dictators threaten world peace - mister z's...

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CHAPTER 16 WORLD WAR LOOMS 167

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________

CHAPTER 16 Section 1 (pages 542–547)

BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw the effects of the New Dealreforms in the United States during the Great Depression.

In this section, you will see how economic and politicalconditions in Europe and Asia in the 1930s gave rise toexpansionist totalitarian states.

AS YOU READTake notes on the chart below. Fill it in with the beliefs andgoals of these dictators and on what they did to reachtheir goals.

TERMS AND NAMESJoseph Stalin Communist dictator ofthe Soviet Union totalitarian Government that hascomplete control over its citizens andputs down all oppositionBenito Mussolini Fascist dictator ofItalyfascism Political system based on astrong, centralized governmentheaded by a dictatorNazism Fascist political philosophyof Germany under Nazi dictator Hitler Adolf Hitler Nazi dictator of GermanyNeutrality Acts Laws passed byCongress to ban the sale of arms orloans to nations at war

Dictators ThreatenWorld Peace

Nationalism Threatens Europe and Asia (pages 542–546)

How did dictators take power in Europe and Asia?World War 1 had ended with the Treaty ofVersailles. President Woodrow Wilson had hopedthat that treaty would create a “just and securepeace.” He had also hoped that it would make theworld “safe for democracy.” It did neither.

Germans resented being blamed for starting

World War I. They also were upset about losingterritory they thought of as German. The SovietUnion resented the new nations created out ofwhat had been Russian territory.

The new democracies formed after the war suf-fered huge economic and social problems. But theywere given no help. Many of these democratic gov-ernments were weak. They collapsed, and dictatorsseized power.

In the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin came topower in 1924. He was a ruthless leader who let

DICTATOR / NATION BEL IEFS AND GOALS ACT IONS

Stalin/Soviet Union communism, stamp out free enterprise

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168 CHAPTER 16 SECTION 1

nothing stand in his way. Stalin focused on creatinga model communist state. He wanted to stamp outprivate enterprise. He did away with private farmsand created collectives, or huge state-owned farms.The state also took over industry. Stalin made theSoviet Union into a leading industrial power.

But he also made it into a police state. Anyonewho criticized him or his policies was arrested bythe secret police. Some were executed. Others weresent to forced-labor camps. Stalin created a totali-tarian government—a government with completecontrol over its citizens. Individuals have no rights,and the government puts down all opposition.

At the same time, Benito Mussolini was creat-ing a totalitarian state in Italy. His political move-ment was called fascism. It was based on a strong,centralized government headed by a dictator.Fascism grew out of extreme nationalism.Mussolini, called Il Duce, or the leader, was knownfor his efficiency in running all aspects of Italian life.But he did not want the government to own farmsand factories. Fascism was actually anti-communist.

In Germany, another fascist party came topower. Its political philosophy was called Nazism.The Nazis were led by Adolf Hitler. Hitler hopedto unite all German-speaking people into a newGerman empire, or Reich. He believed thatGermans—especially blond, blue-eyed “Aryans”—were the master race. According to Hitler, Aryanswere meant to have power over all “inferior races,”such as Jews and nonwhites. Hitler believedGermany needed to expand—to gain territory—sothat the German people could thrive.

Nazism combined extreme nationalism, racism,and expansionism. It appealed to unemployed, des-perate, and resentful Germans during the GreatDepression. In the 1932 elections, the Nazi Partygained power. Hitler became chancellor. He didaway with the Weimar Republic and set up theThird Reich, or third German empire.

Meanwhile, in Asia, military leaders had takenover Japan. They believed that Japan needed moreland and resources. Japan attacked Manchuria, aprovince of China, in 1931. The League of Nationsprotested, but Japan left the League and keptManchuria.

The League’s failure to stop Japan made Hitlerand Mussolini bolder. Hitler sent troops into the

Rhineland and rebuilt the German army. Theseacts broke the Versailles Treaty. Mussolini capturedthe African nation of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie, theousted leader of Ethiopia, asked the League forhelp. When the League did nothing, he said, “It isus today. It will be you tomorrow.”

1. What four major countries fell to totalitarian dictatorships in the 1930’s?

The United States Responds Cautiously (pages 546–547)

How did the United Statesrespond to the rise of dictators?Most Americans wanted the United States to stayout of foreign conflicts. Many people thought thatthe United States had made a mistake in gettinginvolved in World War I. Anti-war rallies wereheld. Isolationism became more popular.

Congress passed the Neutrality Acts. Theselaws banned loans or arms sale to nations at war.Because of the Spanish Civil War, the NeutralityActs included those involved in civil wars.

In Spain, the fascist general Francisco Francowas trying to overthrow the elected government.Many American volunteers went to Spain to fight thefascists. These volunteers felt that Spain was theplace to stop fascism and defend democracy. Thegovernments of the Western democracies sent onlyfood and clothing to democratic forces in Spain.Hitler and Mussolini supported Franco with troopsand weapons. When Franco won in 1939, Europehad another totalitarian government.

When Japan invaded China again in 1937,Roosevelt spoke out against isolationism. He feltthat peace-loving nations should take a standagainst lawless nations. In spite of the NeutralityActs, Roosevelt continued to send aid to China.

2. How did the United States react to the rise of expansionist dictatorships in Europe and Asia?

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how dictatorships rose inEurope and Asia in the 1930s.

In this section, you will see how the expansionist policiesof Hitler led to World War II in Europe.

AS YOU READFill in the time line below with the major events in Hitler’sand Stalin’s attempts to expand their territory.

TERMS AND NAMESNeville Chamberlain Prime ministerof Great Britain before World War II Winston Churchill Prime minister ofGreat Britain during World War IIappeasement Trying to pacify anaggressor in order to keep the peacenonaggression pact Agreementbetween Germany and Russia not tofight each otherblitzkrieg Lightning war strategyused by Germany against PolandCharles de Gaulle Head of theFrench government in exile inEngland

War in Europe

Austria and Czechoslovakia Fall(pages 548–550)

How did Britain and France react to Hitler’s aggression?Hitler decided that the new living space theGerman people needed would come from nearbynations. He would annex, or add, Austria andCzechoslovakia. And he was willing to use force todo it.

Hitler bullied the Austrian chancellor intoagreeing to bring Austrian Nazis into his govern-ment. When the Austrian leader changed his mind,Hitler became furious. In March 1938, Germantroops marched into Austria. They met no opposi-tion. Germany announced an Anschluss, or “union”with Austria.

Then Hitler claimed that the Czechs were mis-treating German-speaking people in an area called

the Sudetenland. He massed troops on the border.France and Britain promised to defendCzechoslovakia. Their leaders met with Hitler inMunich, Germany. Hitler promised that theSudetenland would be his “last territorial demand.”France, Britain, and Germany signed the MunichPact in September 1938. It gave the Sudetenlandto Germany.

Neville Chamberlain was the British primeminister who signed the Munich Pact. He called it“peace with honor.” Another British leader,Winston Churchill, disagreed. He called the Pactdishonorable appeasement. That means giving upyour principles in order to pacify an aggressor.Churchill predicted that appeasement would even-tually lead to war.

March 1939

Sept. 1938 Sept. 1939

March 1938Germany conquers

Austria

May 1940 Aug. 1940

June 1940April 1940

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1. How did Hitler begin to expand Germany’s territory?

The German Offensive Begins(pages 550–552)

What did Britain and France doabout Nazi and Soviet aggression?Hitler did not keep the promise he made atMunich. In March of 1939, he conquered the restof Czechoslovakia.

Then Hitler began to claim that Germans livingin Poland were being persecuted. Many peoplethought Hitler would never attack Poland. Theythought he would be afraid that the Soviet Union,on Poland’s eastern border, would then fightGermany. But Germany and the Soviet Unionsigned a nonaggression pact, an agreement not tofight each other. In a secret part of this treaty,Hitler and Stalin also agreed to divide Polandbetween them.

On September 1, 1939, Hitler launched WorldWar II by attacking Poland. The Germans used anew strategy called a blitzkrieg, or lightning war.They used tanks and planes to take the enemy bysurprise and crush them quickly. Poland fell to theGermans in a month. Britain and France declaredwar on Germany. Meanwhile, the Soviets attackedPoland from the east, and grabbed some of its territory.

For the next few months, not much happened.This was called the “phony war.” French andBritish troops gathered on the French border.German troops also waited.

Meanwhile, Stalin seized regions that the SovietUnion had lost in World War I. He took the Balticstates in September and October of 1939. Finlandresisted, and was conquered only after fierce fight-ing in March 1940.

In April, Hitler launched surprise invasions ofDenmark and Norway. Then in May, he quicklytook the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.This war was very real indeed.

2. How did Hitler conquer much of Europe so quickly?

France and Britain Fight On(pages 552–553)

How did Hitler’s attacks on France and on Britain turn out?Germany attacked France in May 1940—but notwhere the Allies expected. It cut off Allied forces inthe north. The British sent all kinds of boats—fromfishing vessels to yachts—to bring nearly 340,000British, French, and other Allied troops safelyacross the English Channel.

Meanwhile, Italy joined the war on the side ofGermany. The Italians attacked France from thesouth. France surrendered quickly, in June 1940.The Germans occupied the northern part ofFrance while a Nazi-controlled puppet govern-ment, called the Vichy government, ruled thesouthern part of France. The French generalCharles de Gaulle set up a French government inexile in England. He promised to free France fromthe Nazis.

Hitler now made plans to invade Britain. Hebegan with air raids over England. The Germansbombed London night after night in August 1940.The British air force (RAF) defended Britainagainst these attacks. They used a new technologycalled radar, and shot down hundreds of Germanplanes. This air war was called the Battle of Britain.The new prime minister, Winston Churchill, ralliedthe spirits of the British people and declared thatBritain would never surrender. Hitler gave up theidea of invading Britain.

3. What happened to Hitler’s plans for conqueringFrance and Britain?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how Hitler began World War II.

In this section, you will see how Hitler put his plan ofAryan domination into place by killing Jews and othergroups he considered inferior.

AS YOU READTake notes on the chart below. Fill it in with the attitudesand actions that led to the Holocaust.

TERMS AND NAMESHolocaust Systematic murder of 11 million Jews and other people inEurope by the NazisKristallnacht Name given the nightof November 9, 1938, when Nazis inGermany attacked Jews, theirbusinesses, and their synagoguesgenocide Deliberate and systematickilling of an entire peopleconcentration camp Prison campsoperated by the Nazis where Jewsand others were starved while doingslave labor or murdered

The Holocaust

The Persecution Begins (pages 554–555)

How did the persecution of the Jews begin in Germany?Part of Hitler’s plan for Germany was to make thecountry racially pure. In 1933, just three monthsafter taking power, Hitler ordered all non-Aryans outof government jobs. Then Hitler began an organizedpersecution of non-Aryans, particularly of Jews. Thisresulted in the Holocaust—the systematic murderof over 11 million people across Europe. Over half ofthe murdered people were Jews.

Anti-Semitism, or hatred of Jews, had a longhistory in Germany and in other parts of Europe.

For a long time, Germans had used Jews as ascapegoat, someone to blame for their own failuresand frustrations. Therefore, when Hitler blamedJews for Germany’s defeat in World War I, manyGermans agreed. When Hitler blamed the Jews forGermany’s economic problems, many Germanssupported him.

Persecution of Jews increased under Hitler. In1935, new laws took away Jews’ civil rights andtheir property. Jews were forced to wear yellowstars of David on their clothing.

On November 9, 1938, organized, violent per-secution began with Kristallnacht. (Kristallnacht is

Holocaust

anti-Semitism inGermany and Europe

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a German word meaning “crystal night,” or night ofbroken glass.) Gangs of Nazi storm troopersattacked Jewish homes, businesses, and synagoguesacross Germany. The streets were littered with bro-ken glass. Then the Nazis blamed Jews for thedestruction. Many Jews were arrested; others werefined.

Many Jews started to flee Germany. Nazis werein favor of this, but other nations did not want toaccept the Jewish refugees. Some refugees, includ-ing Albert Einstein and Thomas Mann, wereallowed into the United States. But the UnitedStates would not change its immigration quotas.This was partly due to American anti-Semitism. It was also because many Americans feared com-petition for the few jobs available during theDepression.

Once war broke out in Europe, Americans saidthey feared that refugees would be “enemyagents.” The Coast Guard even turned away a shipcarrying refugees who had emigration papers forthe United States. Three-quarters of those passen-gers were killed by the Nazis after the ship wasforced to return to Europe.

1. How did the world react to Germany’s persecution of the Jews?

The Final Solution (pages 555–558)

How did the Nazis try to kill off the Jews and others?After Kristallnacht, the Nazis took a new approach.They adopted the “final solution” to what theycalled “the Jewish problem.” Jews healthy enoughto work were sent to slave labor camps. The restwere sent to extermination camps—places wherethey would be murdered. This horrifying planamounted to genocide, the deliberate and system-atic killing of an entire people.

The final solution was based on the belief thatthe Aryans were a superior people. All others wereUntermeschen (the German word for “subhuman”),inferior people who should work for the masterrace or be killed. The Nazis arrested their political

opponents—Communists, Socialists, and others.They rounded up and killed Gypsies, Jehovah’sWitnesses, homosexuals, the mentally and physi-cally handicapped, and others who did not fit theirstandard of the master race. As the Nazis con-quered other nations, they added Poles, Russians,and others to their list.

But their main target remained the Jews. InPoland, the Nazis rounded up and shot many Jews.Other Jews were forced to live in ghettoes, crowd-ed Jewish sections of cities where they were left tostarve. Most were sent to concentration camps,where they suffered hunger, illness, overwork, tor-ture, and death.

Even the early concentration camps did not killJews fast enough for the Nazis. In 1941, they builtsix death camps in Poland. These camps had gaschambers that could kill 6,000 people a day.Prisoners were gassed or shot. Some died in horri-ble “medical experiments.” Their bodies wereoften burned in huge ovens called crematoriums.

Six million Jews died in death camps and Nazimassacres. Some Jews, however, were saved.Ordinary people sometimes risked their own livesto hide Jews or to help them escape. The smallnation of Denmark was remarkable in protectingits Jewish population. When the Nazis demandedthat Jews wear yellow stars of David, the king ofDenmark declared that he and his family wouldalso wear the stars. Many other Danes did too.They also helped most Danish Jews escape to neu-tral Sweden.

Some Jews even survived the concentrationcamps. Elie Wiesel, who won the Nobel PeacePrize in 1986, is a survivor of Auschwitz. He haswritten memorably about his concentration campexperiences and the need to prevent such genocidefrom ever happening again.

2. What was the Nazi’s “final solution” and how was it carried out?

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how Hitler’s plan to makeGermany racially pure killed millions of people.

In this section, you will see how the United States movedcloser to entering the war against the Nazis.

AS YOU READTake notes on the time line below. Fill it in with the eventsin each year that brought the United States to war.

TERMS AND NAMESAxis powers Germany, Italy, andJapanLend-Lease Act Law that allowedlending or leasing arms to any nation“whose defense was vital to theUnited States”Atlantic Charter British andAmerican statement of goals forfighting World War IIAllies Group of nations, including theUnited States, Britain, and the SovietUnion, who opposed the Axis powersHideki Tojo Prime minister of Japanduring World War II

America Moves Toward War

The United States Musters Its Forces (pages 559–560)

How did the United States try tostay out of war but be prepared?According to the Neutrality Acts, the United Statescould not enter the war in Europe. However,President Roosevelt asked for a change in the Acts.He suggested a cash-and-carry provision. Such aprovision would allow Britain and France to buyand transport American arms. Congress passed thisnew Neutrality Act in November 1939.

In 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense treaty. They became the Axispowers. The treaty meant that if the United Stateswent to war against any one of them, all threewould fight. That would put America at war on twofronts: in Europe and in Asia. Nevertheless,

Roosevelt gave the British “all aid short of war” tohelp them fight Hitler.

Roosevelt assured the nation that the UnitedStates would stay out of war. But he prepared forwar. After years of isolationism, America’s militaryforces were weak. Congress increased spending for national defense. It passed the nation’s firstpeacetime draft in September 1940.

Roosevelt broke the tradition of a two-termpresidency. He ran for re-election in 1940. TheDemocrats’ party platform said the United Stateswill not fight in foreign wars. Roosevelt insisted onadding “except if attacked.” He won the election.

1. How did the United States slowly move toward war?

1941

1940

1939

U.S . NEUTRAL ITY

U .S . ENTERS WAR

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“The Great Arsenal of Democracy” (pages 560–562)

Why did the United States change its policy of neutrality?After the election, Roosevelt spoke to the Americanpeople. He said that the United States could notstand by and let Hitler conquer the world. Americawould become “the great arsenal of democracy.” Atthat time, Britain could no longer pay for arms andsupplies. Roosevelt suggested lending or leasingarms to any nation “whose defense was vital to theUnited States.” Isolationists bitterly opposed hispolicy. But Congress passed the Lend-Lease Actin March 1941.

Meanwhile, Germany invaded its former ally,the Soviet Union. The United States gave lend-lease support to the Soviets as well as to Britain.

Nazi submarines called U-boats attacked andsank ships carrying arms across the Atlantic toGermany’s enemies. In June 1941, Rooseveltordered the U.S. Navy to protect lend-lease ships.He also gave American warships permission toattack German U-boats in self-defense.

2. Name two ways in which the United States becamethe “arsenal of democracy.”

Planning for War (pages 562–563)

How did the United States move toward war?In August 1941, Roosevelt met secretly withBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill.Roosevelt did not actually commit the UnitedStates to war. But he and Churchill did sign theAtlantic Charter. That was a statement of thegoals for fighting World War II. These goals includ-ed protecting peoples’ rights to choose their ownform of government and building a secure peace.

Later, 26 nations signed a similar agreement.These nations, called the Allies, were united infighting Germany, Italy, and Japan.

On September 4, 1941, a German U-boat firedon an American merchant ship. President Rooseveltordered the U.S. Navy to fire on German ships on

sight. U-boats responded by sinking severalAmerican ships, and American seamen were killed.In a very close vote, the Senate finally allowed thearming of merchant ships. Roosevelt knew he didnot yet have enough public support to declare war.

3. What events moved the United States closer to war?

Japan Attacks the United States(pages 563–565)

What brought the United Statesinto conflict with Japan?In Japan, expansionists had long dreamed of creat-ing a huge empire. Japan was now acting on thisdream. It began seizing Asian territory held ascolonies by European nations. The United Statesalso owned islands in the Pacific.

When Japan invaded Indochina, the UnitedStates cut off trade with Japan. Japan neededAmerican oil to run its war machine. The newprime minister of Japan was a militant generalnamed Hideki Tojo. He started peace talks withthe United States, but he also prepared for war.

The United States broke Japan’s secret commu-nications code. The Americans knew Japan waspreparing for a military strike. But they did notknow when or where the strike would be.

On December 7, 1941—during the peacetalks—Japan attacked the main U.S. naval base atPearl Harbor in Hawaii. The Japanese crippled theU.S. Pacific fleet in one blow. Planes and shipswere destroyed. Over 2,400 people were killed.

Roosevelt was grim. He did not want to fight awar on two fronts. He had expected to enter thewar in Europe, not to fight in Asia, too. Rooseveltdescribed the “unprovoked and dastardly attack onAmerican soil.” He called December 7, 1941, “aday that will live in infamy.”

Roosevelt asked Congress for a declaration of waragainst Japan. Congress quickly agreed. Then Italyand Germany declared war on the United States.

4. What event caused the American declaration of waragainst Japan?

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CHAPTER 17 THE UNITED STATES IN WORLD WAR II 177

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned the reasons why the UnitedStates entered World War II.

In this section, you will learn how Americans joined in thewar effort.

AS YOU READUse the web diagram below to take notes on the changeson the American home front during World War II.

TERMS AND NAMESGeorge Marshall Army chief of staffduring World War IIA. Philip Randolph ImportantAfrican-American labor leaderNisei Japanese Americans born inthe United StatesOffice of Price Administration (OPA)Agency of the federal governmentthat fought inflationWar Production Board (WPB)Government agency that decidedwhich companies would make warmaterials and how to distribute rawmaterials rationing Restricting the amount offood and other goods people may buyduring wartime to assure adequatesupplies for the military

Mobilization on the Home Front

Americans Join the War Effort(page 570–572)

How did Americans react to Pearl Harbor?The Japanese had expected Americans to reactwith fear and despair to the attack on Pearl Harbor.Instead, Americans reacted with rage. “RememberPearl Harbor” became a rallying cry. Five millionmen volunteered for military service.

But fighting a war on two fronts—in Europeand in the Pacific—required huge numbers of sol-diers. Another ten million men were drafted. New

soldiers received eight weeks of basic training.Then they were officially “GIs,” a nickname com-ing from the term “Government Issue.”

To free more men for combat, Army Chief ofStaff General George Marshall suggested usingwomen for noncombat military tasks. Congresscreated the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps(WAAC) in 1942. About 25,000 women served inthe military. They did not receive the same pay orbenefits as men.

Men and women from minority groups alsoserved in World War II. They included MexicanAmericans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans.

many men and womenenlist in military

Changes on theAmerican Home

Front

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Some African Americans had mixed feelings aboutdefending a country where they were often segre-gated and denied the basic rights of citizenship.But they also knew they would be worse off underany of the Axis powers. More than a million AfricanAmericans served, but in racially segregated units.These units were not even allowed into combatuntil the last year of the war.

1. How did women and minorities join in the war effort?

Life on the Home Front (pages 572–574)

What changes took place in American life?The nation’s factories quickly switched to war pro-duction. Automobile factories made planes andtanks. Pencil-makers turned out bomb parts.Shipyards and defense plants expanded. They pro-duced warships with amazing speed.

About 18 million workers kept these war indus-tries going. Some 6 million new factory workerswere women. At first, industry did not want to hirewomen. Men feared women would not be able tohandle the heavy work. Once women proved theycould do the work, factories hired them. But theypaid women only 60 percent as much as men.

Before the war, most defense contractors hadrefused to hire African Americans. A. PhilipRandolph, the president of the Brotherhood ofSleeping Car Porters, was an important African-American labor leader. He threatened to haveAfrican Americans march on Washington todemand an end to this discrimination. Rooseveltfeared such a march. He issued an executive orderbanning discrimination in defense industries.

The government hired scientists to develop newweapons and medicines. They made improvementsin radar and sonar, and in “miracle drugs” like peni-cillin. The government also set up the ManhattanProject, which developed the atomic bomb.

Even Hollywood contributed to the war effortwith patriotic films. They also made escapistromances and comedies. Public hunger for news ofthe war made magazines and radio more popular.

2. How did the war change life at home?

The Federal Government Takes Control (pages 574–577)

How did the federal governmentget involved in the economy?To make the war effort go smoothly, the federal gov-ernment became more involved in people’s lives.

After Pearl Harbor, many Americans fearedthat people of Japanese descent could be helpingJapan. There was panic and prejudice on the WestCoast. Starting in February 1942, the U. S. govern-ment rounded up 110,000 Japanese Americans.They were put in internment camps far from theWest Coast. There they were essentially prisoners.About two-thirds of those interned were Nisei.These were Japanese Americans who had beenborn in the United States and were thus Americancitizens. No one ever found evidence of disloyaltyamong Japanese Americans.

The federal government was also worried abouteconomic issues. Congress wanted to prevent thehigh inflation that had occurred during World War I. Congress set up the Office of PriceAdministration. It successfully fought inflation by“freezing,” or not increasing, prices on most goods.Congress also raised taxes. The War ProductionBoard decided which companies would make warmaterials and how to distribute raw materials.

The OPA also set up a system of rationing.Families were issued coupons to be used for buy-ing scarce items, such as meat and gasoline. MostAmericans cooperated with the rationing system.They also bought war bonds and collected goods,such as tin cans and paper, that could be recycled,or reused, for the war effort.

3. How did the federal government regulate Americanlife during the war?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the American involvementin World War II affected life on the home front.

In this section, you will see how the United States, Britain,and the Soviet Union combined to defeat Germany and itspartners in Europe.

AS YOU READTake notes on the time line below. Fill it in with events thatled to the defeat of Germany.

TERMS AND NAMESDwight D. Eisenhower AmericangeneralD-Day Allied invasion to liberateEuropeGeorge Patton American generalHarry S. Truman 33rd president ofthe United StatesBattle of the Bulge Germancounteroffensive in December 1944V-E Day Victory in Europe Day, May 8, 1945

The War for Europeand North Africa

The United States and Britain Join Forces (pages 578–580)

What were the goals of theAmerican and British alliance?In late December 1941, a few weeks after PearlHarbor, President Roosevelt met with BritishPrime Minister Winston Churchill. They plannedtheir war strategy. They agreed that the first thingto do was to defeat Hitler’s Germany. They alsoagreed to accept only unconditional surrenderfrom the Axis powers. They felt that complete vic-tory was necessary to protect human rights.Roosevelt and Churchill began a lasting friendshipand a strong alliance between America and Britain.

After war was declared, German U-boatsincreased attacks on American ships in the

Atlantic. Many American ships were sunk. TheAllies organized convoys, or groups for shared pro-tection. Warships and airplanes escorted the con-voys. They used sonar and radar to find and destroymany German submarines.

The United States also started building ships ata rapid pace. Soon there were more Allied cargoships, or Liberty ships, being made than beingsunk. By mid-1943, the tide of the Battle of theAtlantic had turned in favor of the Allies.

1. What was the Battle of the Atlantic, and how did theAllies win it?

1943•••

1942•

1944••

1941• Dec.—Roosevelt and Churchill

meet and agree to defeatHitler first

1945••

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The Eastern Front and the Mediterranean (pages 580–582)

What happened in the SovietUnion, North Africa, and Italy?By the summer of 1943, the Allies were winning onland as well as on the sea.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union hadbegun in 1941. When it stalled early in 1942, Hitlerchanged his tactics. He moved to capture Soviet oilfields and to take the industrial city of Stalingrad.The Germans bombed Stalingrad until almost thewhole city was on fire.

But Stalin refused to give up. In three monthsof horrible hand-to-hand combat, the Germanstook most of Stalingrad. Then the Soviets counter-attacked. They trapped a large German force justas winter came. The Germans froze and starved. InFebruary 1943, the few German soldiers who werestill alive surrendered. The Battle of Stalingrad wasa turning point. From then on, Soviet forces movedsteadily west towards Germany.

Meanwhile, in November 1942, the Alliesinvaded North Africa. North Africa at the time wascontrolled by the Axis. American forces led byGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower defeatedGerman troops under General Erwin Rommel.The Germans surrendered in May 1943.

Next, in July 1943, the Allies invaded Italy.They captured Sicily. The war-weary Italian kingstripped Prime Minister Mussolini of power andhad him arrested. But then Hitler seized Italy. Ittook 18 long and bloody months of fighting for theAllies to drive the Germans out of Italy. They werehelped by Italian partisans, members of under-ground resistance movements fighting the Nazis.When these partisans found Mussolini, they shothim and hung his body in a city square.

2. How were the Allies victorious in the Soviet Union,North Africa, and Italy?

The Allies Liberate Europe(pages 582–585)

Why did the Allies invade Normandy?The Americans and British had been building ahuge invasion force for two years. It was designedto liberate Europe. June 6, 1944, was D-Day—theday the Allies crossed the English Channel andlanded in Normandy, France. This invasion was thelargest land-sea-air operation in history.

British, American, and Canadian forces landedon the beaches of Normandy. They met fierceGerman resistance, and many were killed. But theytook the beaches. Over 1 million Allied troopslanded in France, and began to advance. AmericanGeneral George Patton and his Third Army liber-ated Paris in August. By September, the Allies hadliberated other European nations and had enteredGermany itself.

In the United States, Roosevelt won reelectionto a fourth term as president. He had a new run-ning mate—Harry S. Truman.

To the Allies’ surprise, Hitler began a counter-attack in December. At first, the Germans cutdeeply into Allied lines. After a month of fiercefighting, the Allies pushed the Germans back. TheGermans had lost so many men and weapons inthis Battle of the Bulge that they could onlyretreat.

Meanwhile, the Soviets pushed through Polandtoward Germany. The Soviets were the first to lib-erate death camps and to describe the unbelievablehorrors they saw there. By April 25, the Sovietswere in Berlin. Hitler responded to certain defeatby shooting himself.

On May 8, 1945, General Eisenhower acceptedthe unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany.That became known as V-E Day—Victory inEurope Day.

3. How did the Allies liberate Europe and defeat Germany?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Allies won victory inEurope.

In this section, you will see how the Allies defeat Japan inthe Pacific.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below and list the key military and diplomatic actions of the last years of the war. Tell whythey were important.

TERMS AND NAMESDouglas MacArthur Americancommander in the PhilippinesChester Nimitz Commander ofAmerican naval forces in the Pacifickamikaze Japanese suicide plane Manhattan Project Secret project todevelop the atomic bombJ. Robert Oppenheimer Scientistwho led the Manhattan ProjectHiroshima City that was the site ofthe first atomic-bomb drop in JapanNagasaki Japanese city that was thesite of the second atomic-bomb dropYalta Conference Meeting ofTruman, Churchill, and Stalin in 1945United Nations (UN) Internationalorganization formed in 1945Nuremberg Trials Tribunal that triedNazi leaders for war crimes

The War in the Pacific

The Allies Stem the Japanese Tide (pages 586–589)

What were the important battles in the Pacific?After Pearl Harbor, the Japanese conquered largeparts of Asia and many Pacific islands.Outnumbered American and Filipino troops com-manded by General Douglas MacArthur tried todefend the Philippines. MacArthur was ordered toleave, and the Philippines fell in April 1942.

Many ships had been sunk at Pearl Harbor. Butthe United States still had submarines and aircraftcarriers. In April, American planes bombed Tokyo.This lifted American spirits. In May, an Americanand Australian fleet prevented Japan from takingAustralia. In June, the Americans won an impor-tant victory. Admiral Chester Nimitz, commanderof the outnumbered American naval forces in thePacific, successfully defended Midway Island. TheJapanese lost so many ships that people said theAmericans had “avenged Pearl Harbor.”

MIL ITARY /D IPLOMATIC ACT ION IMPOR TANCE

U.S. withdraws from Philippines Japan begins conquering Pacific islands

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American forces, led by General MacArthur,now went island-hopping towards Japan. Theyavoided islands that were well defended by theJapanese. Airfields were built on captured islands.Planes could then bomb Japanese supply lines.

American marines stormed the island ofGuadalcanal in August 1942. This marked Japan’sfirst defeat on land. In October 1944, Americanslanded on the island of Leyte in the Philippines.The Japanese launched kamikaze raids. In thesesuicide-plane attacks, Japanese pilots crashed theirplanes into Allied ships supporting the invasion.Still, Japan lost so many ships in the Battle ofLeyte Gulf that the Japanese Navy was essentiallyknocked out of the war.

Finally, the Americans took the island of IwoJima in March 1945. This extremely bloody battlegave the United States a base to launch heavybombers that could reach Japan itself.

1. Why was the Battle of Leyte Gulf so important?

The Atomic Bomb Ends the War (pages 589–592)

Why did the United States use the atomic bomb?As American forces neared Japan in March 1945,President Roosevelt died. Vice-President Harry S.Truman became president.

A fierce battle raged over the island of Okinawa.It was Japan’s last defensive outpost. TheAmericans finally won on June 22, 1945, but it cost7,600 American lives. Japan lost 110,000 men. TheAllies feared the human cost of invading Japan.

President Truman was told about theManhattan Project. This was the secret develop-ment of the atomic bomb led by J. RobertOppenheimer. On July 16, 1945, the first atomicbomb was tested. It was even more powerful thanpredicted. Many scientists felt it would be immoralto drop the bomb on Japan. Others said it wouldshorten the war and save lives. It would also givethe United States an advantage over the Sovietsafter the war. Truman decided to use the bomb.

On August 6, 1945, an atomic bomb was droppedon Hiroshima, Japan. Almost every building col-lapsed into dust. But Japan did not surrender. A sec-

ond bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing200,000. Emperor Hirohito was horrified. Japan sur-rendered September 2, 1945. The war was over.

2. Why did Truman decide to use the atomic bomb?

Rebuilding Begins (pages 592–593)

How did the Allies try to shape the postwar world?In February 1945, Roosevelt had met withChurchill and Stalin. At this Yalta Conference,they had discussed the postwar world. They hadagreed to create a new international organizationbased on the Atlantic Charter. Stalin agreed to thisUnited Nations (UN) and to free elections innations occupied by the Soviets. In exchange, hewas given islands off Japan.

The UN was established in April 1945. TheGeneral Assembly was made up of all 126 membernations. The 11-member Security Council had thereal power. The five wartime allies had permanentseats on the Council. Each could veto any Councilaction. The other seats rotated among membernations. It was hoped that the UN would be moreeffective than the League of Nations.

Truman, Churchill, and Stalin met at Potsdam.They divided Germany into four zones. Each wasto be occupied by one of the Allies—the UnitedStates, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. Thecapital of Berlin was divided the same way.

The Nuremberg Trials, an international tri-bunal, was held to try Nazi leaders. For the firsttime, a nation’s leaders were held legally responsi-ble for their wartime acts. They were tried forstarting the war; for acts against the customs of war,such as killing prisoners; and for the murder andenslavement of civilians.

American forces, headed by GeneralMacArthur, occupied Japan for six years. First,Japanese officials were put on trial for war crimes.Then, the Americans helped Japan set up a free-market economic system and create a new democ-ratic constitution.

3. How did the Yalta and Potsdam conferences shapethe postwar world?

ADVANCES PROBLEMS

Economy More jobs Housing shortageBetter pay

Civil Rights:• African Americans

• Mexican Americans

• Japanese Americans

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the Allies prepared for thepostwar world.

In this section, you will see how the war had changed theUnited States.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the advances andproblems in the economy and in civil rights during the war.

TERMS AND NAMESGI Bill of Rights Law passed byCongress to help servicemen readjustto civilian lifeJames Farmer Civil rights leader whofounded the Congress of RacialEquality Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)Interracial organization formed tofight discriminationJapanese American Citizens League(JACL) Civil rights group formed byJapanese Americans

The Impact of the War

Opportunity and Adjustment(pages 596–598)

How did the war create opportunities at home?World War II was a time of opportunity for manyAmericans. The economy boomed. There wereplenty of jobs. Wages rose. Farmers also did well.There was good weather, and crop productionincreased. Farm income tripled. Many farmerscould pay off their mortgages.

Women had many job opportunities during thewar. The share of women in the work force rose to35 percent. (They lost some of these jobs when the

men returned from military service.) Women alsodid a wide range of jobs and entered professionsthat had not been open to them before the war.

Many Americans relocated—picked up andmoved. They moved to where there were defensejobs. States with military bases or defense plantssaw huge gains in population. Some city popula-tions grew by one third. The result was a housingshortage. Even though workers had the money topay, there was no housing to rent. There were alsofood shortages in some areas.

People also had to adjust to new family situa-tions. Many fathers were in the armed forces, so

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women had to work and raise children on theirown. Many children were put in day care.Teenagers were often left on their own. Whenfathers returned from the war, there usually was adifficult time of re-adjustment.

The war also caused a boom in marriages. Manycouples married before the men went overseas.But when the men returned after years of militaryservice, many of these marriages failed. Thedivorce rate increased.

In 1944, Congress passed the GI Bill ofRights. It was designed to help servicemen read-just to civilian life. This bill paid for veterans toattend college or technical school. Over half thereturning soldiers took advantage of this opportu-nity. It also gave federal loan guarantees to veteransbuying homes or farms or starting businesses. TheGI Bill gave many people opportunities they other-wise would never have had.

1. What opportunities did the war create at home?

Discrimination and Reaction(pages 598–601)

How did the war affect minority groups?For African Americans, World War II was a kind ofturning point. They continued to be placed in all-black military units. They also were sent to segre-gated training camps in the South. There, someAfrican Americans from the North experiencedcivilian segregation for the first time.

However, civil rights organizations put pressureon the military to allow African American units intocombat. When these soldiers and airmen finally gottheir chance, they fought bravely and won manymedals.

On the home front, many African Americansleft the South and moved to the West Coast. Therethey found skilled jobs that paid well. But they alsofound prejudice. In 1942, civil rights leader JamesFarmer formed a new interracial organization tofight discrimination. It was called the Congress ofRacial Equality (CORE).

African Americans also moved into the crowdedcities of the North. Tension among the races grew.In 1943 it led to race riots. The worst one was inDetroit, where over 30 people were killed.President Roosevelt had to send federal troops torestore order. In response, many communitiesformed committees to improve race relations.

Mexican Americans also served in segregatedmilitary units during the war. And they also suf-fered prejudice at home. The worst race riotsdirected at Mexican Americans occurred in 1943 inLos Angeles.

Japanese Americans suffered the most. Theirhomes, businesses, and possessions were takenaway from them when they were sent to intern-ment camps. There, they tried to keep their digni-ty in the face of injustice and hardship.

Many young Japanese-American men volun-teered for military service. They wanted to provetheir loyalty to the United States. The militaryformed all-Nisei units, which served bravely. Thefamous 442nd was the most decorated combat unitof the war. When the 442nd returned home,President Truman said, “You fought not only theenemy. You fought prejudice—and you won.”

But Japanese Americans were not done fightingprejudice. The Japanese American CitizensLeague (JACL) asked both Congress and theSupreme Court for justice. In 1944, the SupremeCourt ruled that the internment of JapaneseAmericans had been justified for “military necessi-ty.” Nevertheless, over the years, Congress passedbills to compensate, or pay back, those who hadbeen interned for the loss of their property.Finally, in 1990, cash payments were sent to all for-mer internees. In a letter, President Bush said thenation “recognized the injustice done to JapaneseAmericans during World War II.”

2. How did World War II affect African Americans,Mexican Americans, and Japanese Americans?

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CHAPTER 18 COLD WAR CONFLICTS 187

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw the social and economicchanges that would reshape postwar America.

In this section, you will see how the Allied coalition thatwon the war fell apart and the United States and theSoviet Union came into conflict.

AS YOU READFill in the chart below with notes on U.S. actions andSoviet actions that contributed to the beginning of theCold War.

TERMS AND NAMESsatellite nation Country dominatedby the Soviet Unioncontainment Effort to block Sovietinfluence by making alliances andsupporting weaker nationsCold War State of hostility betweenthe Soviet Union and the UnitedStates but without military actionTruman Doctrine U.S. policy ofsending aid to any nation trying toprevent a Communist takeover Marshall Plan Program under whichthe United States gave economic aidto rebuild postwar Western EuropeBerlin Airlift Resupply of WestBerlin by U.S. and British planesduring Soviet blockade of 1948North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) Defensive military alliance ofthe United States, Canada, and tenEuropean nations

Origins of the Cold War

Former Allies Clash (pages 606–608)

What caused Soviet-American problems?The United States and the Soviet Union werewartime allies. But there had been trouble betweenthem for some time. A major reason was that theyhad opposing political and economic systems. Inaddition, the Soviets were angry that the UnitedStates had taken so many years to officially recog-nize their Communist government. Americans wereupset that Stalin had signed a treaty with Hitlerbefore World War II. Still, at the end of the war,people hoped that the United Nations would help

bring a time of peace. Instead, the UN became aplace where the two superpowers competed andtried to influence other nations.

Meanwhile, Roosevelt had died. Harry S.Truman had become president. Truman was a plain,self-educated man. But he had honesty, self-confi-dence, and a willingness to make tough decisions.

Truman met with the British and Soviet leadersat the Potsdam Conference in July 1945. Hereminded Stalin of his promise to allow free elec-tions in Eastern Europe. But Stalin would not lis-ten to Truman. Soviet troops occupied EasternEurope. There was little the West could do.

SOVIET ACT IONS U .S . ACT IONS

Stalin sets up satellite nations

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1. What were three issues that led to hard feelingsbetween the Soviet Union and the United States?

Tension Mounts (pages 608–609)

What did Stalin and Truman want for postwar Europe?Truman and Stalin disagreed over the future ofEurope. Truman wanted strong democratic nations.He wanted the United States to be able to buy rawmaterials in Eastern Europe. He also wantedEastern European markets for American products.

Stalin wished to spread communism. He alsowanted to control Eastern Europe to preventanother invasion of Soviet territory. He wanted touse the resources of Germany and Eastern Europeto rebuild his war-torn nation. Stalin also felt thatwar between the Soviet Union and the West couldnot be avoided.

Stalin set up Communist governments in theEuropean nations occupied by Soviet troops. Theybecame satellite nations, countries that dependedon and were dominated by the Soviet Union. TheUnited States answered with a policy of contain-ment. This was an effort to block Soviet influenceby making alliances and supporting weaker nations.

In 1946, Winston Churchill described “an ironcurtain” coming down across Europe. It separatedthe nations in the “Soviet sphere” from the capital-ist democracies of the West.

2. How did Truman’s and Stalin’s plans differ?

Cold War in Europe (pages 610–611)

What were the Truman Doctrineand the Marshall Plan?The conflicting aims of the United States and theSoviet Union led to the Cold War. This was a stateof hostility between these superpowers, but onewithout military action. Each tried to spread itspolitical and economic influence worldwide.

Truman’s first test of containment was whenGreece and Turkey needed economic and militaryaid in 1947. In the Truman Doctrine, the presi-dent argued that aid should be sent to any nationtrying to stop Communists from taking over.

Congress agreed. Aid was sent to Turkey and Greece.

Western Europe was also in terrible economicshape. Factories and fields had been destroyed. Aterrible winter in 1946–1947 increased hardship.Secretary of State George Marshall wanted to sendaid to nations that cooperated with American eco-nomic goals. Then Soviet troops took overCzechoslovakia in 1949. Congress saw the need forstrong, stable governments to resist communism. Itapproved the Marshall Plan. The plan was a greatsuccess in rebuilding Western Europe and haltingthe spread of communism.

3. How did the United States begin to send aid tonations fighting communism?

Superpowers Struggle Over Germany (pages 611–612)

How did the Soviets and the West disagree over Germany?East and West also disagreed over Germany. Stalinwanted to keep it weak and divided. The Westernallies thought Europe would be more stable ifGermany were united and productive. Britain,France, and the United States combined theiroccupied zones into the nation of West Germany.

Berlin was also divided into four occupiedzones. But it was located in Soviet-controlled EastGermany. The Soviets cut off all transportation toWest Berlin. West Berlin was the name given thezones occupied by Britain, France, and the UnitedStates. The Soviets said they would hold the cityhostage until the West gave up the idea of Germanreunification. Instead, the United States andBritain started the Berlin Airlift. For 327 days,planes brought food and supplies to West Berlin.Finally, the Soviets gave up the blockade.

The blockade made the West worry aboutSoviet aggression. The United States and Canadajoined with ten European nations in a defensivemilitary alliance called the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO). Members agreed that anattack on one was an attack on all.

4. What led to the Berlin blockade?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about postwar Europe.

In this section, you will read about the postwar in Asia.

AS YOU READFill in the time line below with the major events of theCommunist takeover in China and the Korean War.

TERMS AND NAMESMao Zedong Leader of theCommunist forces in ChinaChiang Kai-shek Leader of theNationalist forces in ChinaTaiwan (Formosa) Island off thecoast of China38th parallel Imaginary line thatdivides Korea at 38 degrees northlatitudeKorean War War begun when NorthKorea invaded South Korea in 1950

The Cold War Heats Up

Civil War in China (pages 613–615)

How did the Communists gain control of China?World War II had interrupted a civil war in China.The two sides joined to fight the Japanese. MaoZedong led the Communist forces in the North.The Nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-shek foughtthe Japanese in the south. After the war ended in1945, the Communists and Nationalists went backto fighting each other for control of China.

The United States backed the Nationalistsbecause they were anti-Communist. But Chiangoften acted like a dictator. His government waswasteful, ineffective, and corrupt. He overtaxedthe Chinese people even during times of famine.He did not have the support of the people.

Mao won the support of the Chinese peasants.He distributed land to them and reduced rents. Hehad an experienced army with high morale.

President Truman refused to send Americantroops to help the Nationalists fight communism.But he did send aid. Even so, in 1949, Chiang andhis forces had to flee to Taiwan (Formosa), anisland off the coast of China. China was nowCommunist. Containment in China had failed!

American conservatives said that the UnitedStates had “lost” China because not enough hadbeen done to help the Nationalists. Truman’s fol-lowers said that the Communist success wasbecause Chiang could not win the support of theChinese people. Conservatives claimed that theU.S. government was filled with Communistagents. American fear of communism began toburn out of control.

1. How did Communists gain control of China?

1949

1948 1950

1945 Civil war in China

1951

1953

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Koreans Go To War; The UnitedStates Fights in Korea (pages 615–618)

What caused the Korean War?Japan had ruled Korea since 1910. At the end ofWorld War II, Japanese forces in the north surren-dered to the Soviets. In the south, the Japanesesurrendered to the Americans. Two nations thendeveloped. They were separated by the 38th parallel, an imaginary line that divides Korea at 38 degrees north latitude.

In 1948 South Korea became an independentnation. North Korea became a Communist nation.Each claimed the right to rule all of Korea.

In June 1950, North Korea started the KoreanWar by invading South Korea. Truman was afraidanother Asian nation was about to fall to commu-nism. He ordered air and naval support for SouthKorea. Then the United Nations agreed to helpSouth Korea. Troops from 16 nations—most ofthem American—were sent to South Korea. Theywere led by General Douglas MacArthur.

North Korean troops moved steadily south.They conquered the South Korean capital of Seoul.Then MacArthur launched a counterattack. Hisforces trapped about half the North Korean Army,which surrendered. MacArthur’s success in Koreamade him a national hero.

UN and South Korean forces advanced towardthe 38th parallel. If they crossed it, the war wouldbecome an offensive rather than a defensive one. InOctober 1950, the UN told MacArthur to cross the38th parallel and reunite Korea.

The Chinese opposed UN forces moving into

North Korea. China said it would not let theAmericans near its border. The UN ignored thethreat and advanced. Then Chinese troops enteredNorth Korea. They drove UN forces back. InJanuary 1951, the Communists recaptured Seoul.

For two years, fighting continued. But neitherside advanced. MacArthur wanted to extend thewar into China. He even suggested dropping atom-ic bombs on China. Truman was against this strate-gy. The Soviets were allies of the Chinese. Trumanfelt bombing China would start World War III.

MacArthur continued to argue for his plan. Hespoke to the press and to Republican leaders.Truman felt that he could no longer allowMacArthur’s insubordination. He fired MacArthuras commander. At first, the American public sidedwith MacArthur. Later, they came to agree withTruman’s idea of a limited war.

Meanwhile, a cease-fire went into effect in June1951. Both sides agreed on a demilitarized zone atthe 38th parallel. An armistice was signed in July1953. The agreement was a stalemate. Korea wasstill divided between Communist North Korea andnon-Communist South Korea.

Many people felt that American lives had beenlost for little gain. As a result, the American peoplerejected the party in power, the Democrats, in the1952 election. Republican Dwight D. Eisenhowerwas elected president. Americans also becameeven more worried about Communist expansionabroad and Communist spies at home.

2. What was gained by the Korean War?

SkillbuilderUse this picture to answer these questions.

1. What kind of leader do you think MacArthur was from looking at this photo?

2. What does the quote from President Truman tell you about his feelings for MacArthur?

“Mr. Prima Donna, Brass Hat, Five Star MacArthur” Harry S. TrumanPhoto Credit: Carl Mydans, Life Magazine. Copyright © Time, Inc.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about the Cold War abroad.

In this section, you will read about the effects of the ColdWar at home.

AS YOU READFill in the diagram below with the causes of the Fear ofCommunism in the boxes to the left and the effects in theboxes to the right.

TERMS AND NAMESHUAC House Committee on Un-American ActivitiesHollywood Ten People called beforeHUAC who did not cooperateblacklist List of people in theHollywood film industry who wererefused jobs because they did notcooperate with HUACAlger Hiss Former State DepartmentofficialEthel and Julius Rosenberg Activistsin the American Communist Partywho were executed as spiesSenator Joseph McCarthyRepublican Senator who claimedCommunists were taking over thefederal governmentMcCarthyism Term used to refer totactic of accusing people of disloyaltywithout producing evidence

The Cold War at Home

Fear of Communist Influence(pages 619–621)

How did Americans react to thethreat of Communist influence?Many Americans felt threatened by the rise ofCommunist governments in Europe and Asia.Some even felt that Communists could threatenthe U.S. government from within. These fearsincreased when people found out about some spiesselling U.S. government secrets to the Soviets.

Republicans accused the Truman administra-

tion of being “soft on communism.” In response tothis pressure, Truman set up a Loyalty ReviewBoard. The Board investigated over 3 million peo-ple. About 200 were fired. Many people felt thatthese investigations were unconstitutional. Theaccused were not allowed to see the evidenceagainst them or to face their accusers.

In 1947, Congress set up the House Committeeon Un-American Activities (HUAC). Its purposewas to look for Communists both inside and out-side government. HUAC concentrated on themovie industry because of suspected Communist

Fear ofCommunism

rise of Communistgovernments abroad

causes effects

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influences in Hollywood. Many people werebrought before HUAC. Some agreed that there hadbeen Communist infiltration of the movie industry.They informed on others to save themselves.

Ten people called before HUAC refused to tes-tify. They said the hearings were unconstitutional.The Hollywood Ten, as they were called, weresent to prison for their refusal.

In response to the HUAC hearings, Hollywoodexecutives created a list of some 500 people theythought were Communist-influenced. Theyrefused to hire the people on this blacklist. Manypeople’s careers were ruined.

In 1950, Congress passed the McCarren Act. Itoutlawed the planning of any action that might leadto a totalitarian dictatorship in the United States.

1. What are three ways that the United States reactedto fear of communism at home?

Spy Cases Stun the Nation(pages 621–623)

How did spies increase fear of communism?Two spy cases added to the fear of communismsweeping the nation. One involved an official of theState Department named Alger Hiss. A formerSoviet spy accused Hiss of spying for the SovietUnion. He had documents that implicated Hiss.Hiss claimed the documents were forgeries. Hisswas convicted of perjury—for lying about the doc-uments—and went to jail.

In 1949, the Soviet Union tested an atomicbomb. Most people thought that it would take theSoviets much longer to develop their own atomicbomb. A British scientist admitted giving theSoviets secret information about the Americanbomb. He also implicated two Americans: Etheland Julius Rosenberg.

The Rosenbergs were members of theAmerican Communist Party. They denied thecharges of spying. But they were convicted andsentenced to death. People from all over the worldappealed for clemency for the Rosenbergs. Theysaid the evidence against them was weak. The

Supreme Court refused to overturn the decision,and the Rosenbergs were executed in 1953.

2. What two spy cases increased fear of communismin the United States?

McCarthy Launches His “Witch Hunt” (pages 623–624)

Who was Senator McCarthy?In the early 1950s, Republican Senator JosephMcCarthy made headlines. He claimed thatCommunists were taking over the government. Healso said the Democrats were guilty of treason forallowing this Communist infiltration.

McCarthy never produced any evidence to sup-port his charges. These unsupported attacks onsuspected Communists became known asMcCarthyism. Later, McCarthyism also came tomean the unfair tactic of accusing people of disloy-alty without producing evidence.

Many Republicans encouraged McCarthy.They thought that a strong anti-Communist posi-tion would help them win the 1952 elections. Butsome complained that McCarthy was violating people’s constitutional rights.

In 1954, McCarthy made accusations against theU.S. Army. The Senate hearings were broadcast onnational television. The American people watchedMcCarthy bully witnesses but produce no evidence.McCarthy lost public favor. The Senate voted tocondemn him.

There had been much support for Communistwitch hunts in the early 1950s. Many people wereforced to take loyalty oaths in order to get jobs.States passed laws making it a crime to speak ofoverthrowing the government. These laws violatedthe constitutional right of free speech. But peoplebecame afraid to speak their views. Fear of com-munism made many Americans willing to give uptheir constitutional rights.

3. What was McCarthyism?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the fear of communismaffected life in the United States.

In this section, you will see how Cold War tensionsincreased as both the United States and the Soviet Uniontried to spread their influence around the world.

AS YOU READFill in the time line below with events that show how theUnited States and the Soviet Union competed during theCold War. Write Soviet actions above the line and U.S.actions below the line. Draw arrows to show how the two nations reacted to each other.

TERMS AND NAMESH-bomb Hydrogen bombDwight D. Eisenhower President ofthe United StatesJohn Foster Dulles Secretary of statebrinkmanship Willingness to go tothe edge, or brink, of warCIA Intelligence-gathering, or spy,agency of the United StatesgovernmentWarsaw Pact Military alliance of theSoviet Union and its satellite nationsNikita Khruschev Soviet leaderEisenhower Doctrine Policy of theUnited States that it would defend theMiddle East against attack by anyCommunist country Francis Gary Powers Pilot of anAmerican U-2 spy planeU-2 incident Downing of a U.S. spyplane and the capture of its pilot bythe Soviet Union in 1960

Two Nations Live on Edge

Brinkmanship Rules U.S. Policy(pages 625–626)

What was the arms race?The Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb in1949. American leaders wanted to develop a morepowerful weapon. In 1952, President Trumanauthorized work on the hydrogen bomb, or H-bomb. This bomb was much more powerful thanthe atomic bomb. It was ready in 1952.

But the Soviets tested their own H-bomb in1953. Dwight D. Eisenhower was president. HisSecretary of State, John Foster Dulles, was veryanti-Communist. He said America must not com-

promise. The United States must be prepared touse all of its nuclear weapons against any aggressor.This willingness to go to the edge, or brink, of warwas called brinkmanship.

The United States began making more nuclearweapons. So did the Soviet Union. This was calledthe arms race. Many Americans feared a nuclearattack at any time. They had air-raid drills and fallout shelters to prepare for these attacks.

1. Why did the arms race begin?

1952 AmericanH-bomb

1949 Soviet atomic bomb

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The Cold War Spreads Around the World (pages 626–628)

What events increased Cold War tensions? The United States was in competition with theSoviet Union all over the world. PresidentEisenhower began to rely on the CentralIntelligence Agency (CIA). The CIA used spies toget information abroad. It also carried out covertactions, or secret operations, to weaken or over-throw governments unfriendly to the United States.

One CIA action involved Iran. In 1951, the CIAconvinced the Shah, or monarch, of Iran to get ridof a prime minister who was not friendly to theWest. In 1954, the CIA took action in Guatemala.Eisenhower believed Guatemala was friendly tothe Communists. The CIA trained an army thatoverthrew Guatemala’s government.

Soviet dictator Josef Stalin died in 1953. At first,tensions eased between the superpowers. Peoplecalled it a thaw in the Cold War. But when WestGermany joined NATO, the Soviet Union formed amilitary alliance with its satellite nations in 1955.This alliance was called the Warsaw Pact.

In 1956, a crisis developed in the Middle East.Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal. The Canalwas located in Egypt but owned by Britain andFrance, who had built it. Egypt was an ally of theSoviet Union. Britain, France, and Israel invadedEgypt to take the Canal back. The Soviets threat-ened to bomb Britain and France. The UnitedStates threatened to retaliate. War was preventedwhen the UN imposed a cease-fire. During the cri-sis, Eisenhower issued a warning, known as theEisenhower Doctrine. It said the United Stateswould defend the Middle East against Communistattack.

When the new Soviet leader, NikitaKhrushchev, criticized Stalin’s repressive policies,many people thought the Soviet Union hadchanged. The satellite nation of Hungary demand-ed reforms. For a while, Khruschev seemed toagree. But when the Hungarians asked to leave theWarsaw pact in 1956, Soviet tanks rolled intoHungary. They crushed the reform movement.Many Hungarian reformers were killed, and othersfled the country.

2. How did hostilities increase between the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union during the 1950s?

The Cold War Takes to the Skies(pages 628–629)

What was the missile race?The United States and the Soviet Union also com-peted in the skies. At first, the United States wassure it was ahead in military technology. But in1957, the Soviets developed an ICBM, or intercon-tinental ballistic missile. This was a rocket thatcould travel much farther than American rocketsand could carry nuclear weapons.

On October 4, 1957, the Soviets shocked theworld by launching Sputnik I. It was the first artifi-cial satellite to orbit the earth. Americans knewthat it took a very powerful missile to launch thissatellite—a missile that could reach the UnitedStates. This made Americans feel inferior to theSoviets in science and technology.

Americans responded by making changes ineducation. They improved the teaching of scienceand technology. American scientists also workedhard to catch up. On January 31, 1958, the UnitedStates successfully launched its first satellite.

Meanwhile, the United States had been flyingspy missions over the Soviet Union. The CIA usedU-2 aircraft that flew so high they could not be shotdown. Or so the Americans thought. On May 1,1960, a U-2 spy plane was shot down over theSoviet Union. The pilot, Francis Gary Powers,was captured and convicted of spying. However, hewas soon released in exchange for a Soviet spy.

This U-2 incident happened right before ameeting between Eisenhower and Khrushchev. Atthe meeting, Khrushchev criticized the UnitedStates and walked out. The U-2 incident hurtEisenhower’s ability to deal with the Soviets.

3. In what two ways was the Cold War fought in the skies?

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CHAPTER 19 THE POSTWAR BOOM 197

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about the developments in theCold War at home and abroad.

In this section, you will read about the economic boom inthe United States after World War II.

AS YOU READ Take notes on the chart below. List the postwar changes invarious segments of American society.

TERMS AND NAMESGI Bill of Rights Law that providedfinancial and educational benefits forWorld War II veteranssuburb Residential town orcommunity near a cityHarry S. Truman President afterWorld War IIDixiecrats Southern Democrats wholeft the partyFair Deal President Truman’seconomic and social program

Postwar America

Readjustment and Recovery(pages 636–638)

How did the end of World War IIaffect America?After World War II, millions of returning veteransused the GI Bill of Rights to get an education andto buy homes. At first, there was a terrible housingshortage. Then developers such as William Levittbuilt thousands of inexpensive homes in the sub-urbs, small residential communities near the cities.

Many veterans and their families moved in.The United States changed from a wartime to a

peacetime economy. After the war, many defenseworkers were laid off. Returning veterans added tounemployment. When wartime price controlsended, prices shot up. Congress eventually put backeconomic controls on wages, prices, and rents.

The economy began to improve on its own.There was a huge pent-up demand for consumergoods. People had been too poor to buy thesegoods during the Depression. Many items had not

SEGMENT OF AMERICAN SOCIETY POSTWAR CHANGES

veterans

economy

labor

civil rights

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been available during the war. Now Americansbought cars and appliances and houses. The ColdWar increased defense spending and employment.

1. What were three effects of the end of World War IIon American society?

Economic Challenges; SocialUnrest Persists (pages 638–641)

What were postwar problems?President Harry S. Truman faced a number ofproblems immediately after the war. One was laborunrest. In 1946, a steel-workers’ strike was followedby a coal miners’ strike. In addition, the railroadunions threatened to stop all rail traffic in the nation.

Truman was pro-labor. But he would not letstrikes cripple the nation. He threatened to draftstriking workers into the army and then order themback to work. The unions gave in.

During this time, before the economy turnedaround, many Americans were disgusted with short-ages, rising inflation, and strikes. Voters becamemore conservative. In the 1946 election, conserva-tive Republicans gained control of Congress.

After the war, there was racial violence in theSouth. African-American veterans demanded theirrights as citizens. Truman met with African-American leaders. They asked for a federal anti-lynching law, an end to the poll tax, and a commis-sion to prevent discrimination in hiring.

Truman put his career on the line for civilrights. But Congress would not pass any of his civilrights measures. Finally, Truman acted on his own.In 1948, he issued an executive order to desegre-gate the armed forces. He also ordered an end todiscrimination in hiring government employees.

Meanwhile, the Supreme Court said thatAfrican Americans could not be kept from living incertain neighborhoods. These acts marked thebeginning of a federal commitment to deal withracial issues.

Truman was nominated for president in 1948.He insisted on a strong civil rights plank in theDemocratic Party platform. This split the party.Many Southern Democrats left the DemocraticParty. These Dixiecrats were against civil rights.They wanted to preserve the “Southern way of

life.” They formed the States’ Rights Party. Someliberals left the Democratic party to form theProgressive Party.

It didn’t look like Truman could win. But hetook his ideas to the people. He criticized the “do-nothing Congress.” Truman won a narrow victory.Democrats took control of Congress.

Truman tried to pass economic and socialreforms. He called his program the Fair Deal.Health insurance and a crop-subsidy program forfarmers were both defeated by Congress. But anincrease in the minimum wage, extension of SocialSecurity, and financial aid for cities passed.

2. What were some issues Truman fought for?

Republicans Take the Middle Road (pages 641–642)

Why did Eisenhower win?Truman did not run for reelection in 1952. The bigissues of that campaign were 1) the stalemate inthe Korean War, 2) anti-Communist hysteria andMcCarthyism, 3) the growing power of the federalgovernment, 4) strikes, and 5) inflation. Voterswanted a change. The Republicans nominated warhero General Dwight Eisenhower. He easily beatDemocrat Adlai Stevenson.

Eisenhower was a low-key president with mid-dle-of-the-road policies. He did have to deal withone controversial issue—civil rights. In 1954, theSupreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board ofEducation that public schools could not be segre-gated. Eisenhower believed that the federal gov-ernment should not be involved in desegregation.But he upheld the law. When the governor ofArkansas tried to keep African-American studentsout of a white high school, Eisenhower sent feder-al troops to integrate the school.

The America of the mid-1950s was a place of“peace, progress, and prosperity.” Eisenhower wona landslide victory in 1956.

3. What two important civil rights actions occurredduring Eisenhower’s presidency?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about the postwar boom inthe United States.

In this section, you will read how many Americansachieved their dreams of material comfort and prosperity,but some found the cost of conformity too high.

AS YOU READ Take notes on the chart below. Fill it in with examples ofspecific goals that characterized the American Dream forsuburbanites of the 1950s.

TERMS AND NAMESconglomerate Major corporationthat owns smaller companies inunrelated industriesfranchise Company that offerssimilar products or services in manylocationsbaby boom Soaring birthrate from1946 to 1964Dr. Jonas Salk Developer of avaccine to prevent polioconsumerism Excessivelyconcerned with buying materialgoodsplanned obsolescence Purposelymaking products to become outdatedor wear out quickly

The American Dream in the Fifties

The Organization and the Organization Man (pages 643–644)

What changes took place in theAmerican workplace in the 1950s?The economy grew rapidly in the 1950s. By 1956,more Americans were white-collar workers inoffices than were in blue-collar factory jobs. White-collar workers were paid better. They usuallyworked in service industries, such as sales andcommunications.

Businesses also expanded. They formed con-glomerates, or major corporations that own small-er companies in unrelated industries. Other busi-nesses expanded by franchising. A franchise is acompany that offers similar products or services in

many locations, such as fast-food restaurants.These large companies offered well-paying,

secure jobs to certain kinds of workers. Theseworkers were conformists, or team players. Theywere “company people” who would fit in and notrock the boat. Businesses rewarded loyalty ratherthan creativity. They promoted a sameness, or stan-dardization, of people as well as products. Bookssuch as The Organization Man and The Man in theGray Flannel Suit criticized this conformity.

1. What changes occurred in the American work forceand workplace in the 1950s?

The AmericanDream

Values

success measured byconsumerism

Home/Family Work

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The Suburban Lifestyle (pages 644–647)

What was life like in the 1950s?Many Americans enjoyed the benefits of the boom-ing economy. Many worked in cities but lived insuburbs. They had the American dream of a single-family home, good schools, and a safe neighbor-hood with people just like themselves.

There was an increase in births called the babyboom. It was caused by the reuniting of familiesafter the war and growing prosperity. Medicaladvances also wiped out childhood diseases. Dr.Jonas Salk developed a vaccine to prevent polio.Polio had killed or crippled 58,000 children a year.

The baby boom created a need for more schoolsand products for children. Suburban family liferevolved around children. Many parents dependedon advice from a popular baby-care book by Dr.Benjamin Spock. He said it was important thatmothers stay at home with their children. The roleof homemaker and mother was also glorified in themedia. But many women felt alone and bored athome.

By 1960, 40 percent of mothers worked outsidethe home. But their career opportunities usually werelimited to “women’s fields.” These included secretar-ial work, nursing, and teaching. Even if women didthe same work as men, they were paid less.

Americans had more leisure time. They spenttime and money on leisure activities, such as sports.They also watched sports on television and readbooks and magazines. Youth activities, such asScouts and Little League, became popular too.

2. What was life like in the suburbs of 1950s?

The Automobile Culture(pages 647–648)

Why were cars so important?Easy credit for buying cars and cheap gasoline ledto a boom in automobile ownership. In the 1950s,the number of American cars on the road grewfrom 40 to 60 million.

A car was a necessity in the suburbs. There wasno public transportation. People needed to drive totheir jobs in the cities. They also had to drive to

shop and do errands. Therefore, more and betterroads were also needed. In 1956, the United Statesbegan building a nationwide highway network. Inturn, these roads allowed long-distance trucking.This led to a decline in the railroads.

Americans loved to drive. They went to drive-inrestaurants and movies. They drove long distanceson vacation. Motels and shopping malls were builtto serve them. These new industries were good forthe economy. But the increase in driving alsocaused problems. These included stressful trafficjams and air pollution. Many white people left thecities. Jobs and industries followed. This left mostlypoor people in crowded inner cities.

3. How did cars change American life?

Consumerism Unbound (pages 648–649)

Why did Americans turn toconsumerism in the 1950s?By the mid-1950s, nearly 60 percent of Americanswere in the middle class. They had the money tobuy more and more products. They measured suc-cess by their consumerism, or the amount ofmaterial goods they bought.

American business flooded stores with newproducts. Some of them, such as polyester fabrics,teflon, and plastics, had been developed during thewar. War-time developments in electronics alsoreached the marketplace. Among these electronicgoods were household appliances, televisions, andhi-fi record players.

Manufacturers also tried a new marketing strat-egy called planned obsolescence. They purpose-ly made products to become outdated or to wearout quickly. Americans began to throw away itemsin order to buy “new models.” Easy credit, includ-ing the introduction of credit cards, encouragedpeople to buy. Private debt grew.

The 1950s were “the advertising age.” Ads wereeverywhere—even on the new medium of televi-sion. They tried to persuade Americans to buythings they didn’t need. They appealed to people’sdesire for status and for a sense of belonging.

4. How was consumerism encouraged in the 1950s?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about the American dream inthe 1950s.

In this section, you will read that popular culture in the1950s reflected white, middle-class America.

AS YOU READ Fill in the chart with notes on what each group con-tributed to popular culture in the 1950s.

TERMS AND NAMESmass media Means ofcommunication that reach largeaudiencesFederal CommunicationsCommission (FCC) Governmentagency that regulates thecommunications industrybeat movement Writers who madefun of the conformity and materialismof mainstream American societybeatnik Followers of the beatmovementrock ‘n’ roll Form of popular music,characterized by heavy rhythms andsimple melodies, that developed fromrhythm and blues in the 1950s

Popular Culture

New Era of Mass Media(pages 652–655)

What influence did TV have?Mass media—the means of communication thatreach large audiences—include radio, television,newspapers, and magazines. Television became themost important means of communication in the1950s. It both showed and influenced popular cul-ture of the time.

The number of homes with television jumped.It went from 9 percent of all homes in 1950 to 90percent in 1960. At first, the number of television

stations was limited by the FederalCommunications Commission (FCC). TheFCC is the government agency that regulates thecommunications industry. Soon, however, TV sta-tions spread across the country. Many showsbecame widely popular all over the nation.

The 1950s were the “golden age of television.”Comedy shows starring Milton Berle and LucilleBall were popular. Edward R. Murrow introducedon-the-scene reporting and interviews. There werealso westerns, sports events, and original dramas.At first, all shows were broadcast live.

CONTRIBUTION TO POPULAR GROUP CULTURE OF THE 1950s

Families shown on TV

Beat generation

Rock ’n’ roll

African Americans

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Advertisers took advantage of this new medium,especially of its children’s shows. Young fans want-ed to buy everything that was advertised on theirfavorite shows. TV magazines and TV dinners—frozen meals to heat and eat—became popular.

Television reflected the mainstream values ofwhite suburban America. These values were securejobs, material success, well-behaved children, andconformity. Critics objected to the stereotypes ofwomen and minorities. Women were shown ashappy, ideal mothers. African Americans and Latinoshardly appeared at all. In short, TV showed an ideal-ized white America. It ignored poverty, diversity, andproblems such as racism.

As dramas and comedies moved to TV, radiochanged. It began to focus on news, weather,music, and local issues. The radio industry did well.Advertising increased and so did the number ofstations.

The movie industry suffered from competitionby television. The number of moviegoers dropped50 percent. But Hollywood fought back. It respond-ed by using color, stereophonic sound, and the widescreen to create spectacular movies.

1. Was the picture of America portrayed on television accurate?

A Subculture Emerges (pages 655-656)

What were the beat movementand rock ’n’ roll?Television showed the suburban way of life. Buttwo subcultures presented other points of view.One was the beat movement in literature. Thesewriters made fun of the conformity and material-ism of mainstream American society.

Their followers were called beatniks. Theyrebelled against consumerism and the suburbanlifestyle. They did not hold steady jobs and livedinexpensively. They read their poetry in coffeehouses. Their art and poetry had a free, open form.Major works of the beat generation include AllenGinsberg’s long poem Howl, Jack Kerouac’s novelOn the Road, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti’s A ConeyIsland of the Mind.

Some musicians also took a new direction. Theyadded electronic instruments to the African-American music called rhythm and blues. Theresult was rock ’n’ roll. The new music had astrong beat. Its lyrics focused on the interests ofteenagers, including alienation and unhappiness inlove. And teenagers responded. They bought mil-lions of records. The biggest star of all—the Kingof Rock ’n’ Roll—was Elvis Presley. He had 45songs that sold more than one million copies.

Some adults criticized rock ’n’ roll. They said itwould lead to teenage crime and immorality. Buttelevision and radio helped bring rock ’n’ roll intothe mainstream.

2. In what ways did the beat movement and rock ‘n’roll differ from mainstream America in the 1950s?

African Americans and PopularCulture (pages 656–657)

What role did African-Americanartists play in the 1950s?Many of the great performers of the 1950s wereAfrican American. Nat “King” Cole, Lena Horne,Harry Belafonte, and Sidney Poitier were popularwith white audiences. They led the way for laterAfrican-American stars. Jazz musicians like MilesDavis and Dizzy Gillespie also entertained audi-ences of both races. The most popular black per-formers were the early rock ’n’ roll stars, like LittleRichard and Chuck Berry.

Television was slow to integrate. One of the firstprograms to do so was Dick Clark’s popular rock ’n’roll show American Bandstand. In 1957,Bandstand showed both black couples and whitecouples on the dance floor.

Before integration reached radio audiences,there were stations that aimed specifically atAfrican-American listeners. They played the popu-lar black artists of the day. They also served adver-tisers who wanted to reach black audiences.

3. How did African Americans fit into theentertainment industry of the 1950s?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read about mainstream Americansociety in the 1950s.

In this section, you will read about Americans who werenot part of the American mainstream.

AS YOU READ Fill in the chart below with notes on the problems faced byeach of the groups listed. Then circle the problems that allof the groups faced.

TERMS AND NAMESurban renewal Plan to tear downdecaying neighborhoods and buildlow-cost housingbracero Farm workers entering theUnited States from Mexicotermination policy Federalgovernment decision to end federalresponsibility for Native Americantribes

The Other America

The Urban Poor (pages 660–661)

What was the plight of the inner cities?Prosperity reached many Americans in the 1950s.But it did not reach all Americans. In 1962, one outof every four Americans was poor. Many of thesepoor people were members of minority groups.

In the 1950s, millions of middle-class whitepeople left the cities for the suburbs. This wascalled “white flight.” Meanwhile, many poorAfrican Americans moved from the rural South toNorthern cities. Businesses—and jobs—followedwhites out of the cities. Cities also lost the taxesthese people and businesses had paid. City govern-ments could no longer afford to keep up the quali-

ty of schools, public transportation, or other ser-vices. The urban poor suffered as their neighbor-hoods decayed.

Many suburban, middle-class Americans couldnot believe that a country as rich as the UnitedStates had such poverty in its cities. However,Michael Harrington’s 1962 book The OtherAmerica: Poverty in the United States made manyAmericans aware of the problem.

One way the government tried to solve theproblem of the inner cities was called urban renew-al. Minorities could not afford the new homes thathad been built in the suburbs during the 1950s.Also minorities were not welcome in the white sub-urbs. As a result, inner-city neighborhoods becamevery overcrowded.

GROUP PROBLEMS

Urban Poor

Mexican Americans

Native Americans

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Urban renewal was designed to tear downdecaying neighborhoods and build low-cost hous-ing. However, sometimes highways and shoppingcenters were built instead. The people who hadlived in the old slums ended up moving to otherslums—rather than into better housing.

1. What were some reasons for the decay of America’sinner cities?

Mexican Americans and NativeAmericans (pages 661–663)

How were Mexican Americansand Native Americans treated?During World War II, there was a shortage oflaborers to harvest crops. The federal governmentallowed braceros, or hired hands, to enter theUnited States from Mexico. They were supposed towork on American farms during the war, and thengo back to Mexico. However, when the war ended,many braceros stayed illegally. Many otherMexicans entered the United States illegally to findjobs. The government started a program to seizeand return illegal aliens to Mexico.

Mexican Americans suffered prejudice and dis-crimination, too, even though they were citizens.When Mexican-American veterans came homefrom the war, they wanted to be treated fairly. Theyformed an organization to protest injustices. Othergroups worked to help Mexican Americans registerto vote. Pressure from these groups forcedCalifornia to stop placing Mexican-American chil-

dren in segregated classes. Mexican Americansbegan to have a nationwide political voice.

Native Americans also struggled for equalrights. This struggle was complicated by federalinvolvement in Native American affairs. At first,the government had supported assimilation, orabsorbing Native Americans into mainstreamAmerican culture. That forced Native Americansto give up their own culture. In 1934, the IndianReorganization Act changed that policy. The gov-ernment now wanted Native Americans to havemore control over their own affairs.

In 1944, Native Americans formed an organiza-tion to work for their civil rights and for the right tokeep their own customs. After World War II,Native Americans got less financial help from thegovernment. Outsiders grabbed tribal lands formining and development.

In 1953, the federal government decided to endits responsibility for Native American tribes. Thistermination policy stopped federal economicsupport. It also ended the reservation system anddistributed tribal land among individual NativeAmericans. One result of this policy was that manyacres of tribal lands were sold to developers.

As part of the termination policy, the Bureau ofIndian Affairs also moved thousands of NativeAmericans to the cities. It helped them find jobsand housing. This program was a failure. NativeAmericans did not have the skills to succeed in thecities. They were cut off from medical care. Andthey suffered job discrimination. The terminationpolicy was ended in 1963.

2. How did Mexican Americans and Native Americanswork for equal rights after World War II?

1959 1970 1980 1990 1996

Ann

ual I

ncom

e

0$5,000

$10,000

$15,000$20,000

Poverty Thresholds for a Family of Four

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1996

SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer the questions.

1. What was the poverty threshold in 1959?

2. What was the poverty threshold in 1996?

The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimumamount of annual income that an individual or a familyneeds to survive in the United States.

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CHAPTER 20 THE NEW FRONTIER AND THE GREAT SOCIETY 207

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the poverty that existedin the United States in the 1950s.

In this section, you will read how John F. Kennedy becamepresident and how he handled a period of intense foreignaffairs.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the major foreign crisesthat the Kennedy administration faced.

CRIS IS KENNEDY’S HANDL ING OUTCOME

Bay of Pigsokays invasion, promises air support invaders are captured; Kennedy is

embarrassed

Cuban Missile Crisis

Berlin Crisis

TERMS AND NAMESJohn F. Kennedy 35th president ofthe United Statesflexible response Policy of usingnonnuclear weapons to fight a warFidel Castro Ruler of CubaBerlin Wall Barrier built to keep EastGermans from fleeing to West Berlinhot line Direct phone line betweenthe White House and the KremlinLimited Test Ban Treaty Treaty thatbarred nuclear testing in theatmosphere

Kennedy and the Cold War

The Election of 1960 (pages 670–672)

How did Kennedy win the election?In 1960, President Eisenhower’s term came to aclose. By then, many Americans were worriedabout the future. The economy was in a recession.In addition, the Soviet Union was gaining strength.As a result, some wondered whether the UnitedStates was losing the Cold War.

John F. Kennedy and Richard M. Nixon facedoff in the 1960 presidential election. Kennedy wasa Democratic senator from Massachusetts. Nixonwas Eisenhower’s vice-president. Kennedy won theelection by a slim margin. Two main factors led himto victory.

The first factor was television. During the cam-paign, the two candidates held a televised debate.It was the first televised presidential electiondebate in the nation’s history. During the debate,Kennedy appeared strong and forceful. Nixonappeared nervous and ill at ease. Kennedy’s perfor-mance increased his popularity.

The second factor was Kennedy’s response tothe arrest of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in October1960. King was emerging as a leader in the coun-try’s civil rights movement. An Atlanta judge sen-tenced King to four months in jail for demonstrat-ing. Kennedy called King’s wife to express his sym-pathy. The Kennedy campaign persuaded thejudge to release King while he waited to appeal his

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sentence. Kennedy’s actions won him widespreadsupport from African Americans.

Upon entering the White House, Kennedyfocused on foreign affairs. He urged a tough standagainst the Soviet Union. He also supported a pol-icy called flexible response. This policy called forthe use of conventional weapons rather thannuclear weapons in the event of a war.Conventional weapons included jets, tanks, mis-siles, and guns. In order to build more convention-al weapons, Kennedy increased defense spending.

1. What two factors helped Kennedy win the 1960 pres-idential election?

Crises Over Cuba (pages 672–675)

What two crises involving Cuba did Kennedy face?Kennedy’s first foreign policy test came from Cuba.Cuba’s leader was Fidel Castro. Castro had seizedpower in 1959. Soon after that, he declared himselfa Communist. He then formed ties with the SovietUnion.

Kennedy approved a plan to remove Castrofrom power. The plan called for Cuban exiles toinvade Cuba and overthrow Castro. The U.S. gov-ernment would supply air support for the exiles.

The attack failed. Many exiles were captured.The failed invasion became known as the Bay ofPigs. It left the Kennedy administration greatlyembarrassed.

A year later, the United States and Cubaclashed again. Pictures from U.S. spy planesrevealed that the Soviets were building nuclearmissile bases in Cuba. Some bases already con-tained missiles ready to launch. These weaponscould be aimed at the United States.

President Kennedy demanded that the Sovietsremove the missiles. In October, 1962, he sur-rounded Cuba with U.S. Navy ships. These shipsforced Soviet vessels trying to reach Cuba to turnaround. A tense standoff followed. It appeared thatwar might break out. However, Soviet leader NikitaKhrushchev finally agreed to remove the missiles.

The crisis damaged Khrushchev’s prestige inthe Soviet Union and the world. Kennedy alsoendured criticism. Some Americans thoughtKennedy had acted too boldly and nearly started anuclear war. Others claimed he had acted too soft-ly. These critics believed that Kennedy should haveinvaded Cuba and ousted Castro.

2. Name the two Cuban crises that the Kennedyadministration faced.

The Continuing Cold War(pages 675–676)

How did the U.S. and Soviets try to ease tensions?Cuba was not Kennedy’s only foreign policy prob-lem. In 1961, the president faced a growing prob-lem in Berlin. The city was still divided. East Berlinwas under Communist control. West Berlin wasunder the control of Great Britain, France, and theUnited States. By 1961, almost 3 million EastGermans had fled into West Berlin.

Khrushchev threatened to block all air and landroutes into West Berlin. Kennedy warned theSoviet leader against such action. As a result,Khrushchev changed his plan. He built a large con-crete barrier along the border between East andWest Berlin. It was known as the Berlin Wall. Itprevented any more East Germans from fleeing toWest Berlin.

Despite their battles, Kennedy and Khrushchevdid attempt to reach agreements. They establisheda hot line between their two nations. This tele-phone hookup connected Kennedy andKhruschchev. It allowed them to talk directly whena crisis arose. The two leaders also agreed to aLimited Test Ban Treaty. This treaty barrednuclear testing in the atmosphere.

3. Name two ways the U.S. and Soviet Union workedto ease tensions between them.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section you read about how President Kennedydealt with explosive foreign matters.

In this section you will read about Kennedy’s domesticagenda and how his presidency—and life—was cut short.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes about Kennedy’s NewFrontier programs.

PROGRAM DESCRIPT ION

deficit spending government spends more than it has in order to boost economy

TERMS AND NAMESNew Frontier The name given toKennedy’s domestic programmandate An overwhelming show ofsupport by votersPeace Corps A program that enlistedvolunteers to help in poor countriesAlliance for Progress A program thatsupplied aid to Latin AmericaWarren Commission Body thatinvestigated the assassination ofPresident Kennedy

The New Frontier

The Camelot Years (pages 677–678)

How did the country react to the Kennedy family?President Kennedy and his wife, Jacqueline, werea glamorous couple. They charmed manyAmericans with their elegance and grace. TheKennedys gave special recognition to arts and cul-ture. They invited many artists, musicians, andcelebrities to perform at the White House.

President Kennedy frequently appeared ontelevision. His charm and wit made him popularwith the American people. Much of the WhiteHouse press corps also admired him. Their reportshelped to boost Kennedy’s public image.

The new first family fascinated the Americanpublic. Jacqueline Kennedy influenced fashion and

culture. The nation’s newspapers and magazinesran many pictures and stories about the Kennedychildren. However, the Kennedy administrationhad its critics. They argued that his presidency wasall style and no substance.

Kennedy surrounded himself with many intel-lectuals and businesspeople. He named his brother,Robert, as attorney general. Robert also served asthe president’s chief adviser.

1. Cite two examples of the country’s fascination withthe Kennedys.

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The Promise of Progress(pages 678–681)

What were Kennedy’s domestic plans?President Kennedy called his domestic programthe New Frontier. However, Kennedy had a diffi-cult time getting Congress to support his program.Conservative Republicans and southernDemocrats blocked many of his bills. These includ-ed bills to provide medical care for the aged,rebuild cities, and aid education.

One reason for Kennedy’s difficulties was thathe was elected by a small margin. As a result, helacked a popular mandate. This was a clear indi-cation that the voters approved of his plans.Because he lacked overwhelming support,Kennedy rarely pushed hard for his bills.

Kennedy did succeed with some proposals. Tohelp the economy grow, the Kennedy administra-tion used deficit spending. This occurred when thegovernment spent more money than it received intaxes. Kennedy hoped that increased spending ondefense would help boost the economy.

Kennedy also introduced the Peace Corps.This was a program of volunteers working in poornations around the world. The purpose of this pro-gram was to decrease poverty abroad. It was alsomeant to increase goodwill toward the UnitedStates. The Peace Corps was a huge success.People of all ages and backgrounds signed up towork for the organization. By 1968, more than35,000 volunteers had served in 60 nations aroundthe world.

Another program was the Alliance forProgress. This program gave aid to LatinAmerican countries. One reason for this programwas to keep Communism from spreading to thesecountries.

In 1961 the Soviets launched a person into orbitaround the earth. The news stunned America. Aspace race quickly began between the UnitedStates and Soviet Union. President Kennedypledged that the nation would put a man on themoon by the end of the decade. That goal wasreached on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrongstepped onto the moon.

The space race affected American society in

many ways. Schools taught more science.Researchers developed many new technologies. Thespace race also contributed to economic growth.

The Kennedy Administration also tried to solvethe problems of poverty and racism. In 1963,Kennedy called for a national effort to fightAmerican poverty. He also ordered the JusticeDepartment to investigate racial injustices in theSouth.

2. Name two successful programs of the KennedyAdministration.

Tragedy in Dallas (pages 681–682)

Who killed President Kennedy?On November 22, 1963, President and Mrs.Kennedy arrived in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy hadcome there to improve relations with the state’sDemocratic Party. Large crowds greeted theKennedys as they rode along the streets of down-town Dallas. Then, rifle shots rang out. Kennedyhad been shot. The president died about an hourlater at a nearby hospital.

The tragic news spread across the nation andthen around the world. Millions of Americans satglued to their televisions over the next few days.They watched on live television as a gunman shotand killed the president’s accused killer, LeeHarvey Oswald.

The events seemed too strange to believe. Manypeople wondered if Oswald had acted alone or withothers. Chief Justice Earl Warren headed a com-mission to investigate the assassination. TheWarren Commission determined that Oswaldacted alone. However, many people continue tobelieve that Oswald was part of a conspiracy.

3. What did the Warren Commission determine?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about President Kennedy’sdomestic programs.

In this section, you will read about Lyndon Johnson’s boldplan to reshape America.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes about President LyndonJohnson’s Great Society programs.

PROGRAM DESCRIPT ION

Economic Opportunity Act Created antipoverty programs

TERMS AND NAMESLyndon B. Johnson 36th president ofthe United StatesEconomic Opportunity Act Act thatcreated numerous antipovertymeasuresGreat Society Name given toJohnson’s domestic agendaMedicare and Medicaid Healthbenefits for the elderly and poorImmigration Act of 1965 Establishednew immigration system that allowedmore immigrants into the U.S.Warren Court Supreme Court underChief Justice Earl Warrenreapportionment The way in whichstates redraw their election districtsMiranda rights Special rights ofcriminal suspects

The Great Society

LBJ’s Path to Power; Johnson’sDomestic Agenda (pages 683–686)

How did Johnson wage “war” on poverty?Lyndon B. Johnson, a Texan, was Senate majori-ty leader in 1960. Johnson was a skilled lawmaker.He demonstrated a great ability to negotiate andreach agreements. During the 1960 presidentialcampaign, Kennedy’s advisers thought thatJohnson would make the perfect running mate.They believed that Johnson’s connections inCongress and his Southern background would help

Kennedy’s presidential chances. Kennedy askedJohnson to be his vice-presidential candidate.Johnson agreed. He helped Kennedy win impor-tant states in the South.

Upon Kennedy’s death, Johnson became presi-dent. Under President Johnson’s leadership,Congress passed two bills that President Kennedyhad proposed. One was a tax cut to help stimulate theeconomy. The other was the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Johnson then launched his own program—a“war on poverty.” He worked with Congress to passthe Economic Opportunity Act. This law createdyouth programs, antipoverty measures, small busi-

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ness loans, and job training. The law also createdthe Job Corps youth training program and theVISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) program.

Johnson ran for president in 1964. He easilydefeated his Republican opponent, Barry Goldwater.

1. Name two programs created by the EconomicOpportunity Act.

Building the Great Society;Reforms of the Warren Court(pages 686–690)

How did the Great Society andWarren Court change America?President Johnson had a grand vision for America.He called it the Great Society. Throughout histerm, Johnson introduced legislation to help himcreate his Great Society. Among other things, theselaws:

• created Medicare and Medicaid to ensurehealth care for the aged and poor;

• funded the building of public housing units;• lifted restrictions on immigration through the

Immigration Act of 1965—which openedthe door for many non-European immigrantsto settle in the United States;

• required efforts to ensure clean water,through the Water Quality Act of 1965;

• offered increased protection to consumers,through the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967;

• established safety standards for automobilesand tires.

The wave of liberal reform that characterizedthe Great Society also affected the Supreme Court.Chief Justice Earl Warren took an active role inpromoting more liberal policies. The WarrenCourt ruled school segregation unconstitutional.The court also banned prayer in public schools andstrengthened the right of free speech.

The Warren Court also changed the area ofcongressional reapportionment. This is the wayin which states redraw their election districts. TheCourt ruled that election districts in each state hadto have roughly the same number of people in

them. Because so many people lived in the cities,the court’s ruling led to the creation of many newurban districts. As a result, political power shiftedfrom the countryside to the cities.

The Warren Court also strengthened the rightsof people accused of crimes. The Court ruled policehad to read suspects their rights before questioningthem. These rights are known as Miranda rights.

2. Name one result of the Great Society and WarrenCourt.

Impact of the Great Society(pages 690–691)

How successful was the Great Society?The Great Society and the Warren Court changedAmerica. People disagree on whether thesechanges left the nation better or worse off thanbefore. On one hand, Johnson’s antipoverty mea-sures helped reduce the suffering of many people.However, many of Johnson’s proposals did notachieve their stated goals. Most people agree onone point: No president since World War IIincreased the power and reach of federal govern-ment more than Lyndon Johnson.

Eventually, some Americans began to questionthe increased size of the federal government. Theyalso wondered about the effectiveness of Johnson’sprograms. Across the country, people became dis-illusioned with the Great Society. This led to therise of a new group of Republican leaders.

3. How did the Great Society affect the size of the fed-eral government?

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CHAPTER 21 CIVIL RIGHTS 215

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about President Johnson’sGreat Society.

In this section you will read how African Americans chal-lenged the nation’s policies of segregation and racialinequality.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the early civil rightsbattles.

TERMS AND NAMESThurgood Marshall AfricanAmerican lawyer who led the legalchallenge against segregationBrown v. Board of Education Case inwhich court ruled segregatedschools were unconstitutionalRosa Parks Woman who helped startMontgomery bus boycottDr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Leader ofthe civil rights movementSouthern Christian LeadershipConference Civil rights organizationStudent Nonviolent CoordinatingCommittee Civil rights organizationformed by studentssit-in Protest tactic in which blacksoccupied whites-only seats at lunchcounters

Taking on Segregation

The Segregation System(pages 696–698)

How did World War II help startthe civil rights movement?By 1950, most African Americans were still consid-ered second-class citizens. Throughout the South,Jim Crow laws remained in place. These were lawsaimed at keeping blacks separate from whites.

During the 1950s, however, a civil rights move-ment began. This was a movement by blacks togain greater equality in American society.

In several ways, World War II helped set thestage for this movement. First, the demand for sol-diers during the war had created a shortage ofwhite male workers. This opened up many newjobs for African Americans.

Second, about 700,000 African Americans hadserved in the armed forces. These soldiers helpedfree Europe. Many returned from the war ready tofight for their own freedom.

Third, during the war, President FranklinRoosevelt outlawed racial discrimination in all fed-eral agencies and war-related companies.

World War II had given blacks a taste of equal-ity and respectability. When the war ended, manyblacks were more determined than ever to improvetheir status.

1. Name two ways in which World War II helped setthe stage for the civil rights movement.

INC IDENT RESULT

Little Rock School Crisis National Guard forces school to let in blacks

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Lunch counter sit-ins

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Challenging Segregation in Court (page 698)

What did the Court rule in Brown v. Board of Education?Even before the civil rights movement began,African-American lawyers had been challengingracial discrimination in court. Beginning in 1938, ateam of lawyers led by Thurgood Marshall beganarguing several cases before the Supreme Court.

Their biggest victory came in the 1954 caseknown as Brown v. Board of Education ofTopeka, Kansas. In this case, the Supreme Courtruled that separate schools for whites and blackswere unequal—and thus unconstitutional.

2. What did the Supreme Court rule about separateschools for whites and blacks?

Reaction to the Brown Decision;the Montgomery Bus Boycott(pages 699–701)

Where did African Americansfight racial segregation?Some Southern communities refused to accept theBrown decision. In 1955, the Supreme Courthanded down a second Brown ruling. It orderedschools to desegregate more quickly.

The school desegregation issue reached a crisis in1957 in Little Rock, Arkansas. The state’s governor,Orval Faubus, refused to let nine African-Americanstudents attend Little Rock’s Central High School.President Eisenhower sent in federal troops to allowthe students to enter the school.

School was just one place where AfricanAmericans challenged segregation. They also bat-tled discrimination on city buses. In Montgomery,Alabama, a local law required that blacks give uptheir bus seats to whites. In December 1955,Montgomery resident Rosa Parks refused to giveher seat to a white man. Parks was arrested.

After her arrest, African Americans inMontgomery organized a yearlong boycott of thecity’s bus system. The protesters looked for a per-

son to lead the bus boycott. They chose Dr. MartinLuther King, Jr., the pastor of a Baptist Church.

The boycott lasted 381 days. Finally, in late1956, the Supreme Court ruled that segregatedbuses were illegal.

3. Name two places that African Americans targetedfor racial discrimination.

Dr. King and the SCLC; TheMovement Spreads (pages 701–703)

Where did King get his ideas?Martin Luther King, Jr. preached nonviolent resis-tance. He termed it “soul force.” He based his ideason the teachings of several people. From Jesus, helearned to love one’s enemies. From the writerHenry David Thoreau, King took the idea of civildisobedience. This was the refusal to obey an unjustlaw. From labor organizer A. Philip Randolph, helearned how to organize huge demonstrations.From Mohandas Gandhi, King learned that a per-son could resist oppression without using violence.

King joined with other ministers and civil rightsleaders in 1957. They formed the SouthernChristian Leadership Conference (SCLC). By1960, another influential civil rights group emerged.The Student Nonviolent CoordinatingCommittee (SNCC) was formed mostly by collegestudents. Members of this group felt that change forAfrican Americans was occurring too slowly.

One protest strategy that SNCC used was thesit-in. During a sit-in, African Americans sat atwhites-only lunch counters. They refused to leaveuntil they were served. In February 1960, African-American students staged a sit-in at a lunchcounter at a Woolworth’s store in Greensboro,North Carolina. The students sat there as whiteshit them and poured food over their heads. By late1960, students had desegregated lunch counters in48 cities in 11 states.

4. Name two people from whom Martin Luther King, Jr.drew his ideas.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how African Americans beganchallenging the nation’s racist systems.

In this section, you will read how civil rights activists brokedown many racial barriers and prompted landmark legisla-tion.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the achievements of thecivil rights movement.

TERMS AND NAMESfreedom rider Civil rights activistwho tried to end segregation onnational busesJames Meredith African Americanwho won enrollment to the all-whiteUniversity of MississippiCivil Rights Act of 1964 Law thatoutlawed racial discriminationFreedom Summer Name of project towin voting rights for Southern blacksRobert Moses Leader of the votingproject in MississippiFannie Lou Hamer prominentmember of MFDPVoting Rights Act of 1965 Act thatstruck down state laws intended tokeep blacks from voting

The Triumphs of a Crusade

Riding for Freedom (pages 704–705)

Who were the freedom riders?The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was oneof the nation’s older civil rights groups. It wasformed in 1942. As the civil rights movement of the1950s and 1960s grew, CORE became more active.

In the 1960s, CORE decided to test theSupreme Court ruling that banned segregation onbuses traveling national routes. White and blackactivists rode together on the buses into the South.These activists were known as freedom riders.Many riders were met by angry mobs that attackedand beat them.

As more attacks occurred, the Kennedy admin-istration stepped in. It sent U.S. marshals to pro-tect the freedom riders. The Interstate CommerceCommission, which regulated bus companies, alsohelped out. The Commission outlawed segregationin all interstate travel facilities. These includedwaiting rooms, restrooms, and lunch counters.

1. Name two ways the government helped the freedom riders.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Civil RightsTriumphs

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Standing Firm (pages 705–707)

What happened in Birmingham?Civil rights workers soon turned their attention tointegrating Southern schools. In September 1962,a federal court allowed James Meredith to attendthe all-white University of Mississippi. However,Mississippi’s governor refused to admit him. TheKennedy administration sent in U.S. marshals.They forced the governor to let in Meredith.

Another confrontation occurred in 1963 inBirmingham, Alabama. There, King and other civilrights leaders tried to desegregate the city. Policeattacked activists with dogs and water hoses.

Many Americans witnessed the attacks on tele-vision They were outraged by what they saw.Eventually, Birmingham officials gave in. Theyagreed to end segregation in the city.

The growing civil rights movement impressedPresident Kennedy. He became convinced that thenation needed a new civil rights law. Kennedy calledon Congress to pass a sweeping civil rights bill.

2. What was the outcome of the demonstrations inBirmingham?

Marching to Washington(pages 707–708)

What did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 do?President Kennedy’s civil rights bill outlawed dis-crimination based on race, religion, national origin,and gender. It also gave the government morepower to push for school desegregation. Civil rightsleaders wanted Congress to pass the bill. So theystaged a massive march on Washington, D.C.

On August 28, 1963, more than 250,000 blacksand whites marched into the nation’s capital.There, they demanded the immediate passage ofthe bill.

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke to the crowd.He called for peace and racial harmony in his now-famous “I Have a Dream” speech.

Several months later, President Kennedy was

assassinated. Lyndon Johnson became president.He won passage in Congress of Kennedy’s CivilRights Act of 1964.

3. Name two things the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did.

Fighting for Voting Rights(pages 708–710)

Where did workers try to registerAfrican Americans to vote?Civil rights activists next worked to gain votingrights for African Americans in the South. The vot-ing project became known as Freedom Summer.The workers focused their efforts on Mississippi.They hoped to influence Congress to pass a votingrights act.

Robert Moses was a former New York Cityschoolteacher. He led the voter project inMississippi. The project met with much oppositionand violence.

Meanwhile, civil rights activists challengedMississippi’s political structure. At the 1964Democratic National Convention, SNCC organizedthe Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).The new party hoped to unseat Mississippi’s regularparty delegates at the convention.

Civil rights activist Fannie Lou Hamer spokefor the MFDP at the convention. She gave an emo-tional speech. As a result, many Americans sup-ported the seating of the MFDP delegates.However, the Democratic Party offered only 2 ofMississippi’s 68 seats to MFDP members.

In 1965, civil rights workers attempted a votingproject in Selma, Alabama. They met with violentresistance. As a result, Martin Luther King, Jr. leda massive march through Alabama. PresidentJohnson responded by asking Congress to pass anew voting rights act. Congress passed the VotingRights Act of 1965. The law eliminated state lawsthat had prevented African Americans from voting.

4. Name two states where civil rights workers tried toregister blacks to vote.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the triumphs of the civilrights movement.

In this section, you will read about challenges and changesto the movement and how it ultimately left a mixed legacy.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes of the mixed legacy of thecivil rights movement.

TERMS AND NAMESde jure segregation Segregation bylawde facto segregation Segregation bycustom or practiceMalcolm X African-American leaderNation of Islam Group headed byElijah MuhammadStokely Carmichael Leader of BlackPower movementBlack Power Movement thatstressed black prideBlack Panthers African-Americangroup founded to combat policebrutalityKerner Commission Commission thatreported on the state of racerelations in America.Civil Rights Act of 1968 Act thatbanned discrimination in housingaffirmative action Program aimed athiring or including minorities

Challenges and Changesin the Movement

African Americans Seek Greater Equality (pages 711–712)

What problems did AfricanAmericans in the North face?By 1965, the civil rights movement had turned itsattention to the North. In the South the problemhad been de jure segregation. This was segrega-tion by law. The problem in the North was de factosegregation. This was segregation that exists bypractice or custom. This type of segregation wasmore difficult to overcome. It was easier to changelaws than it was to change people’s attitudes.

De facto segregation increased as African

Americans moved to Northern cities after WorldWar II. Many white people left the cities. Theymoved to suburbs. By the mid-1960s, many AfricanAmericans in the North lived in decaying urbanslums. There, they dealt with poor schools and highunemployment.

The terrible conditions in Northern citiesangered many African Americans. This anger led tomany episodes of violence.

1. Name two problems African Americans in the North faced.

ACHIEVEMENTS REMAINING PROBLEMS

full voting rights high unemployment

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New Leaders Voice Discontent(pages 713–715)

Who were the new leaders?During the 1960s, new African-American leadersemerged. They called for more aggressive tactics infighting racism.

One such leader was Malcolm X. Malcolmpreached the views of Elijah Muhammad.Muhammad was the head of the Nation of Islam,or the Black Muslims. Malcolm declared thatwhites were responsible for blacks’ misery. He alsourged African Americans to fight back whenattacked.

Eventually, Malcolm changed his policy regard-ing violence. He urged African Americans to usepeaceful means—especially voting—to win equali-ty. In February 1965, he was assassinated.

Another new black leader was StokelyCarmichael. He introduced the notion of BlackPower. This movement encouraged African-American pride and leadership.

In 1966, some African Americans formed apolitical party called the Black Panthers. Theparty was created to fight police brutality. Theyurged violent resistance against whites. Manywhites and moderate African Americans feared thegroup.

2. Name two new civil rights leaders.

1968—A Turning Point in Civil Rights (pages 715–716)

Who was killed in 1968?In April 1968, a gunman shot and killed MartinLuther King, Jr., in Memphis, Tennessee. Manyleaders called for peace. But anger over King’sdeath led many African Americans to riot. Citiesacross the nation erupted in violence.

A bullet claimed the life of yet another leader in1968. In June, a man shot and killed SenatorRobert Kennedy. Kennedy was a strong supporterof civil rights. The assassin was a Jordanian immi-grant. He allegedly was angry about Kennedy’s

support of Israel. Kennedy had been seeking theDemocratic nomination for president when he waskilled.

3. Name two of the nation’s leaders killed in 1968.

Legacy of the Civil RightsMovement (pages 716–717)

Why is the legacy of the civil rightsmovement considered mixed?Shortly after taking office, President Johnsonformed a group known as the KernerCommission. The commission’s job was to studythe cause of urban violence. In March 1968, thecommission issued its report. It named one maincause for violence in the cities: white racism.

What, then, did the civil rights movementachieve? The movement claimed many triumphs.It led to the passage of important civil rights acts.This included the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Thislaw banned discrimination in housing.

The movement also led to the banning of seg-regation in education, transportation, and employ-ment. It also helped African Americans gain theirfull voting rights.

Yet many problems remain. Whites continue toflee the cities. Throughout the years, much of theprogress in school integration has been reversed.African Americans continue to face high unem-ployment.

The government has taken steps to help AfricanAmericans—and other disadvantaged groups.During the 1960s federal officials began to pro-mote affirmative action. Affirmative-action pro-grams involve making special efforts to hire orenroll minorities.

4. Name one goal the civil rights movement achievedand one that remains.

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CHAPTER 22 THE VIETNAM WAR YEARS 223

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the legacy of the civilrights movement.

In this section, you will read how the United Statesbecame involved in Vietnam.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below to take notes on the importantVietnam-related events during the following years.

TERMS AND NAMESHo Chi Minh Leader of NorthVietnamVietminh Communist group led by HoChi Minhdomino theory Eisenhower’sexplanation for stopping communismDien Bien Phu Major French outpostcaptured by the Vietminh Geneva Accords Peace agreementthat split Vietnam in twoNgo Dinh Diem Leader of SouthVietnamVietcong Communist rebel group inSouth VietnamHo Chi Minh Trail Network of pathsrunning between North and SouthVietnamTonkin Gulf Resolution Resolutionthat allowed President Johnson tofight in Vietnam

Moving TowardConflict

The Roots of AmericanInvolvement (pages 724–726)

Why did the U.S. get involved?Vietnam is a long, thin country on a peninsula insoutheast Asia. From the late 1800s until WorldWar II, France ruled Vietnam. The French treatedthe Vietnamese badly. As result, the Vietnameseoften rebelled. The Communist Party in Vietnamorganized many of the rebellions. The group’sleader was Ho Chi Minh.

In 1941, Japan conquered Vietnam. That year,the Vietnamese Communists combined with othergroups to form an organization called theVietminh. The Vietminh’s goal was to achieveindependence for Vietnam. In 1945, Japan wasdefeated in World War II. As a result, the Japaneseleft Vietnam. The Vietminh claimed independencefor Vietnam.

However, France wanted to retake control ofVietnam. French troops moved back into the coun-try in 1946. They conquered the southern half ofVietnam. The Vietminh took control of the North.For the next eight years, the two sides fought forcontrol of the entire country.

The United States supported France during thewar. America considered the Vietminh to beCommunists. The United States, like other west-ern nations, was determined to stop the spread ofcommunism. President Eisenhower explained hiscountry’s policy with what became known as thedomino theory. Eisenhower compared many ofthe world’s smaller nations to dominoes. If onenation fell to communism, the rest also would fall.

The Vietminh defeated the French. The finalblow came in 1954. That year, the Vietminhconquered the large French outpost at Dien Bien Phu.

1957

1954 1965

1946 War begins between French and Vietminh

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Several countries met with the French and theVietminh to negotiate a peace agreement. Theagreement was known as the Geneva Accords. Ittemporarily split Vietnam in half. The Vietminhcontrolled North Vietnam. The anti-Communistnationalists controlled South Vietnam. The peaceagreement called for an election to unify the coun-try in 1956.

1. For what reason did the United States supportFrance in the war?

The United States Steps In(pages 726–727)

Who were the Vietcong?Ho Chi Minh ruled North Vietnam. Ngo DinhDiem led South Vietnam. When it came time forthe all-country elections, Diem refused to takepart. He feared that Ho would win. And then all ofVietnam would become Communist.

The United States supported Diem’s decision.The U.S. government provided aid to Diem.America hoped that Diem could turn SouthVietnam into a strong, independent nation. Diem,however, turned out to be a terrible ruler. Hisadministration was corrupt. He also refused toallow opposing views.

By 1957, a rebel group had formed in theSouth. The group was known as the Vietcong. Itfought against Diem’s rule. Ho Chi Minh support-ed the Vietcong from the North. He supplied armsto the group along a network of paths that ranbetween North and South Vietnam. Together,these paths became known as the Ho Chi MinhTrail.

John Kennedy became president afterEisenhower. Kennedy continued America’s policyof supporting South Vietnam. He, like Eisenhower,did not want to see the Communists take overVietnam.

Meanwhile, Diem’s government grew moreunstable. The Vietcong rebels were gaining greatersupport among the peasants. The Kennedy admin-istration decided that Diem had to step down. In

1963, military leaders overthrew Diem. AgainstKennedy’s wishes, they executed him.

Two months later, Kennedy himself was assassi-nated. Lyndon Johnson became president. Thegrowing crisis in Vietnam was now his.

2. Briefly explain who the Vietcong were.

President Johnson Expands the Conflict (pages 727–728)

What was the Tonkin GulfResolution?South Vietnam did not improve after Diem’s death.A string of military leaders tried to rule the coun-try. Each one failed to bring stability. Johnson,however, continued to support South Vietnam. Thepresident was determined to not “lose” Vietnam tothe Communists.

In August 1964, Johnson received reports of anincident in the Gulf of Tonkin off North Vietnam.A North Vietnamese patrol boat allegedly had firedtorpedoes at a U.S. destroyer. President Johnsonresponded by bombing North Vietnam.

He also asked Congress for special militarypowers to stop any future North Vietnameseattacks on U.S. forces. As a result, Congress passedthe Tonkin Gulf Resolution. The resolutiongranted Johnson broad military powers in Vietnam.In February 1965, President Johnson used his newpower. He launched a major bombing attack onNorth Vietnam’s cities.

3. What did the Tonkin Gulf Resolution grant President Johnson?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the United States becameinvolved in Vietnam.

In this section, you will read about the war America foughtin Vietnam.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on why the United Stateshad trouble fighting the Vietcong.

TERMS AND NAMESRobert McNamara Secretary ofDefense under JohnsonDean Rusk Secretary of State underJohnsonWilliam Westmoreland Commanderof U.S. troops in Vietnamnapalm Gasoline-based explosiveAgent Orange Chemical thatdestroyed jungle landsearch-and-destroy mission Tacticin which U.S. troops destroyedVietnamese villagescredibility gap Situation in which theU.S. public no longer believed theJohnson administration

U.S. Involvement and Escalation

The Decision to Escalate (pages 729–730)

Who supported Johnson’s decisionto send U.S. troops to Vietnam?In 1965, Johnson began sending U.S. troops toVietnam to fight the Vietcong. Some of Johnson’sadvisers had opposed this move. They argued itwas too dangerous.

But most of the president’s advisers supportedsending in troops. They included Secretary ofDefense Robert McNamara and Secretary ofState Dean Rusk. These men believed thatAmerica had to help defeat communism inVietnam. Otherwise, the Communists might try totake over other countries.

Much of the public also agreed with Johnson’sdecision. Many Americans believed in stopping thespread of communism.

By the end of 1965, the United States had sentmore than 180,000 troops to Vietnam. TheAmerican commander in South Vietnam wasGeneral William Westmoreland. He asked foreven more troops. By 1967, almost 500,000American soldiers were fighting in Vietnam.

1. Name two groups that supported Johnson’s decisionto use troops in Vietnam.

A War in the Jungle (pages 730–733)

Why did the war drag on?The United States believed that its superiorweaponry would lead to a quick victory over theVietcong. However, several factors turned the war

Vietcong use hit-and-run ambush tactics

U.S. Inabilityto Win an Easy

Victory

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SkillbuilderUse the graph to answer the questions.

1. What year saw the largest number of U.S. forces inVietnam?

2. By the beginning of what year had the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam dropped below 200,000?

into a bloody stalemate.The first factor was the Vietcong’s fighting style.

The Vietcong did not have advanced weapons. As aresult, they used hit-and-run ambush tactics. TheVietcong struck quickly in small groups. They thendisappeared into the jungle or an elaborate systemof tunnels. These tactics frustrated the Americantroops.

The second factor was the Vietcong’s refusal tosurrender. Throughout the war, the Vietcong suf-fered many battlefield deaths. However, they con-tinued to fight on.

The third factor was the American troops’inability to win the support of the Vietnamese peas-ants. In fighting the Vietcong, U.S. troops ended uphurting the peasants as well. For example, U.S.planes dropped napalm, a gasoline-based bombthat set fire to the jungle. They did this to exposeVietcong tunnels and hideouts. They also sprayedAgent Orange. This was a leaf-killing chemicalthat destroyed the landscape. Both of theseweapons wounded villagers and ruined villages.

American soldiers also turned the peasantsagainst them by conducting search-and-destroymissions. During these missions, soldiersdestroyed villages they believed supported theVietcong.

2. Name two reasons why the U.S. failed to score aquick victory against the Vietcong.

The Early War at Home(pages 733–734)

How did the war affect Johnson’sdomestic programs?The number of U.S. troops in Vietnam continuedto increase. So did the cost of the war. As a result,the nation’s economy began to suffer. In order topay for the war, President Johnson had to cutspending for his Great Society programs.

By 1967, many Americans still supported thewar. However, the images of the war on televisionbegan to change that. The Johnson administrationtold the American people that the war was goingwell. But television told the opposite story. Eachnight, Americans watched the brutal scenes of thewar on their television screens.

This led to a credibility gap in the Johnsonadministration. This meant that a growing numberof people no longer believed what the presidentwas saying.

3. How did the war affect Johnson’s Great Society?

19641963 1965 1966 1967 1968

200

300

400

500

600

Troo

ps in

Tho

usan

ds

100

01969 1970 1971 1972

536,000

less than 25,000

Year-end figures

Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1976

U.S. Troop Strength in Vietnam

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about America’s war effort inVietnam.

In this section, you will read about how the nation becamedivided over the war in Vietnam.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the beliefs and actionsof the New Left organizations.

TERMS AND NAMESNew Left Name given to the youthmovement of the 1960sStudents for a Democratic SocietyProminent group of the New LeftFree Speech Movement New Leftgroup that attacked business andgovernmentdove Those Americans who calledfor America to withdraw fromVietnamhawk Those Americans whosupported the war effort

A Nation Divided

A Working-Class War (pages 735–737)

Who fought the war?Most soldiers who fought in Vietnam were drafted.Because the war was growing unpopular, thou-sands of men tried to avoid the draft.

One of the most common ways to avoid thedraft was to attend college. Most men enrolled in auniversity could put off their military service.

Many university students during the 1960s werewhite and wealthy. As a result, many who fought inVietnam were lower-class whites or minorities.Nearly 80 percent of American soldiers came fromlower economic levels. Thus, Vietnam was knownas a working-class war.

Early on, a high number of African Americansserved and died in Vietnam. During the first sever-al years of the war, 20 percent of American soldierskilled were black. Blacks, however, made up only

about 10 percent of the U.S. population. This situ-ation prompted protests from many civil rightsleaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr. ManyAfrican-American soldiers also endured racismwithin their units.

The U.S. military in the 1960s did not allowwomen to serve in combat. However, nearly 7,500women served in Vietnam as army and navy nurs-es. Thousands more volunteered in the AmericanRed Cross and the United Services Organization(USO). This organization provided entertainmentto the troops.

1. Name two groups of Americans who did most of the fighting in Vietnam.

Free SpeechMovement

StudentsFor a Democratic

Society

New Left

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SkillbuilderUse this cartoon to answer the questions.

1. Who is the person pictured on the poster?

2. Which group do you think designed it, the hawks or doves?

The Roots of Opposition(pages 737–738)

What were the New Left groups?By the 1960s, American college students hadbecome politically active. The growing youthmovement of the 1960s was known as the NewLeft. The group took its name from the “old” leftof the 1930s. That organization had tried to pushthe nation toward socialism. The New Left did notcall for socialism. However, it did demand sweep-ing changes in American society.

One of the better known New Left organiza-tions was Students for a Democratic Society(SDS). This organization called for greater individ-ual freedom in America.

Another New Left group was the Free SpeechMovement (FSM). This group was formed at theUniversity of California at Berkeley. It grew out ofa fight between students and administrators overfree speech on campus. FSM criticized businessand government institutions.

The strategies of the SDS and FSM eventuallyspread to colleges throughout the country. There,students protested mostly campus issues. Soon,however, students around the nation found oneissue they could protest together: the Vietnam War.

2. Name two New Left groups.

The Protest Movement Emerges(pages 738–740)

How did the hawks and doves differ?Across America, college students rose up in protestagainst the war. They did so for various reasons.The most common reason was that the conflict inVietnam was a civil war between the North andSouth. Thus, the United States had no businessbeing there. Others believed that the war keptAmerica from focusing on other parts of the world.Still others saw the war as morally unjust.

In April 1965, SDS helped organize a march onWashington, D.C. About 20,000 protesters partici-pated. In November 1965, a protest rally inWashington drew about 30,000 protesters.Eventually, the antiwar movement reached beyondcollege campuses. Small numbers of returning vet-erans protested. Musicians took up the antiwarcause. Many protest songs became popular.

By 1967 Americans were divided into two maingroups. Those who supported the war were calledhawks. Those who wanted the United States towithdraw from the war were called doves. OtherAmericans took no stand on the war. However, theycriticized doves for protesting a war in which U.S.troops were fighting and dying.

3. Briefly explain the position of the hawks and doves.

A parody of a U.S. World War I poster. Credit: Peter Newark’s American Pictures

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how the Vietnam War dividedAmerica.

In this section, you will read about the shocking eventsthat made 1968 one of the most explosive years of thedecade.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the shocking events of 1968.

TERMS AND NAMESTet offensive Series of Vietcongattacks during 1968 Tet holidayClark Clifford Lyndon Johnsonadviser who became his secretary ofdefenseRobert Kennedy Democraticcandidate for president in 1968Eugene McCarthy Democraticpresidential candidate who ran onantiwar platformHubert Humphrey 1968 Democraticnominee for presidentGeorge Wallace Third partycandidate in 1968 presidentialelection

1968: A Tumultuous Year

The Tet Offensive Turns the War (pages 741–743)

How did the Tet offensive affect America?January 30 was the Vietnamese equivalent of NewYear’s Eve. It was the beginning of festivitiesknown as Tet. During the Tet holiday in 1968, aweek-long war truce was called. Many peasantscrowded into South Vietnam’s cities to celebratethe holiday.

However, many of the peasants turned out to beVietcong rebels. The rebels launched a massiveattack on nearly 100 towns and cities in South

Vietnam. They also attacked 12 U.S. air bases. Theattacks were known as the Tet offensive. Theoffensive lasted for about a month. Finally, U.S.and South Vietnamese forces regained control ofthe cities.

General Westmoreland declared that the Tetoffensive was a major defeat for the Vietcong.From a military standpoint, he was right. TheVietcong lost about 32,000 soldiers during theattacks. The United States and South Vietnam lostonly 3,000 soldiers.

However, the Tet offensive shattered America’sconfidence in the war. The enemy now seemed

Tet Offensive

1968

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everywhere. Many Americans began to think thatthe war was unwinnable. The Tet offensive alsoshocked many in the White House. Clark Cliffordwas the president’s new secretary of defense. AfterTet, Clifford decided that America could not winthe war.

The Tet offensive also hurt President Johnsonpopularity. By the end of February 1968, nearly 60percent of the public disapproved of Johnson’s han-dling of the war. In addition, nearly half the countrysaid it had been a mistake to send troops to Vietnam.

1. How did the Tet offensive affect Johnson’s popularity?

Days of Loss and Rage (pages 743–744)

Which events shocked the nation?Even before the Tet offensive, an antiwar group inthe Democratic Party had taken steps to unseatJohnson. The group looked for someone to chal-lenge Johnson in the 1968 primary election. Theyasked Robert Kennedy, a senator from New York.Kennedy declined. However, Minnesota senatorEugene McCarthy agreed. He would run againstJohnson on a platform to end the Vietnam War.

McCarthy surprised many people by nearlybeating Johnson in the New HampshireDemocratic primary. Suddenly, Johnson appearedpolitically weak. As a result, Robert Kennedydeclared himself a candidate for President. TheDemocratic Party was now badly divided.

President Johnson decided to address thenation on television. He announced that he wouldseek peace in Vietnam. Then he declared that hewould not seek reelection as president. The coun-try was shocked.

In the days and months ahead, several moreincidents stunned the nation. On April 4, a gunmankilled civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr.Two months later an assassin gunned down killedRobert Kennedy.

Meanwhile, antiwar protests continued to rockcollege campuses. During the first six months of1968, almost 40,000 students on more than 100campuses held demonstrations.

2. Name two events that shocked Americans in 1968.

A Turbulent Race for President(pages 744–746)

What happened in Chicago?In August 1968, the Democrats met in Chicago fortheir presidential convention. There, they wouldchoose a presidential candidate. In reality,Democratic leaders had already decided on thecandidate: Vice-President Hubert Humphrey.This angered many antiwar activists. They favoredMcCarthy.

About 10,000 antiwar protesters came toChicago. Some protesters wanted to pressure theDemocrats to create an antiwar platform. Otherswanted to voice their opposition to Humphrey. Stillothers wanted to create violence to discredit theDemocratic Party.

Violence eventually erupted at a downtownpark away from the convention hall. There, policemoved in on thousands of demonstrators. Theysprayed the protesters with Mace. They also beatthem with nightsticks. Many protesters fled.Others fought back.

The violence in Chicago highlighted theDemocrats’ division. The Republicans were moreunified. They nominated former Vice-PresidentRichard Nixon for president.

Nixon campaigned on a platform of law andorder. He also assured the American people that hewould end the Vietnam War. Nixon’s campaign washelped by the entry of a third-party candidate,George Wallace. Wallace was a former governorof Alabama. He took many democratic votes awayfrom Humphrey. In November, Nixon won theelection. It was now up to him to resolve theVietnam crisis.

3. Name two reasons that protesters came to Chicagofor the Democratic convention.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the explosive events ofthe year 1968.

In this section, you will read how the Vietnam War endedand what effect the war had on America.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the important dates andevents relating to the end of the Vietnam War.

TERMS AND NAMESVietnamization President Nixon’splan for ending America’sinvolvement in the warsilent majority Those mainstreamAmericans who supported Nixon’spoliciesPentagon Papers Governmentdocuments that showed thegovernment had no real plan forleaving VietnamHenry Kissinger Nixon adviser whohelped negotiate an end to the warKhmer Rouge Communist group thattook control of CambodiaWar Powers Act Act that forbids thepresident from mobilizing troopswithout Congressional approval

The End of the War and Its Legacy

President Nixon andVietnamization (pages 747–748)

How did Vietnamization work?Nixon’s plan to end America’s involvement inVietnam was known as Vietnamization. The plancalled for the gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops. Italso called for the South Vietnamese to do more ofthe fighting. By August of 1969, the first 25,000U.S. troops had returned home. Over the nextthree years, the number of American troops inVietnam dropped from more than 500,000 to lessthan 25,000.

Nixon, however, did not want to lose the war. Soas he pulled American troops out, he ordered amassive bombing attack against North Vietnam.Nixon also ordered that bombs be dropped on theneighboring countries of Laos and Cambodia.These countries held a number of Vietcong bases.

1. Name both aspects of the Vietnamization plan.

Trouble Continues on the Home Front (pages 748–750)

Which events weakened support for the war?To win support for his war policies, Nixon appealedto what he called the silent majority. These weremainstream Americans who quietly supported thepresident’s strategy. Many Americans did supportthe president. However, the war continued todivide the country.

In November of 1969, Americans learned of ashocking event. U.S. troops had massacred more

June 1971

April 1970 March 1973

August 1969 The first 25,000troops return home.

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than 100 unarmed Vietnamese in the village of MyLai. In April 1970, the country heard more upset-ting news. President Nixon announced that U.S.troops had invaded Cambodia. They had tried todestroy Vietcong supply lines there. Upon hearingof the invasion, colleges exploded in protest.

A protest at Kent State University in Ohioturned tragic. To restore order on the campus, thelocal mayor called in the National Guard. Somestudents began throwing rocks at the guards. Theguards fired into a crowd of protesters. Four stu-dents were killed.

Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia cost him publicsupport. It also cost him political support.Members of Congress were angry that he hadinvaded Cambodia without telling them. As aresult, Congress repealed the Tonkin GulfResolution. This had given the president the free-dom to conduct war policy in Vietnam on his own.

Support for the war declined even further inJune of 1971. That month, a former DefenseDepartment worker leaked what became known asthe Pentagon Papers. These documents showedthat the past U.S. presidents had never drawn upany plans to withdraw from Vietnam.

2. Name two incidents that weakened support for the war.

America’s Longest War Ends(pages 750–751)

Who won the war?1972 was a presidential election year. To winreelection, Nixon believed he had to end theVietnam War. Nixon called on Henry Kissinger,his adviser for national security affairs. Kissingernegotiated a peace settlement with the NorthVietnamese. In October 1972, Kissingerannounced that peace was close at hand. A monthlater, Nixon was reelected president.

However, the promised peace in Vietnam didnot come. South Vietnam objected to the proposedpeace settlement. As a result, the peace talks brokedown. Nixon responded by ordering more bomb-ings against North Vietnam.

Eventually, the peace talks resumed. In January1973, the warring parties signed a peace agree-ment. By the end of March, the last U.S. combattroops had left. For America, the Vietnam War wasover.

Shortly after America left, the peace agreementcollapsed. North and South Vietnam resumedfighting. In April 1975, North Vietnamese troopscaptured the South’s capital, Saigon. Soon after,South Vietnam surrendered to North Vietnam.

3. What happened to South Vietnam after America left?

The War’s Painful Legacy (pages 751–753)

How did the war affect America?The Vietnam War cost both sides many lives. In

all, about 58,000 Americans died in Vietnam.Another 365,000 were wounded. Vietnamesedeaths topped 1.5 million.

After the war, Southeast Asia continued toexperience violence and unrest. The Communistsimprisoned hundreds of thousands of SouthVietnamese. In Cambodia, a Communist groupknown as the Khmer Rouge took power in 1975.They attempted to transform the country into apeasant society. In doing so, they killed many gov-ernment officials and intellectuals. The group isbelieved to have killed as many as 2 millionCambodians.

In the United States, the war resulted in sever-al policy changes. In November 1973, Congresspassed the War Powers Act. This law preventedthe president from committing troops in a foreignconflict without approval from Congress. In a larg-er sense, the war made Americans less willing tobecome involved in foreign wars. The war also leftmany Americans with a feeling of mistrust towardtheir government.

4. Name two ways in which the war affectedAmericans.

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CHAPTER 23 AN ERA OF SOCIAL CHANGE 235

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section you read about the end of the Vietnam War.

In this section, you will read about how Latinos and NativeAmericans fought for greater equality.

AS YOU READUse the following diagram to take notes on the goals andtactics of the Latino and Native American movements.

TERMS AND NAMESCesar Chavez Leader of the farmworker movementUnited Farm Workers OrganizingCommittee Union that fought for farmworkers’ rightsLa Raza Unida Latino political partyAmerican Indian Movement Groupthat fought for greater reform forNative Americans

Latinos and NativeAmericans Seek Equality

The Latino Presence Grows(pages 760–761)

Who are Latinos?Latinos are Spanish-speaking Americans. During the1960s, the Latino population in the United Statestripled—from 3 million to more than 9 million.

During this time, the nation’s Mexican Americanpopulation grew. Many were descendants ofMexicans who stayed on the land that Mexico sur-rendered to the United States in 1848. Others werethe children and grandchildren of the Mexicans whoarrived after Mexico’s 1910 revolution. Still otherscame as temporary laborers during the 1940s and1950s. Mexican Americans always have made up thelargest group of Latinos.

About a million Puerto Ricans have lived in theUnited States since the 1960s. Most Puerto Ricans

have settled in the Northeast, especially in NewYork City.

Many Cubans also settled in the United Statesduring the 1960s. They had fled Cuba after theCuban Revolution in 1959. Most Cubans settled inor near Miami.

Thousands of Salvadorans, Guatemalans,Nicaraguans, and Colombians immigrated to theUnited States after the 1960s. They came to escapepolitical persecution and poverty at home.Wherever they settled, many Latinos experiencedpoor living conditions and discrimination.

1. Name two groups that make up the Latino community.

GROUPS GOALS TACT ICS

Latinos better working conditions formed workers union

Native Americans

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Latinos Fight for Change(pages 761–763)

Which groups fought for change?In the 1960s Latinos began to demand equal rightsand respect. One such group was MexicanAmerican farm workers. These men and womenworked on California’s fruit and vegetable farms.They often worked long hours for little pay.

Cesar Chavez was the group’s leader. Chavezbelieved that the farm workers should organize intoa union. In 1962, he helped establish the NationalFarm Workers Association. In 1966, Chavezmerged this group with a Filipino agriculturalunion. Together, they formed the United FarmWorkers Organizing Committee (UFWOC).

California’s grape growers refused to recognizethe farm workers union. As a result, Chavez calledfor a nationwide boycott of grapes. His planworked. In 1970, the grape growers finally signedcontracts with the UFWOC. The new contractsguaranteed union workers higher pay and otherbenefits.

Latinos also wanted greater recognition of theirculture. Puerto Ricans demanded that schoolsoffer classes taught in their native language. In1968, Congress passed the Bilingual EducationAct. This law funded bilingual and cultural pro-grams for students who did not speak English.

Latinos also began organizing politically duringthe 1960s. Some worked within the two-party sys-tem. Others created an independent Latino politi-cal movement. José Angel Gutiérrez, for example,started La Raza Unida (the United People Party).The party ran Latino candidates and won positionsin city government offices.

2. Name two organizations that fought to promote thecause of Latinos.

Native Americans Struggle for Equality (pages 763–765)

What problems did Native Americans face?Native Americans, like Latinos, are a diversegroup. However, most Native Americans havefaced similar problems. These problems includehigh unemployment rates, poor health care, andhigh death rates.

During the 1950s, the Eisenhower administra-tion tried to solve some of these problems. Thegovernment thought that introducing NativeAmericans to more aspects of mainstream culturewould help them. As a result, the governmentmoved Native Americans from their reservations tothe cities.

The plan failed. Most Native Americans whomoved to the cities remained very poor. In addi-tion, many Native Americans refused to mix withmainstream American society.

Native Americans wanted greater opportunityto control their own lives. In 1961, representativesfrom more than 60 Native American met to discusstheir concerns. They demanded the right to choosetheir own way of life.

In 1965, President Johnson responded to theirdemands. He created the National Council onIndian Opportunity. The council’s goal was to makesure that government programs reflected the needsand desires of Native Americans.

Many young Native Americans were not satis-fied with the government’s new policies. Theywanted greater reform. They also wanted it morequickly. As a result, some young Native Americansformed the American Indian Movement (AIM).This organization demanded greater rights forNative Americans. Sometimes, the group used vio-lence to make its point.

Meanwhile, Native Americans won greaterrights through the court system. Throughout the1960s and 1970s, they won legal battles that gavethem greater education and land rights.

3. Name two problems that Native Americans faced.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read how Latinos and NativeAmericans fought for greater rights.

In this section, you will read how the nation’s women also attempted to improve their status in society.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on the successes and failures of the women’s movement.

TERMS AND NAMESfeminism The belief that womenshould be equal to men in all areasBetty Friedan Author of TheFeminine MystiqueNational Organization for WomenOrganization that pushed for women’srightsGloria Steinem Journalist who triedto help women gain political powerEqual Rights AmendmentAmendment to U.S. Constitution thatwould prohibit discrimination againstwomenPhyllis Schlafly Equal RightsAmendment opponentNew Right A coalition of socialconservatives

Women Fight for Equality

A New Women’s Movement Arises (pages 768–770)

How did the women’s movement emerge?The theory behind the women’s movement of the1960s was feminism. This was the belief thatwomen should have economic, political, and socialequality with men.

The women’s movement arose during the 1960sfor several reasons. First, a growing number ofwomen entered the work force. In the workplace,many women received less pay than men—even forthe same job. Many women saw this as unfair.

Second, women had become actively involvedin both the civil rights and antiwar movements.These movements led women to take action on

behalf of their own beliefs. In addition, many menin these groups refused to give women leadershiproles. As a result, many women became moreaware of their inferior status.

In 1963, Betty Friedan published TheFeminine Mystique. This book expressed the dis-content that many women were feeling. Friedan’sbook helped to unite a number of women through-out the nation.

1. Name two factors that helped launch the women’s movement.

SUCCESSES FAILURES

Government declares all-male job ads illegal ERA is defeated

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The Movement ExperiencesGains and Losses (pages 770–772)

What were the movement’s successes and failures?In 1966, several women formed the NationalOrganization for Women (NOW). The group’sgoal was to more actively pursue women’s goals.NOW pushed for more child-care facilities. It alsocalled for more educational opportunities.

The organization also pressured the federalgovernment to enforce a ban on gender discrimi-nation in hiring. The government responded bydeclaring that male-only job ads were illegal.

In 1972, Congress passed a ban on gender dis-crimination in higher education. As a result, severalall-male colleges opened their doors to women. In 1973, the Supreme Court’s decision in the caseRoe v. Wade granted women the right to choose anabortion.

Women also attempted to gain politicalstrength. In 1971, Journalist Gloria Steinemhelped found the National Women’s PoliticalCaucus. This group encouraged women to run forpolitical office.

The women’s movement also met with somefailure. It failed to win passage of the EqualRights Amendment (ERA). The ERA was a pro-posed amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Itwould have outlawed government discriminationon the basis of sex. One prominent ERA opponentwas Phyllis Schlafly. Schlafly called the ERA thework of radical feminists.

In addition, the women’s movement angeredmany of the nation’s conservatives. In response,these conservatives joined together to form a

movement known as the New Right. This move-ment emphasized traditional social, cultural, andmoral values. Throughout the 1970s, the NewRight gained support for its social conservatism.

2. Name one success and one failure of the women’s movement.

The Movement’s Legacy (page 772)

What was the movement’s legacy?Despite the ERA’s failure, the women’s movementachieved many of its goals. In 1970, for example,only about 8 percent of medical school graduateswere women. Only 5 percent of law school gradu-ates were female. By 1992, about 36 percent ofmedical school graduates were women. By 1992,43 percent of law school graduates were female.

The movement also changed the way womenlooked at work and careers. In the 1950s, mostwomen who took jobs had done so to help out withfamily finances. By the 1970s, many women werepreparing themselves for lifetime careers.

The women’s movement also led to an increasein the number of women holding elected office.Finally, the women’s movement helped manywomen open their lives to countless possibilities.

3. Cite two examples of how the women’s movementhelped women improve their standing in society.


1. How much more did the average woman make in 1993 thanshe did in 1970?

2. How much less did the average woman make than the average man in 1993?

Men Women

MEDIAN INCOMES FOR WORKING WOMEN AND MEN

1950 Men Women

1970 Men Women

1993

$$

$2,570 $953

$6,670

$2,237

$31,077

$22,469

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$$

$

$

= $2000

$$

$$

$$

$$

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the women’s movementthat emerged in the United States in the 1960s.

In this section, you will read about the emergence of thecounterculture movement—and how the nation reacted to it.

AS YOU READUse this diagram to take notes on how the countercultureaffected America

TERMS AND NAMEScounterculture Movement whosemembers sought to drop out ofmainstream societyHaight-Ashbury Community in SanFrancisco that attracted many hippiesThe Beatles British rock group thathelped popularize rock ’n’ rollWoodstock Massive outdoorconcert that demonstrated rock ’n’roll’s popularity

Culture andCounterculture

The Counterculture (pages 773–775)

What characterized the counterculture?During the 1960s, many young people adopted val-ues that differed from those of mainstream society.These Americans were part of a movement knownas the counterculture.

The movement was made up mostly of whitemiddle-class youths. Members of the countercul-ture were known as “hippies.” Many hippies sharedsome of the beliefs of the New Left. They took partin demonstrations against the Vietnam War.However, a majority of hippies chose to turn theirbacks on America. They wanted to establish a newsociety based on peace and love.

The main characteristics of the hippie culturewere rock ’n’ roll, colorful clothes, and the use ofdrugs. Many also chose to live in large groupscalled communes. Many hippies moved to SanFrancisco’s Haight-Ashbury district. This com-munity was popular mainly because of the avail-ability of drugs.

After a few years, the counterculture movementbegan to decline. Some aspects of the movementbecame violent. Many urban communes grew dan-gerous. The widespread use of drugs also led to thedecline of the movement.

More than anything else, hippies eventuallyfound that they could not survive outside main-stream America. They needed money to live. For

IMMEDIATE EFFECT LONG-TERM EFFECT

Mainstream America blamed it for Rock ’n’ roll became a part of mainstream culture.decline of traditional values.

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many, this meant returning to mainstream society—and getting a job.

1. Name two characteristics of the counterculture.

A Changing Culture (pages 775–776)

How did the counterculture affect America?The counterculture movement collapsed after onlya few years. However, some aspects of it had a last-ing effect on mainstream culture.

The movement affected the worlds of art andfashion. The 1960s saw the rise of popular, or pop,art. The counterculture also lived on in the wayAmericans dressed and groomed themselves.Many Americans wore longer hair and more color-ful clothing. They also began wearing blue jeans.Today, jeans are a basic part of Americanwardrobes.

The most lasting legacy of the counterculturemovement was its music. Rock ’n’ roll continues tobe a popular form of entertainment. Perhaps themost influential band was The Beatles. TheBritish group helped rock music became part ofmainstream America.

A dramatic example of rock ’n’ roll’s popularitywas an event known as Woodstock. This was amassive outdoor rock concert in upstate New York.It occurred during the summer of 1969. More than400,000 people attended—far more than expected.

The counterculture movement affectedAmericans’ social attitudes as well. The Americanmedia began to address the subjects of sex and vio-lence. Before this time, few Americans discussedthese topics.

2. Name two areas of society affected by thecounterculture.

The Conservative Response(page 776–777)

Why did mainstream Americaattack the counterculture?In the late 1960s, many mainstream Americanscriticized the counterculture. They blamed themovement for the decline of traditional Americanvalues.

Some conservative groups called the movementa threat to law and order. They also accused mem-bers of the counterculture of being immoral.

Mainstream America’s anger toward the coun-terculture affected the country’s political scene. In1968, the Republicans nominated Richard Nixonas their presidential candidate. Nixon ran on a plat-form of law and order, and conservative values. Hisideas appealed to many voters. As a result, Nixonwon the election. He then set the nation on a moreconservative course.

3. Cite two reasons why Americans criticized the counterculture.

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CHAPTER 24 AN AGE OF LIMITS 243

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the counterculture.

In this section, you will learn about President Nixon andhis attempts to move the country in a more conservativedirection.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes about the major policiesof Richard Nixon as president.

TERMS AND NAMESRichard M. Nixon 37th presidentNew Federalism Plan to give federalpower back to the statesrevenue sharing Plan for the federalgovernment to share money withstate and local governmentsFamily Assistance Plan Nixonwelfare reform proposal to give directrelief to poor familiesSouthern strategy Nixon’s effort toattract Southern votes by opposingdesegregationstagflation Occurs whenunemployment and inflation rise atthe same timeOPEC Organization of nations thatexport oilrealpolitik Realistic politicsdétente Policy aimed at easing ColdWar tensionsSALT I Treaty Treaty to limit nuclearweapons

The NixonAdministration

Nixon’s New Conservatism(pages 786–788)

How did Nixon pursueconservative policies?President Richard M. Nixon wanted to turn theUnited States in a more conservative direction. Hetried to decrease the power of the federal govern-ment. Nixon’s plan was called New Federalism.Its goal was to give federal power to the states.

Nixon introduced revenue sharing. The fed-eral government usually told state and local gov-ernments how to spend their federal money. Underrevenue sharing, state and local officials couldspend their federal dollars however they saw fitwith few limits.

Nixon also wanted to reform welfare. He sup-ported the Family Assistance Plan (FAP). Underthis plan, every family of four with no incomewould receive a payment of $1,600 a year, andcould earn up to $4,000 more a year. But this planfailed to pass Congress.

When Nixon first took office he cooperatedwith Congress. But he soon refused to spendmoney that Congress wanted to spend on programsthat he did not like. Federal courts ruled thatNixon’s action was unconstitutional. They orderedthat Nixon spend the money on the programs.

Nixon also followed “law and order” policies tostop riots and antiwar protests. He used theCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the

New Federalismreturn power to states

revenue sharing

Nixon’smajor policies

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Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to harass people.He created an “enemies list.” And he had the CIAand IRS target people on this list. The list includedliberals and other opponents of his policies.

1. What conservative programs did Nixon support?

Nixon’s Southern Strategy(pages 788–790)

What was the Southern strategy?Nixon wanted to make sure he would get reelectedin 1972. He used what he called a Southern strat-egy to win the support of Southerners.

To attract white voters, Nixon tried to slowschool desegregation. But the Supreme Courtordered the administration to move more quickly.Nixon also opposed the extension of the VotingRights Act of 1965. But Congress extended the act.

Nixon believed that the Supreme Court underChief Justice Earl Warren was too liberal. Duringhis presidency, four justices, including Warren, leftthe Court. This gave Nixon an opportunity toappoint more conservative justices.

2. How did Nixon hope to win Southern support?

Nixon Confronts a Stagnant Economy (page 790)

What is stagflation?One of the biggest problems facing Nixon was aweak economy. Between 1967 and 1973, inflationand unemployment increased. This situation isknown as stagflation.

Stagflation had several causes. Unemploymentincreased because trade competition increased.This made it harder for Americans to sell theirgoods overseas. The nation also had trouble findingjobs for millions of baby boomers who reachedworking age.

Inflation increased for two main reasons. First,more government spending on social programs and

the war in Vietnam raised prices. The second causewas the nation’s need for foreign oil. The UnitedStates received much of its oil from the MiddleEast. Many of these countries belonged to a cartelcalled OPEC. During the 1960s OPEC graduallyraised oil prices. Then in 1973 a war broke out,with Israel against Egypt and Syria. The UnitedStates sent military aid to Israel.

The OPEC nations sided with Egypt and Syria.They stopped selling oil to the United States. Thisled to problems in the United States. Between thefall of 1973 and March 1974, motorists faced longlines at the gas stations. Some factories and schoolsclosed. When OPEC started selling oil to theUnited States again, the price had quadrupled.

3. How did OPEC affect the U.S. economy?

Nixon’s Foreign Policy Triumphs(pages 791–792)

What is realpolitik?Nixon’s main foreign policy advisor was HenryKissinger. Kissinger based his foreign policy viewson a philosophy known as realpolitik. This meantthat Kissinger dealt with other nations in a practi-cal and flexible manner. Kissinger believed it waspractical to ignore a country that was weak. But itwas important to deal with strong nations.

Realpolitik was a change from the policy of con-tainment. Nixon and Kissinger changed U.S. rela-tions with Communist countries. They called theirpolicy détente. This policy was aimed at easingCold War tensions.

In 1972, Nixon visited Communist China. Beforethis, the United States had refused to recognize theCommunist government. Three months later, Nixonwent to the Soviet Union. Nixon and the Sovietleader signed the SALT I Treaty. This five-yearagreement limited nuclear weapons. Nixon’s suc-cesses in foreign affairs helped him win reelection.

4. How did Nixon try to ease Cold War tensions?

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about President Nixon’sapproach to politics and the Cold War.

In this section, you will learn about the Watergate scandal.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below to take notes about the causes andeffects of the Watergate scandal.

TERMS AND NAMESWatergate Scandal that forcedNixon to resignH. R. Haldeman Advisor to NixonJohn Ehrlichman Advisor to NixonJohn Mitchell Attorney general anddirector of Nixon’s campaigncommitteeCommittee to Reelect the PresidentNixon’s campaign committeeJudge John Sirica Judge in the trialof the Watergate burglarsSaturday Night Massacre Nixon’sfiring of Justice Department officials,including the special prosecutorinvestigating Watergate

Watergate: Nixon’s Downfall

President Nixon and His White House (pages 793–794)

What was Watergate?The Watergate scandal was the attempt to coverup a burglary of the Democratic NationalCommittee (DNC) headquarters.

By the time Richard Nixon became president,the executive branch had become powerful. Nixonexpanded the power of the presidency. He confid-ed in a small group of very loyal advisers. Theseadvisers included H. R. Haldeman, chief of staff;John Ehrlichman, chief domestic adviser; andJohn Mitchell, the attorney general. These menhelped Nixon get reelected. They also sharedNixon’s desire for power. This would lead Nixon

and his advisers to cover up their role in theWatergate burglary.

1. Define Watergate scandal.

The Drive Toward Reelection(pages 794–795)

What was the CRP?Nixon campaign aides were determined to win the1972 election. They hired five men to raidDemocratic party offices in the Watergate complexin Washington, D.C. The men were caught pho-tographing files and placing wiretaps on phones.

Watergatescandal

Imperial presidency Nixon resigns

causes effects

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The press soon discovered that the group’sleader, James McCord, was a former CIA agent.He was also an official of a group known as theCommittee to Reelect the President (CRP).John Mitchell, who had been attorney general, wasthe CRP’s director.

Nixon and his staff tried to hide the link to theWhite House. Workers shredded evidence. Nixonand his staff asked the CIA to urge the FBI to stopits investigations into the burglary.

The Watergate burglary was not a big issue inthe 1972 election. Only two reporters kept on thestory. In a series of articles, the reporters foundinformation that linked members of the adminis-tration to the burglary. The White House deniedany connections.

2. Why did the CRP order the burglary of theDemocratic National Committee headquarters?

The Cover-Up Unravels (pages 795–796)

How did Nixon get caught?After Nixon’s reelection, the cover-up began tounravel. In January of 1973, the Watergate burglarswent to trial. All of the burglars except JamesMcCord changed their pleas from innocent toguilty. McCord was found guilty by a jury. Thetrial’s presiding judge, Judge John Sirica,believed that the burglars did not act alone. Thenin March 1973, McCord sent a letter to Sirica, stat-ing that he had lied under oath. He also stated thatthe White House was involved in the cover-up.

Soon the public interest in the Watergate bur-glary increased. In April 1973, three top Nixonaides resigned. The President then went on televi-sion and denied any cover-up. He also announcedthat he was appointing Elliot Richardson as thenew attorney general. And he was authorizingRichardson to appoint a special prosecutor toinvestigate Watergate.

In May 1973, the Senate began its own investi-gation of Watergate. The Senate hearings weretelevised live. In the hearings, one of Nixon’s aidessaid that Nixon knew about the cover-up. Then it

was revealed that White House meetings had beentape-recorded. The Senate committee demandedthe tapes. Nixon refused to release them.

Court battles over the tapes lasted a year.Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor, took thepresident to court in October 1973 to get the tapes.Nixon refused and ordered Richardson to fire Cox.In what became known as the Saturday NightMassacre, Richardson refused the order andresigned. The deputy attorney general also refusedand resigned. Solicitor General Robert Bork finallyfired Cox. But his replacement, Leon Jaworski, wasalso determined to get the tapes.

3. What did Nixon do during the investigation?

The Fall of a President (pages 796–797)

How did Nixon’s presidency end?In March 1974, a grand jury charged seven Nixonaides with obstruction of justice and perjury. Nixonreleased more than 1,250 pages of taped conversa-tions. But he did not release the conversations onsome key dates. In July 1974 the Supreme Courtordered the White House to release the tapes.

Three days later a House committee voted toimpeach President Nixon. If the full House ofRepresentatives approved, Nixon would go to trialin the Senate. If Nixon was judged guilty there, hewould be removed from office. When the tapeswere finally released, they proved that Nixon hadknown of the cover-up. On August 8, 1974, heresigned.

Watergate produced distrust about the presi-dency. A poll taken in 1974 showed that 43 percentof Americans had lost faith in the presidency. Inthe years after Vietnam and Watergate, Americansdeveloped a deep distrust of government officials.

4. Why did President Nixon resign from office?

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about Watergate.

In this section, you will read about the presidencies ofGerald Ford and Jimmy Carter.

AS YOU READUse the time line below to take notes about the majorevents of the Ford and Carter administrations.

TERMS AND NAMESGerald R. Ford 38th presidentJimmy Carter 39th presidentNational Energy Act Law aimed toconserve energyhuman rights Rights and freedomsthat all people should enjoyCamp David Accords Agreementsbetween Israel and EgyptAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini Iranianreligious leader who led therevolution against the Shah of Iran

The Ford and Carter Years

Ford Travels a Rough Road(pages 800–801)

What did Ford as president?Gerald R. Ford replaced Richard Nixon as presi-dent. Ford was likable and honest. But he lost pub-lic support when he pardoned Nixon.

The economy had gotten worse by the timeFord took office. Ford invited the nation’s top eco-nomic leaders to the White House to discuss whatto do. Ford promoted a program to slow inflationby encouraging energy conservation. This programfailed. Ford then pushed for higher interest rates.This triggered the worst recession in 40 years.

In foreign affairs, Ford relied on HenryKissinger, the secretary of state. Ford continuedtalks with China and the Soviet Union. In 1974 heparticipated in a meeting in Helsinki, Finland.There, 35 countries, including the Soviet Union,

signed the Helsinki Accords. These were agree-ments that promised greater cooperation betweenthe nations of Europe.

1. What did Ford do about the economy?

Jimmy Carter Enters the White House (pages 801–802)

Why did Carter get elected?Ford ran for election in 1976 against DemocratJimmy Carter. Carter ran as an outsider, or some-one apart from Washington politics. Carterpromised he would never lie to Americans. Carterwon a close election with this message.

Carter stayed in touch with the people by hold-

1974 Helsinki Accords

1974 1981

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ing “fireside chats” on radio and television. ButCarter did not try to reach out to Congress. Herefused to take part in deal-making. As a result heangered both Republicans and Democrats inCongress.

2. Why did Carter win the 1976 presidential election?

Carter’s Domestic Agenda(pages 802–804)

How did Carter try to fix the economy?Carter believed that energy policy should be histop priority. He signed the National Energy Act.It placed a tax on gas-guzzling cars. It removedprice controls on oil and natural gas. It also fundedresearch for new sources of energy.

But in 1979, violence in the Middle East causedanother shutdown of oil imports. High prices madeinflation worse. Carter tried voluntary price freezesand spending cuts, but these measures did not stopinflation.

Other changes in the economy caused prob-lems in the 1970s. Greater automation meantfewer manufacturing jobs. Competition from othercountries cost American jobs, too. Many compa-nies moved their factories from the Northeast tothe South and West. They were looking for lowerenergy costs and cheaper labor.

3. How did Carter try to solve the nation’s economic problems?

A Human Rights Foreign Policy(pages 804–806)

How did human rights affectCarter’s foreign policy?Carter tried to follow moral principles in his foreignpolicy. He believed the United States should pro-mote human rights. Human rights are freedomsand liberties like those listed in the Declaration of

Independence and the Bill of Rights.Carter cut aid to countries that violated the

rights of their people. He supported a treaty withPanama to give control of the Panama Canal to thatcountry. Carter signed a nuclear arms treaty—called SALT II—with the Soviets. The treaty wasopposed by the Senate. But when the Sovietsinvaded Afghanistan, Carter refused to fight for thetreaty. It was never ratified.

4. What was Carter’s foreign policy based on?

Triumph and Crisis in the Middle East (pages 806–807)

What did Carter do about the Middle East?In 1978, Carter arranged a meeting between theleaders of Egypt and Israel. The two nations hadbeen enemies for years. After several days of talks,Carter and the two leaders reached agreementsknown as the Camp David Accords.

In 1979, Muslim fundamentalists and theirleader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini overthrewthe shah of Iran. In October of 1979, Carterallowed the shah to enter the United States forcancer treatment. This angered the revolutionar-ies. On November 4, 1979, they took control of theAmerican embassy in Tehran, Iran’s capital, andtook 52 Americans hostage. They demanded thatthe United States send the shah back to Iran inreturn for the hostages.

Carter refused. A long standoff followed. Cartercould not get the hostages released. They wereheld for 444 days. The hostages were freed justminutes after Ronald Reagan was inauguratedpresident on January 20, 1981.

5. Name one success and one defeat in the MiddleEast for Carter?

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about Presidents Ford andCarter.

In this section, you will see how Americans addressed theirenvironmental concerns.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes about important eventsfor the environmental movement in the United States.

TERMS AND NAMESRachel Carson Environmentalistleader in the U.S.Earth Day Annual day to celebratethe environmentenvironmentalist Person whoactively tries to protect theenvironmentEnvironmental Protection AgencyFederal agency formed to decreasepollutionThree Mile Island Site of a nuclearplant that released radiation into the air

EnvironmentalActivism

The Roots of Environmentalism(pages 808–809)

What is environmentalism?Concern for the environment was increased by the1962 book Silent Spring, written by RachelCarson. That book argued that pesticides werepoisoning food and killing birds and fish. SilentSpring sold nearly half a million copies withinmonths.

Carson’s book was an awakening to manyAmericans. President Kennedy set up a committeeto investigate the situation shortly after the book’spublication. In 1963, Congress passed the CleanAir Act. This law regulated emissions from cars andfactories. Carson’s work helped to outlaw the use ofDDT, a harmful pesticide, in 1972.

1. How did Silent Spring encourage environmentalism?

Environmental Concerns in the 1970s (pages 809–812)

What were the key environmentalissues of the 1970s?On April 22, 1970, Americans celebrated EarthDay for the first time. Earth Day became a yearlyevent to highlight environmental issues.

Richard Nixon was not an environmentalist—someone who takes an active role in protecting theenvironment. But he did recognize the nation’s

Carson publishes Silent Spring

EnvironmentalEvents

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concern over the environment. In 1970, he createdthe Environmental Protection Agency. Thisagency had the power to regulate pollution stan-dards and to conduct research.

Nixon also signed the 1970 Clean Air Act. Thislaw required industry to reduce pollution from fac-tories and automobiles. Other new laws to protectthe environment also passed.

In 1968 oil was found in Alaska. In 1974, oilcompanies began building a pipeline to carry theoil 800 miles across the state. The discovery of oiland the construction of the pipeline created manynew jobs and increased state revenues.

But the pipeline raised concerns about Alaska’senvironment and the rights of Alaska’s native peo-ples. In 1971, Nixon signed the Alaska NativeClaims Settlement Act. This law gave millions ofacres of land to the state’s native tribes.

In 1978, President Carter set aside 56 millionmore acres in Alaska as national monuments. In1980, Congress added another 104 million acres toAlaska’s protected conservation areas.

In the 1970s, some people believed that nuclearenergy was the energy of the future. They believedthat it was cheap, plentiful, and safe.

Others opposed nuclear energy. They warnedthat nuclear plants were dangerous to humans andthe environment. These people also feared acci-dents and nuclear waste.

On March 28, 1979, the concerns of opponentsof nuclear energy appeared to come true. An acci-dent caused one of the nuclear reactors on ThreeMile Island, in Pennsylvania, to release radiation

into the air. An investigation showed that workersat the plant had not been properly trained. It alsoshowed that some safety measures were not taken.Afterwards, the government strengthened nuclearsafety regulations.

2. What did the government do after the accident at anuclear reactor on Three Mile Island?

A Continuing Movement (page 813)

Have the goals of the environmen-tal movement changed?The debate over the environment continues today.In the 1990s, Americans began addressing newenvironmental problems. Scientists warned thatpollution from industries was destroying the earth’sozone layer. This protects the earth from the sun’smost dangerous rays.

Some studies also showed that the continuedburning of fossil fuels (such as oil and coal) wascontributing to global warming. This is a generalrise in the earth’s temperature. Today Americansare trying to strike a balance between economicgrowth and conservation.

3. What issue faces Americans today regarding theenvironment?

1977 1986 1996

40

80

120

Source: California Air Resources Board

Num

ber o

f Day

s

NitrogenOxides

Hydrocarbons(nonmethane)

Carbon Monoxide

121

80

7

Ozone-Alert Episodes

Environmental Progress in Los Angeles Region

Air Pollution Reduction, 1976–1990

–27.5% –32% –48%

SkillbuilderUse the charts to answer these questions.

1. How many days in 1996 did people inLos Angeles face ozone-alert episodes?

2. How much did carbon monoxide pollu-tion decrease in Los Angeles between1976 and 1990?

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CHAPTER 25 THE CONSERVATIVE TIDE 253

Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the environmentalmovement.

In this section, you will learn about the growth of the conservative movement in the 1960s and 1970s.

AS YOU READUse the web below to take notes about conservatives andtheir political beliefs.

TERMS AND NAMESRonald Reagan 40th presidententitlement program Program thatguarantees benefits to particularpeopleNew Right Alliance of conservativegroups to support conservative ideasreverse discriminationDiscrimination against whites tomake up for past discriminationagainst othersconservative coalition Alliance ofbusiness interests, religious people,and dissatisfied middle-class votersto support conservative candidatesMoral Majority Organization formedto fight for traditional valuesGeorge Bush 41st president

A ConservativeMovement Emerges

The Conservative Movement Builds (pages 818–820)

Why did conservatism grow?American history has been marked by swingsbetween liberal and conservative policies. Duringtimes when liberals held power, the federal govern-ment took strong action to reform society. Duringmore conservative times, Americans tried to haveless government activity. From the late 1960sonward, conservatives steadily gained power. In1980, conservatives won a great victory: RonaldReagan was elected president.

Many Americans resented the cost of entitlement programs. These are programs that

guaranteed benefits to particular groups. By 1980,one out of every three households was receivingbenefits from government programs. Americanswere unhappy paying taxes to support these bene-fits. They were also upset about high inflation.

Some people also became frustrated with thegovernment’s civil rights policies. The Civil RightsAct of 1964 was meant to end racial discrimination.But over the years some court decisions extendedthe act. Some opposed laws that increased minorityopportunities in employment or education. Theycalled this reverse discrimination, discriminationagainst white people and specifically white men.

During the 1970s, several conservative groups

Favor lower taxes

Conservativebeliefs

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formed across the country that opposed liberal pro-grams. They thought these programs hurt theeconomy and other aspects of life. Together thesegroups were known as the New Right. Somemembers of the New Right fought any governmentaction at all.

Members of the New Right often promotedone issue that had to do with their own interests.Many members opposed legal abortion and theproposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Somecalled for prayer in public schools.

Right-wing groups tended to vote for the samecandidates. These voters formed the conservativecoalition. This was an alliance of some intellectuals,business interests, and unhappy middle-class voters.

Members of the conservative coalition sharedsome basic positions. They opposed big govern-ment, entitlement programs, and many civil rightsprograms. They also believed in a return to tradi-tional moral standards.

Religious groups, especially Christian funda-mentalists, played an important role in the conser-vative coalition. Some of these groups were guidedby television preachers. Some of them bandedtogether and formed the Moral Majority. Theyinterpreted the Bible literally. They also believedin absolute standards of right and wrong. TheMoral Majority criticized a decline in nationalmorality. They wanted to bring back what they sawas traditional American values.

1. What basic positions did members of the conservative coalition share?

Conservatives Win Political Power (pages 820–821)

Why was Reagan popular?The conservatives found a strong presidential candi-date in Ronald Reagan. He won the 1980 nomina-tion and chose George Bush as his running mate.

Reagan had been a movie actor and a spokesmanfor General Motors. He won political fame with aspeech for Barry Goldwater during the 1964 presi-dential campaign. In 1966, Reagan was elected governor of California. He was reelected in 1970.

In the 1980 election, Reagan ran on a numberof issues. Supreme Court decisions on abortion,the teaching of evolution, and prayer in publicschools all upset conservative voters. Reagan alsohad a strong anticommunist policy.

Reagan was an extremely effective candidate.High inflation and the Iranian hostage crisis alsohelped Reagan. Reagan easily won the election.The election also gave Republicans control of the Senate.

2. What factors helped Reagan win the presidentialelection in 1980?

Election of 1980

ELECTORAL AND POPULAR VOTES

Party Candidate Electoral votes Popular vote

Republican Ronald Reagan 489 43,904,153

Democratic Jimmy Carter 49 35,483,883

Independent John Anderson 5,720,060

9

6

45

4

4

34

3

6

26

4

7

5

7

8

4

310

8

1121

26

12

6

107

10

9

13 256 12

13

8129

17

27

41

3 4

414

4817

10

AlaskaHawaiiDistrict of Columbia.

3

4

3

SkillbuilderUse the map to answer the questions

1. Did Ronald Reagan win more than 50% of the popular vote?

2. Name three states that Jimmy Carter won.

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how conservative power grewbefore the presidential election of 1980.

In this section, you will read how President Reagan put inplace conservative policies.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the effects ofReaganomics.

TERMS AND NAMESReaganomics Reagan‘s economicpoliciessupply-side economics Economictheory that tax cuts will increase jobsand government revenuesStrategic Defense InitiativeProposed system to defend theUnited States against missile attackstrade imbalance When a nationimports more than it exportsSandra Day O‘Connor First womanSupreme Court justiceWilliam Rehnquist Chief Justice ofthe Supreme CourtGeraldine Ferraro Democratic vice-presidential candidate in 1984

Conservative PoliciesUnder Reagan and Bush

“Reaganomics” Takes Over(pages 822–824)

What was Reaganomics?Reagan tried to reduce the size and power of thefederal government. He wanted to make deep cutsin government spending on social programs. Heconvinced Congress to lower taxes. This approachwas called Reaganomics.

Reaganomics depended on supply-side eco-nomics. This theory said that cutting taxes wouldmotivate people to work, save, and invest. Moreinvestment would create more jobs. More workerswould mean more taxpayers, which would causegovernment revenues to increase.

Reagan also increased military spending.Between 1981 and 1984, the Defense Department

budget almost doubled. In 1983, Reagan asked thecountry’s scientists to develop a defense systemthat would keep Americans safe from enemy mis-siles. The system became known as the StrategicDefense Initiative, or SDI.

The economy grew. Interest rates and inflationrates dropped. Government revenues, however,did not increase as much as Reagan hoped. So thefederal government ran up huge budget deficits.

During the Reagan and Bush years, the size ofthe government debt more than doubled. Thismeant that the United States had a larger nationaldebt than any other nation in the world.

Interest payments on this debt accounted forabout 21 percent of the national budget. This lim-ited the amount of money available for investment

Reaganomics

Large budgetdeficits

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in many projects, including houses, roads, busi-nesses, and schools.

The United States also faced a large tradeimbalance. This meant that the nation wasimporting more goods than it was exporting.

1. What was the main idea of Reaganomics?

Judicial Power Shifts to the Right (page 824)

What kind of judges did Reagan and Bush nominate?Reagan made conservative appointments to theSupreme Court. He nominated Sandra DayO‘Connor, Antonin Scalia, and Anthony M.Kennedy to fill the seats of retiring justices. Reaganalso nominated Justice William Rehnquist to theposition of chief justice.

President George Bush later made the Courtmore conservative when he nominated David H.Souter to replace the retiring justice WilliamBrennan. He also nominated Clarence Thomas totake the place of Thurgood Marshall. In many deci-sions, the Court moved away from the more liber-al rulings of the previous 40 years.

2. What was the result of Reagan’s and Bush’s appoint-ments to the Supreme Court?

Deregulating the Economy(page 825)

What was deregulation?Reagan tried to reduce the power of the federal gov-ernment through deregulation. Reagan removedprice controls on oil and gas. He deregulated the air-line industry.

Reagan ended government regulation of thesavings and loan industry. Savings and loan associa-tions (S & Ls) were allowed to invest in commercialreal estate. This included shopping malls and officebuildings. Some S & Ls made risky loans. Even if

they made risky investments, the governmentinsured investors for up to $100,000.

When the economy slowed down, many ofthese risky investments went bad. This forcedmany S & Ls into bankruptcy. The governmentpaid the cost of insuring the losses.

Reagan also reduced environmental regulation.He cut the budget of the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). He ignored requestsfrom Canada to reduce acid rain.

3. What was the result of the deregulation of the savings and loan industry?

Conservative Victories in 1984 and 1988 (page 826)

Who won the elections of 1984 and 1988?By 1984, Reagan had the support of conservativevoters who approved of his policies. These votershelped Reagan win the 1984 election. He defeatedDemocrat Walter Mondale. Mondale choseRepresentative Geraldine Ferraro of New Yorkas his running mate. Ferraro became the firstwoman on a major party‘s presidential ticket.

In 1988, Vice-President Bush ran for the presi-dency. He won the Republican nomination. TheDemocrats nominated Massachusetts governorMichael Dukakis.

During the campaign, Bush built on Reagan’slegacy of low taxes by saying, “Read my lips: nonew taxes.” Most Americans saw little reason forchange. George Bush won the election with 53 per-cent of the popular vote and 426 electoral votes.

4. What did the presidential elections of 1984 and 1988show about the mood of the country?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how conservative power grewbefore the presidential election of 1980.

In this section, you will read how President Reagan put inplace conservative policies.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the effects ofReaganomics.

TERMS AND NAMESReaganomics Reagan‘s economicpoliciessupply-side economics Economictheory that tax cuts will increase jobsand government revenuesStrategic Defense InitiativeProposed system to defend theUnited States against missile attackstrade imbalance When a nationimports more than it exportsSandra Day O‘Connor First womanSupreme Court justiceWilliam Rehnquist Chief Justice ofthe Supreme CourtGeraldine Ferraro Democratic vice-presidential candidate in 1984

Conservative PoliciesUnder Reagan and Bush

“Reaganomics” Takes Over(pages 822–824)

What was Reaganomics?Reagan tried to reduce the size and power of thefederal government. He wanted to make deep cutsin government spending on social programs. Heconvinced Congress to lower taxes. This approachwas called Reaganomics.

Reaganomics depended on supply-side eco-nomics. This theory said that cutting taxes wouldmotivate people to work, save, and invest. Moreinvestment would create more jobs. More workerswould mean more taxpayers, which would causegovernment revenues to increase.

Reagan also increased military spending.Between 1981 and 1984, the Defense Department

budget almost doubled. In 1983, Reagan asked thecountry’s scientists to develop a defense systemthat would keep Americans safe from enemy mis-siles. The system became known as the StrategicDefense Initiative, or SDI.

The economy grew. Interest rates and inflationrates dropped. Government revenues, however,did not increase as much as Reagan hoped. So thefederal government ran up huge budget deficits.

During the Reagan and Bush years, the size ofthe government debt more than doubled. Thismeant that the United States had a larger nationaldebt than any other nation in the world.

Interest payments on this debt accounted forabout 21 percent of the national budget. This lim-ited the amount of money available for investment

Reaganomics

Large budgetdeficits

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in many projects, including houses, roads, busi-nesses, and schools.

The United States also faced a large tradeimbalance. This meant that the nation wasimporting more goods than it was exporting.

1. What was the main idea of Reaganomics?

Judicial Power Shifts to the Right (page 824)

What kind of judges did Reagan and Bush nominate?Reagan made conservative appointments to theSupreme Court. He nominated Sandra DayO‘Connor, Antonin Scalia, and Anthony M.Kennedy to fill the seats of retiring justices. Reaganalso nominated Justice William Rehnquist to theposition of chief justice.

President George Bush later made the Courtmore conservative when he nominated David H.Souter to replace the retiring justice WilliamBrennan. He also nominated Clarence Thomas totake the place of Thurgood Marshall. In many deci-sions, the Court moved away from the more liber-al rulings of the previous 40 years.

2. What was the result of Reagan’s and Bush’s appoint-ments to the Supreme Court?

Deregulating the Economy(page 825)

What was deregulation?Reagan tried to reduce the power of the federal gov-ernment through deregulation. Reagan removedprice controls on oil and gas. He deregulated the air-line industry.

Reagan ended government regulation of thesavings and loan industry. Savings and loan associa-tions (S & Ls) were allowed to invest in commercialreal estate. This included shopping malls and officebuildings. Some S & Ls made risky loans. Even if

they made risky investments, the governmentinsured investors for up to $100,000.

When the economy slowed down, many ofthese risky investments went bad. This forcedmany S & Ls into bankruptcy. The governmentpaid the cost of insuring the losses.

Reagan also reduced environmental regulation.He cut the budget of the EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA). He ignored requestsfrom Canada to reduce acid rain.

3. What was the result of the deregulation of the savings and loan industry?

Conservative Victories in 1984 and 1988 (page 826)

Who won the elections of 1984 and 1988?By 1984, Reagan had the support of conservativevoters who approved of his policies. These votershelped Reagan win the 1984 election. He defeatedDemocrat Walter Mondale. Mondale choseRepresentative Geraldine Ferraro of New Yorkas his running mate. Ferraro became the firstwoman on a major party‘s presidential ticket.

In 1988, Vice-President Bush ran for the presi-dency. He won the Republican nomination. TheDemocrats nominated Massachusetts governorMichael Dukakis.

During the campaign, Bush built on Reagan’slegacy of low taxes by saying, “Read my lips: nonew taxes.” Most Americans saw little reason forchange. George Bush won the election with 53 per-cent of the popular vote and 426 electoral votes.

4. What did the presidential elections of 1984 and 1988show about the mood of the country?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the conservative policiesof Reagan and Bush.

In this section, you will learn about the social problemsthat existed in the 1980s.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes about social issues during the 1980s and how Americans responded to them.

TERMS AND NAMESAIDS (acquired immune deficiencysyndrome) Disease without a curewhose victims were mostlyhomosexual men and drug abuserspay equity Plan to ensure womenreceive equal pay for equal workL. Douglas Wilder Nation‘s firstAfrican-American governorJesse Jackson Civil rights leaderand presidential candidateaffirmative action Efforts toovercome discriminationSelena Quintanilla-Perez Singer

American Society in a Conservative Age

Health, Education, and Cities in Crisis (pages 827–830)

What problems did Americans face in the 1980s?A scary health issue that arose in the 1980s wasAIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome).The disease is caused by a virus that destroys theimmune system that protects people from illness.Most of the victims of AIDS were either homosex-ual men or intravenous drug users who shared needles.

Another issue that concerned Americans wasabortion. In the 1973 Roe v. Wade decision, the

Supreme Court said women had the right to havean abortion. Opponents of legalized abortiondescribed themselves as “pro-life.” Supporters oflegalized abortion called themselves “pro-choice.”

Reagan and Bush declared a war on drugs.Reagan supported laws to catch drug users anddrug dealers. In 1988, Congress passed a law cut-ting off some benefits for marijuana users.Congress also funded antidrug education in theschools.

Bush’s program stressed stopping drugs at thenation’s borders. It also called for jailing drug usersand giving the death penalty to drug dealers.

Education remained an important issue. In

SOCIAL ISSUES AMERICANS‘ RESPONSES

Drugs • Prosecute users and dealers

• Antidrug education

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1983, a report entitled A Nation at Risk criticizedthe nation’s schools. The report showed thatAmerican students’ test scores lagged behind thoseof students in other nations. Many people agreedthat the nation’s schools were not doing a good job.But they did not agree on solutions.

The nation’s cities were also in crisis. Manypoor and homeless people lived in cities. Budgetcuts had eliminated earlier federal programs to aidthe cities. Welfare payments to the poor had notkept up with rising prices.

1. How did Americans respond to the problems of the 1980s?

The Equal Rights Struggle(pages 830–831)

Did women’s lives improve in the 1980s?Women continued to try to improve their lives.Women’s groups were unable to get the EqualRights Amendment ratified. But more womenwere elected to Congress.

By 1992 nearly 58 percent of all women hadentered the work force. But women still earnedonly 76 cents for every dollar a man earned. Newdivorce laws and social conditions increased thenumber of single women heading a household.Many of these women lived in poverty.

Women’s organizations and unions called forpay equity. This was an idea to make sure thatwomen would earn the same pay as men doing thesame work.

Under the pay equity system, jobs would berated according to the skills and responsibilitiesthey required. Employers would set pay rates toreflect each job’s requirements. Women also calledfor benefits to help working mothers.

2. What political losses and gains did women have in the 1980s?

The Fight for Rights Continues(pages 831–833)

How did minority groups fight for their rights?Members of many minority groups achievedgreater political power during the 1980s. Hundredsof communities had elected African Americans toserve in public offices. In 1990, L. Douglas Wilderof Virginia became the first African-American gov-ernor in the United States. The Reverend JesseJackson ran for the Democratic presidential nomi-nation in 1984 and in 1988.

But the income gap between white Americansand African Americans was larger in 1988 than itwas in 1968. In addition, Supreme Court rulingsfurther limited affirmative action.

Latinos became the fastest growing minoritygroup during the 1980s. Like African Americans,Latinos gained political power during the 1980s.

Latino culture also influenced mainstream cul-ture. Salsa dancing and music became popular inthe 1980s. So did Tejano music. The murder of theTejano singer Selena Quintanilla-Perez in 1995was even the subject of a special issue of Peoplemagazine.

Native Americans faced cuts in federal aid.Some opened casinos on their reservations to earnmoney. Asian Americans made economic advancesbut did not gain much political power.

During the 1970s and 1980s, homosexual menand women worked for laws to protect their rights.By 1993, seven states and 110 communities hadoutlawed discrimination against homosexuals.

3. What were some political and social gains made by Latinos during the 1980s?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about some of the socialproblems Americans faced in the 1980s.

In this section, you will see how American foreign policychanged after the Cold War.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes about U.S. foreign policy in different regions of the world.

TERMS AND NAMESMikhail Gorbachev Last leader ofthe Soviet UnionINF Treaty Treaty to reduce nuclearweaponsglasnost Gorbachev‘s policy ofopenness in discussing problems inthe Soviet Unionperestroika Gorbachev‘s policy ofreforming the economy in the SovietUnionCommonwealth of IndependentStates Federation of new nationsthat formed after the collapse of theSoviet UnionTiananmen Square Place in Beijingwhere Chinese protestersdemonstrated against the CommunistgovernmentSandinista Communist rebel groupthat took power in NicaraguaContras Rebel forces supported byRonald Reagan to overthrow theSandinistasOperation Desert Storm The 1991U.S. attack on Iraq to force the Iraqisout of Kuwait

Changes in America’sForeign Policy

The Cold War Ends (pages 836–838)

What ended the Cold War?In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became theleader of the Soviet Union. He started talks withthe United States to lessen Cold War tensions.Gorbachev thought this would allow the Soviets tocut their military spending. It would also let themreform their economy.

Talks led to the INF Treaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty). Reagan andGorbachev signed the treaty in December 1987.The Senate ratified it in May 1988.

Gorbachev supported glasnost (openness indiscussing social problems) and perestroika (eco-nomic restructuring) in the Soviet Union. He letprivate citizens own land. He also allowed morefree speech and held free elections.

MIDDLE EAST LAT IN AMERICA EUROPE

Refuse to sell arms to Iran

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The weakness of the economy and Gorbachev’sreforms led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Allthe republics that were in the Soviet Unionbecame independent nations. Then they formed aloose confederation called the Commonwealth ofIndependent States.

The collapse of the Soviet Union ended theCold War. In January 1993, Russia and the UnitedStates signed the START II treaty. This treaty cutboth nations’ nuclear weapons by 75 percent.

Communists were knocked from power through-out Eastern Europe. Germany reunited. OtherEastern European nations enacted democraticreforms.

Students in China demanded freedom ofspeech. In April 1989, protesters held marches tovoice their demands. The marches grew into largedemonstrations in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square.The Chinese military crushed the protesters.Soldiers killed hundreds of them and arrested others.People all over the world watched these actions.They were upset by what they saw.

1. What events in the Soviet Union led to the end of theCold War?

Central American and Caribbean Policy (pages 838–839)

How did the United States act toward its neighbors?In 1979, Sandinista rebels overthrew theNicaraguan government. President Carter sent aid.So did the Soviet Union and Cuba. In 1981,President Reagan charged that the Sandinista gov-ernment was Communist. He supported theContras, a group trying to defeat the Sandinistas.After years of conflict, a peace agreement wassigned and free elections were held in 1990.

Reagan sent U.S. troops to Grenada in 1983. Hefeared its government had ties with Cuba. The U.S.troops overthrew the pro-Cuban government. Theyset up a pro-American government in its place.

In 1989, President Bush sent more than 20,000U.S. troops to Panama. He wanted to overthrowPanamanian dictator Manuel Noriega. He also

wanted to arrest him for drug trafficking. Noriegawas taken by the American military. They took himto Miami. He was tried, convicted, and sentencedto 40 years in prison.

2. How did the United States influence affairs in Grenada?

Middle East Trouble Spots(pages 839–841)

How did the United States act toward the Middle East?In 1983, terrorists linked to Iran took someAmericans hostage in Lebanon. Reagan con-demned Iran. He called on U.S. allies not to sellIran weapons for its war against Iraq.

Three years later, the American people foundout that Reagan was breaking his own policy. Someof his staff had sold missiles to Iran. They were try-ing to free the hostages in Lebanon. Also, some ofthe profits from the sale were sent to the Contras inNicaragua. These illegal activities were called theIran-Contra affair.

In the summer of 1987, Congress investigatedIran-Contra. Some of Reagan’s staff were convictedof crimes in the scandal. In 1992, President Bushpardoned some of these people.

In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. On January 16,1991, with the support of Congress and the UnitedNations, President Bush launched OperationDesert Storm to fight Iraq and to free Kuwait.

The United States and its allies staged airstrikes against Iraq. On February 23, they alsolaunched a ground attack. On February 28,President Bush announced a cease-fire. ThePersian Gulf War was over. Kuwait was freed.

3. What was the purpose of Operation Desert Storm?

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CHAPTER 26 THE UNITED STATES IN TODAY’S WORLD 263

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about American foreignpolicy at the end of the Cold War.

In this section, you will read about Bill Clinton’s presidency.

AS YOU READ Use the time line below to take notes about the majorevents of Clinton’s first term.

TERMS AND NAMESBill Clinton 42nd presidentTwenty-seventh AmendmentPrevents Congress from getting a payraise until after an election hasoccurredHillary Rodham Clinton Wife of BillClintonNAFTA Trade agreement betweenCanada, Mexico, and the UnitedStatesNewt Gingrich Speaker of the Houseof RepresentativesContract with America Republicanplan for political reform

The Clinton Presidency

Clinton Wins the Presidency(pages 846–847)

Why did Clinton win the 1992 election?President George Bush was very popular after thePersian Gulf War. But his support dropped whenthe economy weakened. The Democrats nominat-ed Arkansas governor Bill Clinton to face Bush inthe 1992 presidential election.

There was great concern over the economy. Thiscreated an opening for a third-party candidate—Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot. He won supportfrom voters who were unhappy with politicians.

In fact, people’s distrust of government led tothe passage of the Twenty-seventh Amendment.This amendment prevented Congress from gettinga pay raise until after an election occurred.

Clinton faced ethical problems during the race.

Some people criticized his efforts to avoid militaryservice in Vietnam. They also questioned hisactions in a real-estate deal called Whitewater.

Clinton won the election anyway. He took 43percent of the popular vote and won easily in theelectoral college.

1. What was the major issue in the 1992 presidentialelection?

The Clinton Record (pages 847–849)

What issues did Clinton face?Clinton took steps to simplify the federal bureaucracy. He also appointed many women andminorities to his cabinet.

1995

1994 1996

1993 Congress approvesNAFTA

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But Clinton’s most important goal was tostrengthen the economy. This included changingthe health-care system. The system needed changebecause nearly 40 million Americans did not havehealth insurance.

Clinton named his wife, Hillary RodhamClinton, to lead a task force on health care. Itdeveloped a plan to offer health insurance for allAmericans. Conservatives criticized the plan, and itnever got a vote in Congress.

The economy grew during Clinton’s presidency.Low interest rates, low inflation, low unemploy-ment, and small budget deficits contributed to thegrowth. Clinton raised taxes on wealthy Americans.He also slowed growth in federal spending. TheClinton plan cut the federal budget deficit in halfbetween 1992 and 1996.

In 1993, Congress approved NAFTA (NorthAmerican Free Trade Agreement). This treaty withCanada and Mexico made trade easier between thethree countries. Some people said the treaty wouldcost American workers their jobs.

Clinton tried to shape a new foreign policy afterthe Cold War. Warfare broke out in many regions,including the former Yugoslavia. The UnitedStates, NATO, and the United Nations tried tobring peace to these regions. Many Americans didnot want to send troops to dangerous places.

2. What were four reasons why the economy improved during the Clinton administration?

The Republican Congress(pages 849–851)

What did the Republicans in Congress want to do?In 1994, Clinton faced several problems. He stillfaced questions about Whitewater. He was also hurtby the failure of his health plan.

Newt Gingrich, a Republican congressmanfrom Georgia, took advantage of Clinton’s troubles.Behind Gingrich’s leadership, the Republicans woncontrol of both Houses of Congress in the 1994elections.

Gingrich was elected Speaker of the House. He

and the Republicans tried to pass the Contractwith America. The contract promised to reformCongress, reform welfare, and pass tougher crimelaws.

Some of these bills did not pass the House orthe Senate. Clinton vetoed others. Clinton and theRepublicans disagreed on many issues. WhenClinton refused to accept a Republican budget, thefederal government shut down three times.

During 1996, Clinton and Congress workedtogether better. Congress passed and Clintonsigned a bill that changed the nation’s welfare sys-tem. A modest health-insurance reform bill alsobecame law.

3. What issues were addressed in Gingrich’s Contract with America?

The Election of 1996; Clinton’sSecond Term (pages 851–852)

What issues did Clinton face in his second term?In the 1996 presidential campaign, Clinton held alarge lead in public opinion polls. Clinton wonreelection against Republican Bob Dole and RossPerot. Clinton won 49 percent of the popular vote.But Republicans kept control of Congress.

During Clinton’s second term, Democrats andRepublicans continued to attack each other.Congress investigated the fundraising activities ofboth political parties. Some representatives andsenators came up with plans to reform campaignfinancing.

Clinton and Congress continued to try to bal-ance the budget. In August 1997, they agreed on abill that achieved a balanced budget. It also includ-ed tax cuts.

4. Describe two issues Clinton faced in his second term.

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about the presidency of BillClinton.

In this section, you will read about the economic issuesthat Americans faced in the 1990s.

AS YOU READ Use the web below to take notes about the major changesthat occurred in the U.S. economy during the 1990s.

TERMS AND NAMESservice sector The part of theeconomy where employees servetheir customers downsize To reduce the number ofworkers on staffBill Gates Extremely successfulowner of Microsoft, a computersoftware company GATT International trade agreement

The New GlobalEconomy

The New Service and High-Tech Economy (pages 853–856)

What changed for American workers?Americans heard a great deal of good news aboutthe economy in the 1990s. But many Americanworkers still struggled. Ten million new jobs hadbeen created. But many families now needed twoincomes to make ends meet. And the average fam-ily income decreased.

Some economists blamed the problems ofworkers on companies that made their goods incountries with lower labor costs. Other economistsblamed people’s problems on high taxes. They said

these taxes kept companies from growing fasterand creating jobs.

Places of work changed in the 1990s. Onechange was the loss of jobs in manufacturing. Thisis the part of the economy that makes goods suchas automobiles.

There was an increase of jobs in the service sec-tor. The service sector is the part of the economythat provides services to people. By 1996, morethan 60 percent of American workers held jobs inthe service sector. The largest growth in the servicesector came in jobs that pay low wages. Theseinclude jobs such as sales clerks and janitors.

Many companies downsized—reduced staff inorder to cut costs. They hired temporary workers

Loss of manufacturing jobs

Changes in theEconomy

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to replace full-time staff. This had serious conse-quences for the workers. Most temporary workershad lower wages, little job security, and few bene-fits. This led many workers to feel insecure abouttheir jobs.

Starting in the 1970s, jobs in the manufacturingsector began to disappear. In the 1990s, machinesdid many jobs that people used to do. The loss injobs in manufacturing led to a drop in union mem-bership. Workers with high-paying jobs saw noneed to join unions. Workers with low-paying jobswere too worried about losing their jobs to joinunions.

Workers in high-tech fields such as computers,made up about 20 percent of the work force. Thesenew high-tech jobs demanded that workers havespecial skills. Most workers who had high-tech jobsearned high salaries.

By the 1990s, some people who had creativeideas about computers made fortunes. Bill Gateswas one of these people. He founded Microsoft, acomputer software company. By 1997 he had assetsof more than $39 billion. This made him thewealthiest man in the world.

1. What were three changes in the workplace in theUnited States in the 1990s?

Change and the Global Economy (pages 856–857)

What is the global economy?Improvements in transportation and communica-tion allowed people, goods, and information tomove around the world faster than ever. One ofPresident Clinton’s major foreign policy goals wasto expand trade.

In 1994, the United States joined other nationsin signing a world trade agreement called GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). GATTlowered tariffs. It also set up the World TradeOrganization (WTO). This organization was creat-ed to settle trade disputes.

Many people believed that GATT would begood for the U.S. economy. But many Americanworkers feared they would lose their jobs. Theythought it would help companies make products incountries where wages are low.

Many low-wage American jobs were lost as aresult of NAFTA. But exports to Canada andMexico increased. By 1997 there were 300,000more jobs in the United States than there had beenin 1993.

Developing nations also offered some business-es the chance to avoid laws on the environment.For example, in Mexico, many assembly plantsdumped dangerous chemicals on Mexican soil.

2. In what way did President Clinton try to expand trade?

WOMEN’S AND MEN’S INCOME

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199519901985

■ Male ■ Female


1. How much money did the average woman earn each week in1985?

2. Were women’s wages closer to men’s wages in 1985 or 1995?

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

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BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you saw how the American economychanged in the 1990s.

In this section, you will learn how technology has changedAmericans’ lives.

AS YOU READ Use the chart below to take notes on the technologicalchanges described in this section and how these changeshave affected your life.

TERMS AND NAMESinformation superhighway Popularname for a proposed computernetworkInternet Worldwide computernetworke-mail Electronic notes andmessagesTelecommunications ActControversial law to reform thecommunications industrymagnetic resonance imaging Newmethod of seeing inside the humanbodygenetic engineering Method ofchanging the genes of living cells

Technology andModern Life

Technology andCommunications (pages 860–862)

How have new technologiesaffected communications?President Clinton wanted to create an informa-tion superhighway. This was a computer networkthat linked people from around the world. The net-work would link cable, phone, and computer sys-tems to provide entertainment and information.

Clinton appointed Vice-President Gore to over-

see the government’s role in creating the informa-tion superhighway. They wanted private entrepre-neurs to build the network. But they believed thegovernment should protect people’s rights to use it.

Most people took part in the information super-highway through the Internet, a worldwide com-puter network. By 1996, experts expected that 24million Americans regularly used the Internet tosend e-mail—electronic notes and messages.

New technologies let many Americans work intheir homes instead of going to an office every day.

CHANGES EFFECTS

Information superhighway • Internet• e-mail

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They also gave Americans many entertainmentoptions. Cable television gave people more televi-sion channels. The Internet has provided peoplewith new video games.

The changes in communications caused thegrowth of many communications companies.Congress passed the Telecommunications Act in1996 to make sure people get good service. Thelaw allowed telephone and cable companies toenter each others’ industries. One of the results ofthe law was an increase in mergers. This cut thenumber of competing companies.

Congress passed the Communications DecencyAct as part of the Telecommunications Act.Congress called for a “V-chip” to be placed in tele-vision sets. This computer chip would allow par-ents to block TV programs that they do not wanttheir children to see.

The communications industry liked theTelecommunications Act. But some people believedthat the law allowed a small number of people tocontrol the media. Civil rights activists thought theCommunications Decency Act limited free speech.

1. How did the Internet and cable television affect Americans?

Technology Enriches Lives(pages 862–864)

How does technology affect daily life?Technology changed many other areas of life, too.New treatments and new ways of diagnosing—dis-covering—illnesses were developed in the 1990s.

Doctors found better ways of tracking the spreadof HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, in the body.Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) helped doc-tors get a better view of the inside of the body.

Some advances caused controversy. One ofthese advances was genetic engineering—theartificial changing of the cells of a living thing. Thisprocedure was used to alter some foods. Manypeople feared the changes in these foods. They alsofeared that these foods would create allergic reac-tions in people who ate them.

New technologies offered people new types ofentertainment. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) technology improved communica-tion and research.

A single CD-ROM had enough memory to holdall the information in two encyclopedias. CD-ROMs also gave people a great way to play videogames on their computers.

Technology affected other areas of life, too.Computers were placed in more classrooms acrossthe country. Improved air bags made cars safer.

The space program also made progress. In 1993,American astronauts repaired the Hubble SpaceTelescope. This telescope provided scientists withgreat views of the universe.

2. What were some important technological advancesin the United States?

Progress on the Environment(pages 864–865)

How can technology protect the environment?Some new technologies helped the environment.The most popular way of protecting the environ-ment was through recycling. This helped to reducewaste in the country.

Automakers developed an electric car to reduceair pollution. Also, researchers looked for cleanersources of energy. They tried to find energysources— such as nuclear, wind, and solar power—to take the place of coal, gas, and oil.

3. What was the most widespread way in whichAmericans protected the environment?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you learned about the ways technologyaffects modern life.

In this section, you will read about the changes facingAmericans at the start of the 21st century.

AS YOU READ Use the web below to take notes about the changesoccurring in the United States.

TERMS AND NAMESurban flight Movement of peopleaway from cities telecommute To work at homeThe Changing

Face of America

The Suburban Nation (pages 866–868)

Why did people move to suburbs?Between 1950 and 1970, Americans experiencedurban flight, where Americans left the cities andmoved to the suburbs. By 1990 more than half ofall Americans lived in the suburbs. Many peopleleft the cities because they were crowded. Somepeople moved to the suburbs so that their childrencould attend newer schools.

One result of this growth was suburban sprawl.Over time, the number of people from minoritygroups living in the suburbs increased.

As more people moved to the suburbs, somehigh-tech industries moved their factories there.This removed many jobs from the cities. But

people in cities often did not have any way to get tojobs in the suburbs.

Suburbs competed with each other to attractcompanies that would provide jobs for their work-ers. The cities grew poorer as the suburbs grewwealthier. Also, many cities’ downtown areas werefalling apart.

During the 1990s, many workers began totelecommute. They used new communicationstechnology to work from their homes.

1. How did urban flight change the nation’s cities?

Move to suburbs

Changes inU.S. population

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The Graying of America (page 868)

How will aging affect America?As the baby boomers—people born between 1946and 1961—got older, Americans were living longer.The increase in the number of older Americanscaused problems for American leaders.

They needed to find ways to fund programs likeSocial Security and Medicare for the future. Thecost of these programs in 1995 was more than $150billion.

In 1996, three workers made Social Securitycontributions to support every retired person. Butexperts expect that by 2030, there will be only twoworkers to support each retired person. SocialSecurity will begin to pay out more than it takes in.As a result, some people want to reform the SocialSecurity system.

2. How does the increase in the number of elderlypeople affect Social Security and Medicare?

Immigration in the 1990s(pages 869–870)

How has immigration affected America?Between 1970 and 1995, the population of theUnited States increased from 204 million to morethan 260 million. Much of this increase wasbecause of immigration. Most of these immigrantscame from Latin America and Asia.

Experts believed that immigration will changethe ethnic and racial makeup of the United States.They predicted that by 2050, non-Latino whites willmake up 53 percent of the population, down from74 percent in 1996. They expect the Latino popula-tion to increase from 10 percent of the populationin 1996 to 25 percent in 2050. The Asian populationis expected to increase from 3 percent to 8 percent.The African-American population is expected toincrease from 12 percent to 14 percent.

In 1994, almost two-thirds of Americans want-ed to cut back immigration. Some people fearedthat immigrants took jobs away from Americansborn in the United States.

Another problem was illegal immigration. Bythe early 1990s, about 3.2 million illegal immi-grants came to the United States.

3. How is immigration changing the United States?

America and the NewMillennium (pages 870–871)

What challenges do Americansface in the 21st century?At the end of the 20th century, Americans facedmany challenges. One problem was terrorism.Bombings in Oklahoma City, New York City, andAtlanta have made Americans feel threatened athome and abroad.

Americans were also concerned about environ-mental issues. Scientists warned about the dangersof global warming, acid rain, and the loss of theozone layer.

Americans were also concerned about poverty.This remains a problem as some jobs in the coun-try are cut and government antipoverty programsare cut.

But Americans also saw many new opportuni-ties for the 21st century. They hoped that the economy would continue to grow. They also hopedthis growth would help reduce the problems ofpoverty.

Americans also looked with hope to better edu-cation and new technologies to help them meet thechallenges of the new millennium.

4. What challenges faced Americans at the end of the 20th century?

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EPILOGUE ISSUES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 273

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EPILOGUE Section 1 (pages 878–879)

BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read how Americans were lookingfor new ways to deal with the nation’s problems.

In this section, you will read about the changing role ofthe United States in world affairs.

AS YOU READFill in the chart below with the three goals of Americanforeign policy after the Cold War. Take notes on the different points of view about each issue.

TERMS AND NAMESdemocracy Government elected bythe peoplehuman rights Basic freedoms towhich all people are entitleddouble standard Set of principlesgranting greater opportunity or libertyto one than to another Most Favored Nation (MFN)Privileged trading status

Foreign Policy After the Cold War

Historical Perspective (page 878)

How did the United States contain Communism?The United States came out of World War II readyto play an active role in world affairs. The next 45years were marked by the Cold War. That was atime of competition—and sometimes confronta-tion—between the United States and the SovietUnion. During that time, U.S. foreign policy con-centrated on stopping the spread of Communismaround the world.

These key foreign policy actions were based onthat goal:

• Marshall Plan and NATO (1949) to protectagainst the Communist threat in Europe

• Korean War (1950s) and Vietnam War (1960s)to contain Communism in Asia

• Forcing Soviets to remove missiles from Cuba(1962) and support of Contra rebels inNicaragua (1980s) to remove Communistthreat in Western Hemisphere

• Improving relations with China and the Arabnations (1970s) to weaken Soviet influence

• Nuclear arms reduction (1970s and 1980s) tolimit Communist military threat

FOREIGN POLICY GOAL ARGUMENT FOR ARGUMENT AGAINST

promoting democracy democracies make world safe democracy not “good fit” for all nations

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274 EPILOGUE SECTION 1

By 1992, the Soviet Union had broken up. TheCold War was over. The United States no longerhad to concentrate on the Communist threat. U.S.foreign policy needed new goals.

1. What were three American foreign policy actionsdesigned to prevent the spread of Communism?

Foreign Policy Goals (pages 878–879)

What are the goals of U.S. foreign policy?There have been three major goals of Americanforeign policy since the end of the Cold War. Theyare 1) promoting democracy around the world, 2) protecting human rights, and 3) opening worldmarkets to American goods. Americans have some-times disagreed on how to deal with these issues.

Many American leaders have felt that theUnited States should be active in promotingdemocracy, or governments elected by the peo-ple. They believe that the more democratic nationsthere are the safer the world will be. That isbecause democratic governments are more likelyto keep their international agreements. They arealso less likely to engage in war and terrorism.

The opposing view does not think that theAmerican style of democracy is a “good fit” for allnations. They do not believe it is reasonable toexpect democratic governments everywhere.Those who want to spread democracy respond bypointing to the rise of new democratic govern-ments in places as different as Taiwan andArgentina. According to them, people naturallywant to govern themselves.

The United States has tried to make sure thatpeople worldwide enjoy basic human rights.These are the freedoms to which all people areentitled. Such freedoms are found in theDeclaration of Independence and the Bill ofRights. Most people agree about this goal. Butthere is disagreement about the way the UnitedStates has acted in support of this goal.

Some argue that the United States has a double standard on the issue of human rights.Certain acts are considered bad when they are

done by one nation but not when they are done byanother. For example, the United States puts pres-sure on small nations to correct human rights prob-lems. But American policy often ignores the samehuman rights abuses by larger nations that are economically or politically important to it. Criticsargue that the United States should not trade withnations that abuse human rights.

Other people argue that trade improves thelives of people in both nations. They feel thatAmerican companies help raise the standard of liv-ing in such countries.

Trade—including opening world markets toAmerican goods—is sometimes tied to the issue ofhuman rights. For example, the United Stateswants to get its share of new markets in China.That country has a very poor record on humanrights. Even so, China continues to receive MostFavored Nation (MFN) status, a privileged trad-ing status. That means that China enjoys low tar-iffs, or import taxes, on goods it sells in the UnitedStates.

Some people want to take away China’s MFNstatus because of its human rights abuses. Othersbelieve that would just make China angry. Theyfeel that nations that trade with China should putpressure on the Chinese to correct human rightsproblems. They feel that the United States can bea leader in this effort.

2. What are the three major goals of U.S. foreign policy?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the foreign policy goalsof the United States.

In this section, you will read about the debate over immigration.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the arguments forand against limiting immigration.

TERMS AND NAMESbloc Groupethnic Relating to people sharingracial, national, religious, or culturalheritageasylum Safe place for people fleeingan oppressive foreign government

The Debate Over Immigration

Historical Perspective and Recent Trends (page 880)

How have native-born Americansreacted to immigrants?It is often said that the United States is a nation ofimmigrants. All groups helped build the nation andcreate its culture. And Americans have always feltpride in immigrants. Yet, limiting immigration hasoften been popular. Americans have worried aboutthe numbers of people entering the nation sincethe time of Benjamin Franklin in the 1700s. Later,there was the anti-immigrant nativist movement in1840s. Then there were the immigration quotas ofthe 1920s. More recently, economic troubles and

rapidly growing population in Asia and LatinAmerica have led people from those areas to cometo the United States. In 1965, restrictions on immi-gration were loosened. Since then, 20 millionimmigrants have entered the country.

During much of that time, the American econ-omy was growing slowly. Unemployment was up.Wages were falling. Some Americans blamed thelarge numbers of immigrants for these problems.The debate over immigration limits began again.

1. How have Americans traditionally felt about immigrants?

ARGUMENTS FOR LIMITING IMMIGRATION AGAINST LIMITING ARGUMENTS

Economic immigrants take jobs from low-paying jobs that Americans don’t wantAmerican workers

Political/Cultural

Moral

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Illegal and Legal Immigration(page 881)

What has been the reaction to illegal immigrants?By the 1990s, several million immigrants had enteredthe country illegally. They posed an economic bur-den. Many had low-paying jobs, seasonal work, or nojobs at all. Yet, states provided them with health care,education, welfare, and other services. Californiansvoted to limit services to illegal immigrants in 1994.In 1996, Congress voted similar limits.

Most Americans want to stop illegal immigra-tion. But they disagree on whether to limit legalimmigration. The debate focuses on economic,political, cultural, and moral issues.

2. How did California react to illegal immigrants?

Economic Arguments (page 882)

What are the economic arguments over immigration?People who want to limit immigration say thatimmigrants take jobs from American workers.Others argue that those are low-paying jobs thatAmericans don’t want. They say that unemploy-ment went down when immigration was high.

Immigrants have always worked for low wages.Some say that drives down wages for everyone.Economists think other factors are more importantin lowering wages. They also point out that lowwages result in lower prices for consumers.

Government support for immigration is hotlydebated. Some people say that many immigrantsare poor. They take more in welfare, SocialSecurity, Medicare, and other services than theypay in taxes. Others say that immigrants are an eco-nomic gain, not a drain. They pay more in federaltaxes than they get in services. But supporters ofimmigration limits point out that immigrants usemore state and local resources than federal ser-vices. And they pay little in state and local taxes.

3. How might immigrants be an economic drain?

Political and CulturalArguments (page 883)

What are the political and culturalarguments over immigration?Those who favor limits on immigration complainthat many immigrants do not become citizens.They feel it is unfair for immigrants to enjoy theprivileges of living in the United States without theresponsibilities of voting, serving on juries, and soon. However, since 1996, immigrants have beenbecoming citizens at a more rapid rate.

When they become citizens, some peopleargue, immigrants tend to vote in blocs, or groups.Earlier immigrants had done the same thing atfirst. Later, their voting became more independent.

Some people feel that Americans will lose theircommon culture because of the mix of peoplesentering the country. Or they complain that immi-grants do not mix but stay in ethnic neighborhoods.They stay with people who share their racial,national, religious, or cultural heritage. Others feelthe ethnic mix makes American culture richer.

4. What are the political and cultural arguments for andagainst limiting immigration?

Moral Arguments (page 883)

What are the moral argumentsover immigration?Some people feel that there are moral reasons forallowing immigration. One is offering asylum, a safeplace for people fleeing an oppressive foreign gov-ernment. But those fleeing economic hardship areoften turned away. Many people feel that is unfair.

People also disagree over allowing relatives ofimmigrants into the country. Many complain thatthey are often very young or old or have no skills.They become an economic burden on the nation.

Finally, some people simply feel there are toomany immigrants. Others say that the UnitedStates is a nation of immigrants. It should allowothers to follow the same path.

5. What are the moral arguments over immigration?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read the debate over immigration.

In this section, you will read about the problem of crimeand concerns about public safety.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to organize your notes on the ideasand facts you learn about crime in this section.

TERMS AND NAMESgun control Limiting people’s abilityto own handguns legallyBrady Act Law calling for a waitingperiod for the sale of handgunsNational Rifle Association (NRA)Gun owners’ association opposed togun controlterrorism Use of violence againstpeople or property for ideological orpolitical reasons

Crime and Public Safety

Historical Perspective andRecent Success Against Crime(pages 884–885)

What factors cause crime rates to rise and fall?Americans consider crime one of the nation’s worstproblems. Crime rates were going up during the1970s. Then, in the 1980s, an increase in drugabuse—particularly of crack cocaine—drove upthe crime rate even more. This increase continuedinto the mid 1990s.

Then crime began to drop. Experts see fourreasons for this. First, there are fewer people in thegroup most likely to commit crime—males 18 to29. Second, the use of crack cocaine dropped.

Third, unemployment went down. But the mostimportant factor in the drop in crime is new polic-ing methods.

These policing methods include putting officersback on the street, walking a beat. Officers take amore active role in the neighborhood. Also thepolice work to prevent crime. Counseling pro-grams try to find and help young people who arelikely to turn to crime before any crimes occur.

1. What factors drove the crime rate up in the 1980sand down in the 1990s?

HEADING MAIN IDEAS SUPPOR T ING FACTS

A New Crime Wave?

Gun Control

Getting Tough on Crime locking up offenders lenient prison sentencesprevents crime in Britain led to more crime

Terrorism

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Public Alarm Remains (page 885)

Why is the public still concerned about crime?In spite of dropping crime rates, people still worryabout it. One reason is that rates are still high.Second, the prison population is soaring. Also,according to many critics, the media overempha-size crime. For example, TV news shows run manymore stories on crime today than they did when thecrime rate was higher. This promotes a widespreadfear of crime.

2. What are three reasons for the public fear of crime?

Continuing Efforts Against Crime (pages 885–887)

What are the main ideas about preventing crime?Some experts believe that a new crime wave iscoming. Violent crime is up among youngteenagers. There is a large population of childrenunder ten who will be teenagers soon. Also, drugabuse among young teenagers is going up.

Other experts disagree. They think the share ofteenagers in the population in the near future willbe about the same as it was 1994. Some of theseexperts feel that it is not the number of kids that isthe problem. They think keeping guns out of theirhands is more important.

Gun control, limiting people’s ability to ownhandguns legally, is a controversial issue. In 1993,the Brady Act became federal law. It called for awaiting period for the sale of handguns. Duringthat time, police check to see if the buyer has acriminal record. If so, he or she cannot buy thegun. Many people credit this and similar state lawsfor the drop in the crime rate.

Others disagree. The National RifleAssociation (NRA) is against gun control. Theyclaim the Brady Act has had little effect. It does notapply to places with their own gun laws. Those arethe places that have the highest crime rates. TheSupreme Court also ruled that the federal govern-

ment could not force local officials to do the back-ground checks required by the Brady Act.

Gun control raises a constitutional question.The Second Amendment protects the rights of thepeople to “bear arms.” The NRA argues that gun-control laws violate this right. Others say that thepurpose of the Amendment was not to protect per-sonal weapons. Its purpose was to allow states tohave their own military units.

Some people support another way to cut crime.They want criminals caught and locked up for along time. This is the “get tough on crime” theory.Another approach is the “broken window” theory.People who believe this theory think minor crimeslead to major ones. They feel that crime will be dis-couraged if police crack down on vandalism andgraffiti.

Another “get tough” measure is the “threestrikes and you’re out” laws. Persons who havebeen convicted of two previous crimes get a stiffsentence if they are convicted of a third crime.Some people oppose these laws. They say criminalswho are afraid of getting caught a third time aremore likely to shoot police officers. And they claimthat these laws are used against blacks more thanagainst whites. They point to the high percentageof African Americans in prison even though theyare a small percentage of the population.

Finally, a new kind of violent crime is beginningto affect Americans. It is terrorism, or the use ofviolence against people or property for ideologicalor political reasons. The 1990s saw terrorist bomb-ings at the World Trade Center in New York, inOklahoma City, and at the Atlanta Olympics. As aresult, President Clinton signed a bill giving theFBI more power to fight terrorism. Both civil liberties groups and Republicans protested parts of this bill. They do not like the idea of giving thefederal government too much power.

3. What are the pros and cons of some current ways offighting crime?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the continuing concerns about crime.

In this section, you will see how Americans feel about education and schools.

AS YOU READ Take notes on the formal outline below. List the three mostimportant education issues and the different opinionsabout how to deal with those issues.

TERMS AND NAMESaffirmative action Programsintended to remedy pastdiscriminationcharter schools Schools that getpermission, or a charter, from thestate to try new ways to teachvoucher system States give parentsa certificate worth a certain amountof money to use at the school of theirchoiceGoals 2000 Plan that said schoolsmust have higher standards thatdemand more from their students

Exploring Education Today

Historical Perspective and Key Issues (page 888)

What problems are Americanpublic schools facing?America’s leaders have always thought that educa-tion is important. It is a necessity for a free anddemocratic society. A system of government-supported public schools was set up in the 19thcentury. By the 1960s, there were severe problems.Achievement levels had begun to drop. Inner cityschools did not have the resources of richer subur-ban schools. Violence and drugs threatened safety.And integration of white and minority students didnot always go smoothly. In 1983, a governmentreport declared American schools in crisis.

The debate over public education has focused

on three issues: improving quality, school financ-ing, and affirmative action, or programs intend-ed to remedy past discrimination.

1. What problems did public schools begin to face inthe 1960s?

Improving Quality (pages 888–890)

What do people think are themajor problems with schools?Many people say that lack of discipline in theschools is a major problem. One proposed solutionis school uniforms, to prevent fights caused by stu-

EducationIssues

improving qualitymore discipline

school financing affirmative action

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dents wearing gang colors. Other people focus onaccess to information. They say schools should behooked up to the internet.

Two different ways to change the educationalsystem have also been suggested. One is charterschools. These are schools that get permission, ora charter, from the state to try new ways to teach.One advantage of a charter school is the commit-ment of parents, teachers, and students to the phi-losophy of their school. But some of these schoolsare also businesses. And poor management can bea problem. Also, the schools are small with fewfacilities and extracurricular activities.

Another approach is the voucher system.States give parents a certificate worth a certainamount of money. The parents give the voucher tothe public or private school of their choice. Thestate then pays the school. This makes schoolscompete to attract students. Many people feel thatthis competition will improve the overall quality ofall schools. Some are not sure what impact vouch-ers would have. Also there is disagreement overwhether vouchers should be available only to thepoor or to everyone.

Other reform ideas focus on what studentsshould be learning. In 1989, government leadersset educational goals for the year 2000. This Goals2000 plan said that schools must have higher stan-dards that demand more from their students.

2. What are three suggestions for improving the qualityof the nation’s schools?

Financing Education (page 890)

How are public schools financed?Some education reformers are concerned thatschools do not receive equal resources. Schools inpoorer towns and cities get less money than thosein wealthy areas. That is because most schools aresupported by local property taxes. Real estate hashigher value in wealthy areas. Also, these town areoften willing and able to pay a higher tax rate tosupport their local schools.

Reformers feel that all students are entitled tothe same educational resources, no matter wherethey live. Court cases have challenged unequalschool funding in more than 20 states.

In 1993, Michigan voters approved a new plan.They now support their schools out of state funds.That helps to even out inequities, or unfair differ-ences. However, many people still want localschool systems to decide how the money is spent.

3. How does the way schools are financed affect their quality?

Affirmative Action (page 891)

What is the purpose of affirmative action?Unlike public schools, students compete to enterprivate schools and colleges. There, it has been dif-ficult to solve the problem of discrimination againstwomen and minorities. One approach has beenaffirmative action. It is a policy that is supposed tocorrect the effects of past discrimination. It doesthis by favoring the groups who were previouslydisadvantaged. Most Americans support givingthese groups new opportunities. However, manyAmericans disapprove of what they consider to bea quota system. Quotas set aside a certain numberof college admissions for minority students.

In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled race couldbe one factor among others considered in collegeadmissions. Recently, a federal court ruled againstseparate admission tracks, or requirements, forwhite and minority students. The court said thisdiscriminates against whites. In 1996, Californiapassed an initiative that banned race or genderpreferences in college admissions.

Opponents of affirmative action argue that it isunfair to use gender or race for decisions aboutjobs or college admissions. They say a “race-blind”society is fairer. Others disagree. They say thatthere is still too much discrimination againstAfrican Americans and other minorities. And affir-mative action is necessary to correct the balance.

4. What are the main arguments for and against affirmative action?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about America’s concerns forits schools and education.

In this section, you will read about the problems in theAmerican health care system.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on how the federal government is involved in health care for its citizens.

TERMS AND NAMESuniversal health insuranceGuaranteed health insurance foreveryoneMedicare Federal program payingfor health care for the elderlyMedicaid Federal program payingfor health care for the poor

Curing the HealthCare System

Historical Perspective andHealth Reform Today (page 892)

What is univeral health insurance?In 1945, President Harry Truman proposed universal health insurance, or guaranteedhealth insurance for everyone. Congress did notpass it. In 1965, Medicare and Medicaid wereestablished to help pay for medical care for theelderly and for the poor.

In the early 1990s, health care costs were rising.But the economy was not doing well. PresidentClinton was concerned about the large numbers ofAmericans not covered by health insurance. Manyof them did not get medical care because they

could not afford it. Clinton proposed a complexplan of universal health insurance. Congressdefeated the plan in 1994. The defeat of this planwas due to lobbying by private insurance compa-nies and to the public not wanting another big gov-ernment program.

Only a few years later, the situation hadchanged. The American economy was doing better.Health costs were not rising as fast. Fewer peoplewere losing their jobs and, therefore, losing theirhealth insurance. In 1996, a new federal law waspassed. It required employers’ health insuranceplans to cover new employees who had had healthinsurance before they changed jobs. That meantpeople could not be denied insurance because of

MEDICAL PROGRAM FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT

Universal Health Insurance• Trumam proposed/Congress, defeated, 1945

•

Medical Care for the Poor

Medical Care for Elderly

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1. Is the number of uninsured Americans going up or going down?

2. How many Americans were uninsured in 1980? In 1985? In 1994?

preexisting conditions—medical problems theyhad before applying for this new insurance.

1. What were two reasons for the defeat of universalhealth insurance?

Medicare and Medicaid (page 892–893)

Why are Medicare and Medicaid in crisis?By the 1990s, the federal programs of Medicare(which pays for health care for the elderly) andMedicaid (which pays for health care for the poor)were taking a large share of federal spending.Medicare is actually running out of money. Thereasons are rising costs and population changes.

Americans are living longer. Seniors form alarger percentage of the population. There areproportionally fewer young people working andpaying the taxes that support Medicare. Therefore,the Medicare program is in financial crisis.

Several solutions have been proposed. One is toraise the tax rate. Another suggestion is to increasethe share that the elderly pay for their Medicareinsurance. But some argue that increased pay-ments will push many elderly people into poverty.Others suggest raising the age at which people canget Medicare from 65 to 70.

Medicaid faces a similar financial problem.

Much of its spending goes to the elderly poor. As thepopulation ages, Medicaid’s costs go up too. Alsorecent changes in welfare laws may increase thenumber of poor people who will need Medicaid.

2. What are two reasons why Medicare and Medicaidare facing financial crisis?

The Uninsured Millions (page 893)

Why are millions of Americans uninsured?The number of Americans without health insur-ance is rising. Many political leaders feel that thegovernment does not have the resources to covereveryone. But they are willing to cover children.

About 10 million children have no health insur-ance. The result is that they get poor medical care.Government leaders agree that money spent onthese “gap kids” is a good investment. Every dollarspent on preventive care saves $10 in later costs totreat an illness that could have been prevented.

3. Why are government leaders willing to supporthealth insurance for children?

0

10

20

30

40

50

199419851980

Mill

ions

of p

eopl

e

Source: Aaron, "End of an era," Brookings Review, Winter 1996, p.36

Year

Uninsured Americans, 1980–1994

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about the crisis in the health care system.

In this section, you will read how working women still meet obstacles toequal pay and promotion up the corporate ladder.

AS YOU READUse the chart below to take notes on the progress—or lack ofprogress— women have made in equal pay, promotion, and entering“men’s fields.” Give reasons if possible.

TERMS AND NAMESglass ceiling Limit that preventswomen from advancing to the upperlevels of their chosen careersupward mobility Ability to move totop-level jobs

Women and the Glass Ceiling


How have women’s work and pay compared to men’s?A 1961 commission reported that women were paidless than men for equal work. It also said thatwomen were not usually promoted to top positions.Over 30 years later, another commission found littleimprovement in pay. And women held only 10 per-cent of the most senior jobs in the nation’s largestcompanies. Even so, the percentage of womenworking outside the home continued to grow.

Women have often found it difficult to advancein their chosen fields. They describe a glass ceil-ing that limits their progress. It is glass because

they can see through to the upper levels. But it isstill a ceiling, preventing them from rising higher.

1. Traditionally, how have women’s pay and job opportunities compared to men’s?

Positive Trends (page 894)

Has the employment picture for women improved?Women have seen some improvement in theiremployment picture in recent decades, They are

PROGRESS/LACK OF PROGRESS REASONS

equal pay forequal work

limited advancement: promotion to top management

only 10% of senior jobs

entering “men’s fields”

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SkillbuilderUse the chart to answer the questions

1. What pattern in earnings do you see?

2. In what five careers is pay almost equal?

entering new fields. Some of these areas, such asconstruction, used to be almost totally male.Women are also better represented on college anduniversity faculties. And they are going into the sci-ences. This will give them opportunities in thehigh-tech industries of the future.

Another trend is the increase of women “knowl-edge workers.” These are managers, professionals,and those who use technology. Today, women holdalmost half of these jobs. These kinds of jobs willbe important in the future. Some people feel thatwomen will achieve powerful positions in thesefields.

2. How have women’s opportunities changed in recent decades?

Money and Upward Mobility(page 895)

What are the areas of inequality for working women?There are two important issues in women’semployment today. One is unequal pay. The otheris the lack of upward mobility—the ability toadvance to top-level jobs.

The gap in earnings between men and womenremains. In 1970, men earned about three times,or 300 percent, what women did. Today, men stillearn about 50 percent more. And women’s earn-ings are lower than men’s in a wide variety ofcareers. Some people say that women are paid lessbecause they are more likely to be part-time work-

ers. In addition, women often take time out of thelabor force to care for young children.

Women are also still not rising to the top jobs inAmerica. They hold only 10 percent of senior jobsin the Fortune 500 companies. And only 2.4 per-cent of the chief executive officers of those compa-nies are women.

Men and women explain this situation differ-ently. Men feel that women don’t advance becausethey lack management experience. They also saythat women have not been in the work force longenough. Women blame the situation on malestereotypes of women.

Women also blame the so-called old-boys’ net-work. This is a loose association of friendshipsformed in men’s schools, men’s sports activities,men’s clubs, and in mostly male corporate offices.Because managers tend to hire and promote peoplethey know—or people recommended by peoplethey know—this network is a business asset. Andwomen are not part of it.

Women have made more progress in beingappointed to corporate boards of directors. Thereason is demographics, or the characteristics ofdifferent segments of the population. Companieswant to understand the needs of their customers.Many of their customers are women. Companiesare slowly realizing that they benefit if their man-agers reflect the population they are targeting.

3. What are some reasons for the lack of equality forwomen in the work place?

Women’s and Men’s Average Earnings in Selected Careers

Accountant $28,496 $38,844Advertising copywriter 53,000 58,000Computer operator 20,384 27,404Cook 12,376 13,988Engineer 49,100 50,000Financial manager 33,020 48,984High school teacher 33,124 37,596Insurance salesperson 23,556 40,404Lawyer 49,816 60,892

Magazine art director $40,546 $40,625Pediatrician 119,660 137,065Personnel specialist 30,212 35,932Pharmacist 53,650 52,200Real estate salesperson 26,832 33,800Registered nurse 36,036 37,180Retail sales worker 13,156 18,980Travel agent 23,600 28,200University professor 57,790 65,080

Career Women Men Career Women Men

Source: “1997 salary report,” Working Woman, January 1997, pp. 31–33, 69, 71, 73–76.

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READ In the last section, you read that women still face problemsof equality in the workplace.

In this section, you will read about poverty and theattempts of governments to reform the welfare system.

AFTER YOU READ Use the chart below to take notes on who is poor inAmerica and the causes of poverty.

TERMS AND NAMESworking poor People with low-paying jobs that provide few benefitsand no health insurance.enterprise zones Targeted areas inpoor neighborhoods where thegovernment gives tax breaks tocompanies that locate there

Breaking the Cycle of Poverty

Historical Perspective andAmericans in Poverty (pages 896–897)

How has the federal governmenttried to help the poor?Many Americans were poor during the GreatDepression of the 1930s. So Congress created theSocial Security system to help. This was the firsttime the federal government offered to give aid tothe poor. But poverty did not go away. In the 1960s,President Lyndon Johnson’s War on Poverty creat-ed more programs to help the poor. Nevertheless,by the 1970s, the poverty rate was going up again.Also, prices were rising at the same time that manyAmericans feared losing their jobs. These workers

did not want their tax money going to poor peoplewho did not work. They demanded welfare reform.

However, many poor Americans do work.About 30 million are the working poor—peoplewith low-paying jobs that provide few benefits andno health insurance. Children make up a largeshare of the poor. The homeless and the unem-ployed also account for a large number of those inpoverty.

1. Who are the poor in America?

WHO IS POOR IN AMERICA CAUSES OF POVER TY

Working Poor low pay, no benefits

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Some Causes of Poverty (page 897–898)

What are the leading causes of poverty?Many poor people do not have marketable skills.That fact keeps them from finding and keepingjobs. They need training in the skills that are indemand in the work place. Many of the poor alsoneed training in good work habits, such as gettingto work on time and following instructions.

Some experts feel that the poverty level dropsduring times of economic growth. More jobs areavailable. Others argue that high welfare paymentsdiscourage people from working at low-paying jobs.

Some people who do want to work and can finda job still face problems. Mothers often cannotafford to pay someone to care for their childrenwhile they are at work. They do better financiallywhen they stay home and live on welfare thanwhen they go to work for a low salary and pay forchild care. The 1996 welfare law included fundingfor day care to help solve this problem.

Another factor that limits the ability of poorpeople to find jobs is their lack of a good education.Three-fourths of people on welfare have very poorliteracy. They can hardly read. That makes it almostimpossible for them to perform most jobs in today’seconomy. Some experts feel that improved educa-tion is the key to breaking the cycle of poverty.

Racial discrimination has kept many membersof minority groups in poverty. Even when minorityworkers got hired, they seldom got promotedabove the lowest-paying jobs. The Civil Rights Actof 1964 banned the most obvious forms of discrim-ination. But subtle discrimination still exists.

2. What are the major causes of poverty in the United States?

Welfare Reform by the Statesand Federal Welfare Reform(page 898–899)

How are governments getting people off welfare?The states took the lead in welfare reform.

Wisconsin began welfare reform in 1987. Its wel-fare rolls went down by half. One reason is thatWisconsin’s economy was growing at the time. Buta more important reason was that the state helpedformer welfare recipients find jobs. Wisconsin andmany other states encourage businesses to hire for-mer welfare recipients. These states give tax cred-its to employers and help pay workers’ wages.

In 1996, President Clinton and Congress agreedon a federal welfare reform bill. This law did threethings. 1) It cut more than $55 million in welfarespending. 2) It put a five-year limit on how long peo-ple could get welfare payments. 3) It cut benefits topeople who did not find a job within two years.

The federal government also did three things toencourage businesses to hire people who had beenon welfare. 1) It gave tax credits to employers. 2) Italso helped pay the wages of these new workers. 3) Itset up enterprise zones. These zones are targetedareas in poor neighborhoods. The government givestax breaks to companies that locate there.

Many critics felt that the old system encouragedpeople to become dependent on welfare payments.These efforts at welfare reform are designed toencourage people’s self-reliance.

3. What are the main points of welfare reform?

Effects of Welfare Reform (page 899)

What are the effects of welfare reform?There are critics of the new welfare reforms. Someliberals fear that the cuts in welfare will hurt chil-dren. Conservatives argue that the benefits of thenew reforms are worth any costs. Still others thinkthe new welfare law will cause increased homeless-ness. Most observers are watching carefully to seethe long-term results of welfare reform.

4. What are two criticisms of the new welfare law?

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Name ______________________________________________________________ Date ______________________


BEFORE YOU READIn the last section, you read about state and federal effortsto reform welfare.

In this section, you will read about problems with govern-ment entitlement programs.

AS YOU READUse the diagram below to fill in the problems of SocialSecurity and some proposed solutions.

TERMS AND NAMESentitlements Federal governmentprograms that guarantee benefits,such as Social Securitytrust fund Money that SocialSecurity currently has left over afterit pays out pensionsprivatization Putting some incomefrom payroll taxes into investments inthe private sector, such as in thestock market

Tough Choices About Entitlements


What are entitlements?In the 1935 Social Security Act, the federal gov-ernment promised to pay a pension to retiredAmericans. The money would come from taxesthese workers and their employers paid into theSocial Security system. In 1965, the governmentadded health care payments. Medicare would payhealth care costs for the elderly. Medicaid wouldpay for health care for the poor.

These programs are called entitlements. Inentitlement programs, benefits are guaranteed bylaw. Congress does not have to approve them eachyear as appropriations. Many people feel that enti-

tlement programs like Social Security, Medicare,and Medicaid are in financial trouble. That isbecause the U.S. population is aging. One way tounderstand why this increase in the number ofolder persons threatens entitlement programs is touse Social Security as a case study.

1. What seems to be threatening the financial health ofentitlement programs?

SocialSecurity

baby boomers nearingretirement

Problems Proposed Solutions

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SkillbuilderUse graph to answer questions

1. How many people were receiving Social Security benefits in 1950?

2. What is the trend for receiving Social Security benefits?

Social Security: A Case Study(pages 900–901)

Why is Social Security in trouble?The threat to Social Security comes mainly fromthree factors. First, baby boomers (the large num-ber of Americans born between 1946 and 1964)will reach retirement age soon. This large numberof people retiring at once will be a big drain on themoney in the Social Security system.

Second, Americans now live longer than everbefore. That adds to the number of people entitledto Social Security payments. It also means that theshare of benefits a person will receive over a life-time is greater than in the past.

Third, there is slow growth in the rate ofemployment. That means that less tax money iscoming into the Social Security system.

Some experts predict a disaster. They say thatby 2020 there will be more money going out of theSocial Security system than coming in to it. Thatmeans the system will have to use its trust fund.That is the money that Social Security currently hasleft over after it pays out pensions. Trust fundmoney is invested for future Social Security pay-ments. Critics fear the trust fund will also be usedup early in the 21st century.

2. What are the reasons for the financial threat toSocial Security?

Options for Change (page 901)

What are suggestions for “saving” Social Security?Other experts don’t see disaster on the horizon.They think that a small increase in payroll taxes willprovide enough money to keep Social Securityfunded for a while. They suggest several other waysto help Social Security in the long run. Theseinclude increasing taxes, cutting benefits, and rais-ing the retirement age. They also include investingsome of the Social Security trust fund in stocks.Another suggestion requires workers to invest in anextra retirement program. Some suggestionsinvolve letting workers control and invest part oftheir Social Security taxes themselves.

Many of these proposals involve privatization.Privatization is putting some income from payrolltaxes into investments in the private sector, such asthe stock market. Those who support privatizationsay that the Social Security fund could earn farmore in the stock market than it currently does.Others point out that stocks don’t always go up. Ifstocks go down, Social Security could actually losemoney. This would make the situation worse.

3. What are three suggestions for improving the financial health of Social Security?

Social Security Recipients,1950–2050

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