

the idea of the philosopher-kings as the seeker of truth. He says,

Plato, I have said, followed Socrates in his definition of the philosopher. ‘Whom do you call true philosophers?—Those who love truth’, we read in the Republic. But he himself is not quite

63

truthful when he makes this statement. He does not really believe in it, for he bluntly declares in other places that it is one of the royal privileges of the sovereign to make full use of lies and deceit: ‘It is the business of the rulers of the city, if it is anybody’s, to tell lies, deceiving both its enemies and its own citizens for the benefit of the city; and no one else must touch this privilege.’186

Popper finds Plato’s idea of a philosopher-king contradicting to the

constitution of the Kallipolis. The society should be based on truth for rulers

themselves are advocates of truth. Unfortunately, it is actually not the case.

Aside from that, the researcher would say that the strict implementation

of division of classes could hardly be executed. There would be an absolute

denial of freedom to attaining some basic human rights which are actually

based on the Universal Declaration of Human rights. They are the rights to

own private property, to educate parents’ own children, to choose

employment, and the freedom to found a family, but of course with

regulations and guidelines.

First, Plato would also have children taken away from their parents and

raised in state-run foster homes supervised by the Philosopher class. He

believed that the state could do a better job raising (and indoctrinating)

children than could their own parents. Is it right and proper to have this kind

of policy? It is a denial of freedom to raise parents’ own children.

Secondly, Plato does not value family life; this is an absolute denial of

freedom to found a family which is the basic unit of the society. According to 186 Popper, 142.

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a Catholic bishop, the death of the family is the death of the humanity. But

for Plato, it focuses on the caste system, the class system. Furthermore,

Plato absolutely denied the absolute freedom to have private property for

the Rulers and the Auxiliaries.

Thirdly, the researcher has found that Plato violates the freedom to

choose what job they would make for a living. The researcher is not against

the idea that one’s job should be fitting for one’s kind of soul. The only thing

is that one’s job cannot be changed as Plato would put it. It is to be done

throughout his life. If you find yourself as a shoemaker, you do not have the

freedom to change your class as that of the lowest. This is based on the

policy of non-interference of one class to another.

Other limitation that the researcher has found is that sex is just used for

procreative purposes only. In fact, Plato offers communal sharing of wives.

At 460a, it says, “And we shall have to devise an ingenious system of

drawing lots, so that our inferior Guardians can, at each mating festival,

blame the lot and not the Rulers.”187 It excludes the idea of love from the act

of “love-making”. This may be considered a means to maintain a just society

—to preserve the strict distinction from one class to another. With that

perspective, the researcher would say that it is impractical for modern

societies.

187 Plato, 181.

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Lastly, Plato’s idea of democracy is absolutely different from today’s

conception of democracy. Plato totally disagrees with democracy as the kind

of government because of his personal experience—“democracy during his

time is the rule of the unfit.”188 However, today’s conception of democracy is

very much related to people’s lives. It is basically the right of people to

choose the leaders of the society. Democracy today is essentially for the

people, by the people, and of the people. Yet, government leaders chosen by

the people would sometimes fail in doing their duties. At least, there is this

great collaboration among the people in view of the betterment of the

society. However, “the main flaw in Plato’s argument, which renders it highly

unpersuasive, is the fact that he is describing and arguing in favor of what

Voltaire defined as a ‘benevolent dictatorship’, where an enlightened despot,

without the need to consult people, would nevertheless govern in their

interests.”189 As Mill would say, “the fallacy here is to think of the people as a

homogenous mass with a single interest…we are not like this.”190 Herein,

both arguments are saying about the complexity of the human nature. Based

on experience, man is unpredictable. Man changes inevitably from time to

time either substantially or accidentally; this is a reality that must be

accepted. With that, Plato fails to put it into consideration.

All these methods that Plato suggests are done solely for the sake of the

good of the society. More importantly, he fashions the Kallipolis in such a 188 Giulia Matassa, “Plato’s Argument for Rule by Philosopher Kings”, E-International Relations Students,

April 17, 2013. Accessed February 2, 2016. http://www.e-ir.info/2013/04/17/should-philosophers-rule/. 189 Ibid.190 Ibid.

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way that the whole community can live relatively a good life. These methods

may violate basic human rights based on contemporary politics and the

modern state. And if we refer to Christian classical morality, the end cannot

justify the means.

5.2. On Confucius’ Humane Society

5.2.1. Strengths

Confucius is more realistic than Plato. First, Confucius’ ideal ruler has

existed in the past. Thus, it is not just a theory or a concept, but a reality. As

already stated, the researcher would not dwell on the history of China.

However, the important thing is that Sage kings have existed.

Other than that, Confucius would say that to be a ruler is open for all. It

clings to the idea that all are called to cultivate their own potentials. It is not

like Plato’s idea that one’s whole has to be determined by one’s nature. If

your nature is that of the guardians’, you are to be forever there; if your

nature is that of the laborers, shoemaker perhaps, then you are to be forever

a shoemaker. Fortunately, for Confucius, one has to be “understood in his

social, historical and cultural context irrespective of human nature.”191 With

this perspective, this gives man a chance to choose his own way of life.

Confucius is not so imposing on people being deprived of freedom. In this

sense, Confucius is humanistic.

191 Woodend, 53.

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Furthermore, he would even emphasize the value of family life relating it

with governance. Family has already been there; family life has been given

importance by most of the states. This means that family is so important that

a state cannot properly sustain itself without it. Family is where children

learn the basics in relation to culture. More importantly, it is there in the

family wherein values are learned. Thus, having this kind of outlook makes

Confucius’ ideal society more realistic and practical compared to Plato’s.

Virtue is so emphasized in Confucius’ ideal society that he does not use

penal law to govern people. Rather, it is the rule of virtue. In other words,

Confucius advocates the cultivation of oneself in terms of character and

moral life. And, his ideal society is a virtue-inclined one.

5.2.2. Limitations/ Weaknesses

There is not much to say about the limitations of Confucius’ ideal

society. It is so realistic that it can be achieved and imitated, yet not

absolutely all of them. Confucius is so engrossed in the ancient ways that it

cannot be done today. One example is the political structure. During his time

it was by empire. It is not the trend today. Most probably it has been proven

ineffective and crucial in some societies. However, this ancient form of power

is applicable and effective if those discussed political and social principles

are to be executed. Yet the next weakness will immediately follow.

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The researcher asks: Can the common people become virtuous just as

the ruler is virtuous? Is the rule of virtue achievable? Is Confucius too

idealistic in this regard? If yes, should we eliminate penal law within a

society? Confucius is so focused on virtue that he disregards the value of

penal law. Yet, as we look into the history of Ancient China, there were a lot

of wars among different dynasties. There were a lot of conflicts, turmoil, and

even division. With this, can we say that the rule of virtue is effective?

Herein, we can say that the rule of virtue is insufficient. It is too idealistic to

say that if the leader is virtuous, then everyone else follows to also be

virtuous. What if this virtuous leader is replaced by a foolish man? What if

the dragon is replaced by an earthworm? Can the society remain to be

humane? The researcher doubts. Realistically speaking, every society needs

a set of penal laws, not just the rule of virtue. There should be balance in

terms of the rule of law and of virtue. This is what Xunzi emphasizes—the

complementary of penal law (fa) and ritual propriety (li).

5.3. Holistic View towards a Good Society

This section is a sort of a synthesis out of the philosophies of Confucius

and Plato. Given their weaknesses in the previous sections, these

weaknesses would be covered up with the aid of other philosophers’

doctrines. Afterwards, the researcher would present a Holistic view towards a

good society.

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As a review, Plato’s weaknesses of his Kallipolis are, on the one hand,

as follows: absolute denial of freedom to own private property, to educate

parents’ own children, to choose employment, and the freedom to found a

family. They are actually based on the Universal Declaration of Human

rights. On the other hand, Confucius’ rule of virtue is criticized in its idealistic

nature. Also, he is criticized by his idea of remaining monarchy as best socio-

political form of government today.

To cover up these limitations/weaknesses of their philosophies, the

researcher tries to present Xunzi’s legalistic view and Martha Nussbaum’s,

an American philosopher, idea of the Human rights. These ideas are not to

be discussed in detail, but only their basic claims.

Firstly, Nussbaum says, "At the heart of this tradition [of liberal political

thought] is a twofold intuition about human beings: namely, that all, just by

being human, are of equal dignity and worth, no matter where they are

situated in society, and that the primary source of this worth is a power of

moral choice within them, a power that consists in the ability to plan a life in

accordance with one's own evaluation of ends."192 By this powerful

statement, Plato’s violations against man’s freedom are to be rectified. As for

Confucius’ weakness on his idea of Rule of Virtue, the researcher thinks that

society could not be peaceful and harmoniously without penal law; there

should also be Rule of Law. Yet for Xunzi, Confucius’ student, “endorses the

192 Martha C. Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 57.

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deterrent effects of fa (penal law) as he believed that the method of positive

reinforcement alone was inadequate for transforming society.”193 He means

that Rule of Virtue as the method of positive reinforcement is not enough.

Rather, society needs penal law. The next paragraph would be the synthesis

out of the views of Confucius and Plato together with Nussbaum’s and

Xunzi’s ideas.

The researcher would have his own synthesis this way: A society is

hierarchical according to Plato’s idea of social division. There are the classes

of Rulers, Auxiliaries, and the craftsmen. However, there is no strict

implementation of class division; each person has his own freedom to choose

which class he wants himself to belong; if he is at the third class, he has the

luxury to transfer to another class so long as he is deserving. However, there

is man’s capacity to plan a life in accordance with his own evaluation of

ends. In other words, man is not deprived of predestined life. As for the form

of government, it would be Aristocracy. The society is ruled by Philosopher-

kings who embrace truth and justice. Unlike Plato’s idea of Philosopher-kings,

virtues are not just solely acquired by them, but also for everyone else.

Everyone in the society has the call to cultivate himself. Everyone is called to

acquire ren (Humaneness) and to express it through li (Ritual Propriety) such

as Filial Piety and Reciprocity and other Confucian virtues. In Confucian

society, Confucius rejects fa (Penal law) as the method of positive

reinforcement. In this holistic view, there is a harmony between the Rule of 193 Lai, 40.

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Virtue and the Rule of Law. There is still the idea that the ideal ruler must be

virtuous for the emulation of the common people. This affirms the idea that

nobody is perfect. What if one member in the society commits moral abuses?

The rule of Law takes charge of it. Furthermore, of course, basic needs are

abundant. Education is free for it is one means of cultivating oneself. The

basic human rights such as the right to property, to education parent’s own

children, to choose employment, and the freedom to found a family, etc. By

researcher’s judgment, this is a good holistic view of ideal society.

Chapter VI- Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations

6.1 Summary

This thesis studies the two viewpoints of Confucius and Plato on the

Ideal Society. First, Plato’s view of Ideal Society found in his book The

Republic is called The Kallipolis. This society is divided into three different

classes namely the Guardians whom the Rulers are called the Philosopher-

kings, the Auxiliaries the Military, and the Craftsmen the laborers. Each of

these classes corresponds to the different parts of the tripartite soul namely

the Reason, Spiritedness, and the Appetite. Furthermore, each of the

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different parts of the soul and each of the classes have corresponding virtues

to acquire: (1) Reason and Rulers— Wisdom, (2) Spiritedness and Auxiliaries

—Courage, lastly (3) Appetite and Laborers—temperance. Plato in his book

The Republic is in search of the definition of Justice. According to him, the

harmony among the classes makes the society a just one. Thus, Plato’s

Kallipolis is a Just Society. However, Plato bases the society on a noble lie for

a noble cause—to have a harmonious and peaceful society.

On the other hand, Confucius’ view of Ideal Society mainly focuses on

the cultivation of each one’s whole person. Thus Confucius’ society is called

the Humane Society. The heart Confucian Ideal society is on the fundamental

virtues of Ren and Li. There are different vital means to attain such society

namely the Rule of Virtue, the Rectification of Names, Filial Piety, and other

Confucian Virtues. In attaining a Humane society, the rulers’ role is very vital

for they are the object of the emulation for the public. That is why Confucius

says many prerequisites for becoming a ruler. Confucius uses the rule of

virtue rather than the rule of law for governance. Moreover, he emphasizes

to live up to the role one occupies by fulfilling duties and obligations

prescribed by the role. Lastly, he stresses out the value of family life so

much so that he associates family with politics.

There are similarities and differences between the two aside from the

fact that the two philosophers come from two opposite dimensions of the

world—east and west. First, the similarities and differences dwell on the

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whole governance of each society which includes the ideal rulers, the

methods of governance, and the socio-political structure. They may come

from different corners of the world, they also have similarities and needless

to say, they have differences as well.

6.2. Conclusion

The main thesis of this study is to explore the different viewpoints of

Confucius and Plato on the Ideal society which may intend to help out the

various social problems specifically political problems. As a starting point,

the researcher dwells on the constitution of the ideal society according to the

two ancient thinkers. This thesis studies, as it should be, the constitution of

the ideal society which includes the governance, ideal ruler, and political

structure in terms of its strengths and limitations or weaknesses. Upon

studying the two viewpoints’ strengths and weaknesses, the researcher

concludes that each of the viewpoints has something good to contribute, but

never all of its totality, to the present society. Each of the viewpoint teaches

us, especially the young people, who are the future of society, and the

politicians who represent the people, many ideas with regards to politics and

social life for the betterment of the society. Yet, the researcher has to

admittedly say that not all of Plato and Confucius’ teachings are of great help

to the development of the society. That is why the researcher, as suggested

by his adviser, includes a chapter stating the strengths and weakness or

limitations of each viewpoint. Under this section, the researcher has

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envisioned his own ideal society drawing from the two viewpoints of

Confucius and Plato.

6.3. Recommendations

First and foremost, this topic is very much near to human experience.

We live in a society having different ways and methods of governance. This

topic mainly talks about political and social philosophies. This is of great help

as we relate to one another within a society. We cannot but live with other

people having different orientations. This topic can also help us to think for

the betterment of our society amidst our various social and political

situations today.

Moreover, the researcher recommends that people who are interested

in this topic would not just have a comparative study, but also a synthesis

between the two viewpoints of Confucius and Plato. The researcher would

further recommend that we would have an application of each viewpoint to a

specific phenomenon.

Plato and Confucius lived a life of being teachers. They have

remarkably somehow changed the perspectives, paradigms, and mindsets of

the people especially in the western and eastern world. The researcher,

therefore, suggests that we should read and examine their works thoroughly.

In doing so, we can have a deeper understanding of their philosophies. The

researcher admits that this study is so broad that it cannot cover everything

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about the topic. He thus recommends that those who are interested in their

philosophies, would focus on one specific topic. With that, one can dwell and

explore more on the chosen topic than just the general ideas. There are

some specific topics in this thesis that are debatable and intriguing. The

researcher would suggest to study specifically the tension between Rule of

Virtue and Rule of Law, the relationship between ren and li, the analogy

between the social division and the tripartite soul according to Plato. Also,

there is this question by Confucian scholars whether rulers are necessary in

a society in relation to the idea of Rule of Virtue. It means that, given the

common people have become virtuous for their ruler has been virtuous,

there is no need of another ruler if the present ruler dies; it is so because the

common people have become already virtuous. Can the virtuous people live

harmoniously without the presence of any ruler? These are some issues

considered to be problematic and tricky.

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Bibliography

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Plato, The Republic, trans. Desmond Lee 2nd Ed. England: Penguin Group, 1974.

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Hsu, Leonard Shihlien, The Political Philosophy of Confucianism: An Interpretation of the Social and Political ideas of Confucius, his forerunners, and his early Disciples. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1932.

Kessler, Gary. Voices of Wisdom: A Multicultural Philosophy Reader, 5th

edition. Wadsworth: Wadsworth, Inc., 2004.Koller, J. M., Oriental Philosophies. Basingstoke, 1985.

Kraut, Richard, Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

Lai, Karyn, An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Lin, Yih-jing, Confucian Notion of Chun-tzu, The Exploration of Confucian thought. Taipei, 1987.

McArthur, Meher, Confucius. Quercus: Great Britain, 2010.

Moore, Jennifer Oldstone. Understanding Confucianism. UK & Ireland: Duncan Baird Publishers Ltd, 2003.

Nussbaum, Martha C., Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Popper, Karl, The Open Society and Its Enemies. Routledge: London, 1945.

Rainey, Lee Dian, Confucius and Confucianism The Essentials. UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2010.

Santas, Gerasimos, The Blackwell Guide to Plato’s Republic. USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2006.

III. Journal

Moline, J., Plato on the Complexity of the Pysche”, Archiv Fur Geschichte Der Philosophie, vol. 60, 1978.

Robinson, R., Plato’s Separation of Reason from Desire, Phronesis, vol. XVI, 1971.

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Tu, Wei-ming, Li as a Process of Humanization, Philosophy East and West, vol. XXII (2), 1972.

Tu, Wei-ming, The Creative Tension Between Jen and Li, Philosophy East and West, vol. XVIII (1), 1968.

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Floyd, Shawn, “Thomas Aquinas: Moral Philosophy”, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed December 4, 2015. http://www.iep.utm.edu/aq-moral/#SH3b.

Frede, Dorothea, “Plato’s Ethics: An Overview”, Internet of Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 16, 2003. Accessed January 4, 2016. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics/.

“Human Nature”, Philosophy- Core. Accessed December 7, 2015. http://www.sevenoaksphilosophy.org/core/human-nature.html. Matassa, Giulia, “Plato’s Argument for Rule by Philosopher Kings”, E-International Relations Students, April 17, 2013. Accessed February 2, 2016. http://www.e-ir.info/2013/04/17/should-philosophers-rule/.

Oliveira, Renato José, “Plato and Philosophy of Education” Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory, June 6, 1999. Accessed December 8, 2015. http://eepat.net/doku.php?id=plato_and_philosophy_of_education.

Partenie, Cataline, “Plato’s Myths”, Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, July 23, 2009. Accessed: December 5, 2015. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/.

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V. Theses

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Hsu, Hsei-Yung, Just State and Just Man- A Dialogue between Plato and Confucius. PhD Thesis, University of Glasgow, 1998.Woodend, Robert Alexander, The Political Thought of Confucius and Plato, Honors thesis, 2010.

Curriculum Vitae

Name: Christian Jay Rivera Canada

Address: Media, Argao, Cebu

Date of Birth: March 30, 1995

Place of Birth: Maternity Hospital, Cebu City

Mother’s Name: Evelyn Canada

Father’s Name: Edgar Alberto Canada

Citizenship: Filipino citizen

Civil Status: Single

Age: 20

Parish: St. Michael, the Archangel Parish, Argao, Cebu

Religious Background

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Religion: Roman Catholic

Parish: St. Michael, the Archangel Parish, Argao, Cebu

Diocese: Archdiocese of Cebu

Educational Background:

Tertiary: San Carlos Seminary College

Pre-College: San Carlos Seminary College

Secondary: Saint Michael School

Elementary: Lengigon, Argao, Elementary School & Argao, Central Elementary School