developmental theories (growth & development)

DEVELOPMENTAL

THEORIES

• Psychoanalytic / Psychosexual Theory

• Theory of Psychosocial Development

• Theory of Cognitive Development

• Theory of Moral Development

• Developmental Task Theory

• Behaviorism

PSYCHOANALYTIC/

PSCHOSEXUAL THEORY

SIGMUND FREUD’S

PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSCHOSEXUAL THEORY

• LEVEL OF AWARENESS

– CONSCIOUS

• Logical and regulated by reality

principle

– PRECONSCIOUS

• Subconscious

– UNCONSCIOUS

• Not logical & governed by

pleasure principle

• SYSTEMS OF PERSONALITY

– ID

• Source of all drives

• Pleasure principle

– EGO

• Reality testing & problem solving

– SUPEREGO

• Conscience, perfection, & ideal


1. ORAL STAGE

– child explores the world by using

mouth

– suck for enjoyment or relief of

tension, as well as nourishment.

– Infant is concerned with self

gratification

– Infant is all ID

– The EGO begins to emerge as

infant begins to see self as

separate from the mother



NSG IMPLICATIONS:

– Provide oral stimulation by giving

pacifiers

– Do not discourage thumbsucking.

– Breastfeeding may provide more

stimulation that formula feeding.

2. ANAL STAGE

– Toddlers find pleasure in both

retention of feces and defecation.

– Toilet training occurs during this

period.

– Child begins to gain a sense of

control over instinctive drives and

learns to delay immediate

gratification to gain a future goal.


NSG. IMPLICATIONS:

• Help children achieve bowel and

bladder control

• Continue bowel training while the

child is hospitalized.


3. PHALLIC STAGE

– Pleasurable and conflicting feelings

associated with the genital organs

– The pleasures of masturbation and

the fantasy life of children set the

stage of the Oedipus complex.

– Ambivalence

– The emergence of the superego is

the solution to and the result of

these intense impulses.


NSG. IMPLICATIONS:

• Accept child’s sexual interest, such

as fondling his or her own genitals, as

a normal area of exploration.

• Help parents answer child’s

questions about birth or sexual

differences.


4. LATENCY STAGE

– Personality development appears

to be non-active or dormant

– Tapering off of conscious biological

and sexual urges

– Growth of ego functions and the

ability to care about and relate to

others outside the home is the task

of this stage


NSG. IMPLICATION:

• Help the child have

positive experiences.


5. GENITAL STAGE

– emerges at adolescence with the

onset of puberty, when genital

organs mature

– The individual gains gratification

from his or her own body.

– Develops satisfying sexual and

emotional relationships with

members of the opposite gender.

– The individual plans life goals and

gains a strong sense of identity.


NSG. IMPLICATIONS:

• Provide appropriate

opportunities for the child to

relate with opposite sex

• Allow the child to verbalize

feelings about new

relationships.


THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT

ERIK ERIKSON’S

THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• Crisis: Trust versus mistrust

• Task: attachment to the mother

• Successful:

– Trust in persons; faith and hope

about the environment and future

• Unsuccessful:

– General difficulties relating to

persons effectively; suspicion;

trust-fear conflict, fear of the future

INFANCY

NURSING IMPLICATIONS

• Provide a primary caregiver

• Provide experiences that add to

security, such as soft sounds

and touch.

• Provide visual stimulation for

active child involvement.


EARLY CHILDHOOD (TODDLER)

• Crisis: Autonomy versus shame and

doubt

• Task: Gaining some basic control over

self and environment

• Successful:

– Sense of self-control and adequacy;

will power

• Unsuccessful:

– Independence-fear conflict; severe

feelings of self-doubt



• Provide opportunities for

decision making.

• Praise for ability to make

decisions rather that judging

correctness of any one

decision.


LATE CHILDHOOD (PRESCHOOLER)

• Crisis: Initiative versus guilt

• Task: Becoming purposeful

and directive

• Successful:

– Ability to initiate one’s own

activities; sense of purpose

• Unsuccessful:

– Aggression-fear conflict; sense

of inadequacy or guilt



• Provide opportunities for

exploring new places or

activities.

• Allow play to include activities

involving clay, water, or finger

paint.


SCHOOL AGE

• Crisis: Industry versus inferiority

• Task: Developing social, physical, and

learning skills

• Successful:

– Competence; ability to learn and

work

• Unsuccessful:

– Sense of inferiority; difficulty

learning and working


NURSING IMPLICATION

• Provide opportunities for the

child to feel rewarded for

accomplishment.


ADOLESCENCE

• Crisis: Identity versus role confusion

• Task: Developing sense of identity

• Successful:

– Sense of personal identity

• Unsuccessful:

– Confusion about who one is; identity

submerged in relationships or group

memberships



• Provide opportunities for the

adolescent to discuss feelings

about events important to him

or her.

• Offer support and praise for

decision making.


EARLY ADULTHOOD

20-35 yrs

• Crisis: Intimacy versus isolation

• Task: Establishing intimate bonds

of love and friendship

• Successful:

– Ability to love deeply and commit

oneself

• Unsuccessful:

– Emotional isolation, egocentricity


MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

35-65 yrs

• Crisis: Generativity versus

stagnation

• Task: Fulfilling life goals that

involve family, career, and society

• Successful:

– Ability to give and care for others

• Unsuccessful:

– Self-absorption; inability to grow as a

person


LATE ADULTHOOD

65 yrs to death

• Crisis: Integrity versus despair

• Task: Looking back over one’s

life and accepting its meaning

• Successful:

– Sense of integrity and fulfillment

• Unsuccessful:

– Dissatisfaction with life


THEORY OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

JEAN PIAGET’S

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

A. SENSORIMOTOR1. Neonatal reflex Birth –

1mo

Most action is reflexive.

2. Primary circular

reaction

1 – 4

mos

Perception of events is centered on the

body.

Objects are extension of self.

Toy: Rattle


3. Secondary

circular

reaction

4 – 8 Acknowledges the external

environment.

Learns to initiate, recognize, and

repeat pleasurable experience from

the environment.

Memory traces are present.

4. Coordination of

secondary

reactions

8-12 Plan activities to attain specific goals.

Can search for and retrieve toy that

disappears from view.

Increased sense of separateness.

Toy: Nesting toys (i.e. colored boxes)

Game: Peek-a-boo

5. Tertiary circular

reaction

12 – 18 Experiments to discover new

properties of objects and events.

Capable of space and time perception

and permanence.

Game: Throw and retrieve

6. Invention of

new means

18 – 24 Uses memory and imitation to act

Can solve basic problems

Toys: toys w/ several uses (blocks,

rings, boxes)


B. PREOPERATIONAL THOUGHT

• Preconceptual

Phase

2 – 4 yrs Egocentric

Displays static thinking.

Prelogical reasoning.

Everything is significant and relates to “me”

Explores the environment

Language development is rapid

Associates words with objects.

• Intuitive Phase 4 – 7 Centering

Lack of conservation and reversibility.

Role fantasy thinking.

Assimilation

Magical Thinking

Accommodation

Unable to state cause-effect relationship


JEAN PIAGET’S


C. CONCRETE

OPERATIONAL

THOUGHT

7 – 12 Inductive reasoning

Solve everyday problems

Recognize cause-effect relationship

With concept of conservation

Numbers: 7 years old

Quantity: 7- 8 years old

Weight: 9 years old

Volume: 11 years old

Aware of reversibility

Decentering

Class inclusion

Activity: collecting and classifying

objects

D. FORMAL

OPERA-

TIONAL

THOUGHT

12 yrs

up

Uses rational thinking

Abstract thought rather that

concrete thought.

Activity: “talk-time”


THEORY OF MORAL

DEVELOPMENT

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL STAGE AGE

I.

PRE-CONVENTIONAL

MORALITY

Egocentric Focus

0. Egocentric Judgment

The infant has no awareness of right

or wrong.

Birth-2

yrs

1. Punishment & Obedient Orientation

Fear of punishment, not respect for

authority, is the reason for decision,

behavior, and conformity.

2-3

2. Instrumental Relativist Orientation

Conformity is based on egocentricity

and narcissistic needs. There is no

feeling of justice, loyalty, or gratitude.

4-7

II.

CONVENTIONAL

MORALITY Societal Focus

3. Interpersonal Concordance Orientation

Decisions and behavior are based on

concerns about other’s reactions; the

person wants others’ approval.

7-10

4. Law-and-Order Orientation

The person wants established rules

from authorities, and the reason for

decisions and behavior is that social and

sexual rules and traditions demand the

response.

10-12


III.

POST

CONVENTIONAL Universal Focus

5. Social Contract Legalistic Orientation

The social rules are not the sole basis for

decisions and behavior because the person

believes a higher moral principle applies

such as equality, justice, or due process.

Older

than

12

6. Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Decisions and behaviors are based on

internalized rules, on conscience rather

than social laws, and on self-chosen ethical

and abstract principles that are universal,

comprehensive and consistent.


DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

THEORY

ROBERT HAVIGHURST’S

INFANCY AND EARLY

CHILDHOOD

• Learning to walk

• Learning to take solid foods

• Learning to talk

• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes

• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty

• Achieving psychologic stability

• Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality

• Learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people

• Learning to distinguish right from wrong and developing a conscience

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK THEORY

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

• Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism

• Learning to get along with age-mates

• Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role

• Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating

• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living

• Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values

• Achieving personal independence

• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions


ADOLESCENCE

• Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes

• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role

• Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively

• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults

• Achieving assurance of economic independence

• Selecting and preparing for an occupation

• Preparing for marriage and family life

• Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic competence

• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior

• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior


EARLY ADULTHOOD

• Selecting a mate

• Learning to live with a partner

• Starting a family

• Rearing children

• Managing a home

• Getting started in an occupation

• Talking on civic responsibility

• Finding a congenial social group


MIDDLE AGE

• Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

• Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living

• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults

• Developing adult leisure-time activities

• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person

• Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes of middle age

• Adjusting to aging process


LATER MATURITY

• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income

• Adjusting to death of a spouse

• Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group

• Meeting social and civil obligations

• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements


THEORY ON

BEHAVIORISM

JOHN WATSON’S

BEHAVIORISM

• Behaviors can be elicited by positive

reinforcement, such as food treat, or

extinguished by negative

reinforcement, such as by scolding

or withdrawing attention.

• Watson believed that he could make

of a child anyone he desired – from a

professional to a thief or beggar –

simply by reinforcing behavior in

certain ways.

BEHAVIORISM

• NURSING APPLICATION:

– Positive reinforcement can be

established to encourage these

behaviors.

– Behavioral techniques are also

used to alter behavior or to teach

skills to handicapped children.

– Parents often use reinforcement

in toilet training and other skills

learned in childhood.

developmental theories (growth & development)

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