developmental history of christian worship 1

Developmental History of Christian Worship: Early Church to Reformation

© 2012 Dr Daniel K. Robinson

Developmental History of Christian

Worship: Early Church to Reformation Objectives:

1. Sketch a historical timeline from the early church to the Reformation

2. Identify key historical occurrences and figures

3. Briefly discuss significant theological developments

Outcomes:

At the end of the session the student will be expected to know some1 of the key historical occurrences

and the people who helped to shape them. Broadly, the student should understand the manner in

which this period of developmental history has influenced today’s Christian worship.

1. TheEarlyChurch:–AD500

The birth of the Christian church and the manner in which it developed over the first five centuries still

receives considerable debate from biblical scholars and historians. Specifically, discussions around what

caused the followers of ‘the Way’ (Acts 9:1‐2) to separate from the practice of attending the synagogue

has received a great deal of attention. Regardless of the reasons, synagogue worship had a distinct

influence on Christian worship; perhaps for the first four centuries after Christ.

1 The scope of this historical overview is limited by the sheer expanse of history being covered against the allotted time for the lecture (1½hrs). Accordingly, for the most part this review will be confined to the Western Church’s historical trajectory. This intentional design, which does not follow the Eastern Church’s history, acknowledges the overarching aims of the unit which seeks to empower the student with understandings for today’s Australian context; through reflection upon the historical background and theological assumptions.

Readings

•Wainwright & Tucker (2006). The Oxford History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–6 (pp. 32–253)

•Webber (1994). Worship: Old and New. Chapters 9–10 (pp. 93–120)

•White (1993). A Brief History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–4 (pp. 40–141)

Christian Worship PC315/515

Developmental History of Christian Worship: Early Church to Reformation © 2012 Dr Daniel K. Robinson

“If we understand the experiences of the church’s first four centuries, we have gained the heart of

the matter” (White, 2000, p. 67).

The First Century Religious Environment

Larry Hurtado (1999) details a number of important points to consider when surveying the first century

of the early church; recognising that “early Christian worship did not take place in a religious vacuum”

(p. 7):

1. Ubiquity: The integration of religion with every aspect of life was almost universal for people in the

Roman world; both pagan and Judaism.

2. Salience: Religion in the Roman period was highly visible, with great attention given to temples and other

religious buildings. Religious ceremonies (during the Roman era) were a largely ceremonious activity

which engaged the entire community.

3. Diversity: Roman paganism worshipped many gods. This was a

key difference separating both Jews and Christians who only

worshipped one deity. It has been argued that it was the very

allowance of diversity that permitted the establishment of the

Jewish synagogue and the emergence of the Christian church.

Official Roman imperial policy was to recognise and even to

support the traditional religious devotion of all subject

peoples…This Roman policy even extended to Jewish

religion, with its refusal to reverence other gods and its

polemic against other religious traditions as idolatry. (p. 13)

4. Sacred Places: The temples and religious buildings were central to Roman community life; not only as

places of worship but also as gathering spaces for social activities.

5. Images: The use of cult images depicting gods was used widely in Roman pagan temples. While the Jewish

and Christian prohibition against cult images distinguished the two faiths from the surrounding culture

they were not completely void of visual representations. Indeed the religious climate might help us to

better understand and “appreciate the significance of the honorific references to Christ as the image

(eikon) of God (e.g., 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15)” (p. 23).

6. Rituals: Cultic practices such as initiation rituals and animal sacrifices where common activities for the

pagan religions. The events where often elaborate and accompanied by festive celebrations. The

‘unadorned’ worship of Christians, whether it be the simple water baptism (initiation) or the house‐

worship sessions, posed as an obvious and apparently unique expression comparative to that of the first

century religious environment.

The Pantheon in Rome, built in the first century A.D., was the first large dome ever built.



The influence of the Synagogue on

Christian Worship

It is important to not assume a singularity of

worship when reviewing the influence of the

synagogue on the early development of Christian

worship. Grant Sperry‐White (1994) writes, “Even

after the separation of the Christian movement

from Judaism, the relationship between Christian

communities and their Jewish neighbours was

complex and varied greatly according to

geographical locale” (p. 11). Key influences include:

1. The New Testament Period: We know that Jesus frequented the synagogue and the disciples

continued to attend synagogue worship after Jesus resurrection and ascension (Matt. 9:35; Lk. 10:13–27;

Acts 2:42, 46–47). We know little of the content of these Jewish services, but what is clear is that there

was readings (taken from the Torah, the prophets and the Shēma) and prayer.

2. The Passover and the Eucharist: We cannot ascertain to what extent the

Passover influenced the development of the Eucharist (aside from Jesus

conducting the Lord’s Supper on the night of the Passover feast). This being

said, there is considerable evidence to show that first century Christians

gathered for the agape meal (1 Cor. 11:33–34) which was then followed by

the Eucharist. It is also important to note that most homes at this time

could only seat 8‐10 guests for a meal.

3. The Didachē: The Didachē, also known as the Teaching of the Twelve

Apostles, stood as a complete set by the end of the first century, though

some portions may have been written as early as the 50s and 60s.

Chapters 9 and 10 [of the Didachē] describe a ritual meal that consists

of: (a) a prayer over cup and bread (chapter 9); (b) a meal; and (c) a

thanksgiving after the meal (chapter 10). The thanksgiving after the

meal of Didachē 10 is very similar in content and structure to the

Jewish blessing after the meal, or Birkat hammazon, and appears to be

a Christian version of that prayer, a form of which appears as early as

Jubilees 22 (second century b.c.e.). (p. 12)

4. The Christian Calendar: Early documents attest to the debate surrounding the timing of Easter and its

direct connection to the Jewish Passover. “Some have also suggested that the Christian appropriation of

Wednesday and Friday as special liturgical days (cf. Didachē 8) may be related to an Essene solar calendar

that highlighted those particular days of the week” (p. 13).

5. Borrowing of Jewish Prayers: There are a number of Jewish prayers in the Apostolic Constitutions; a

document compiled around AD 380.

Interesting Fact: First century Pagans

believed that Christians were guilty

of flagitia (e.g. cannibalism) due in part to their religious

practice of the Eucharist.

First Century Synagogue (Smith et al., 1993, p. 150)



In his review of Jewish influences (and that of the synagogue) on the early developments of Christian

worship Sperry‐White concludes:

We should not expect direct verbal or structural parallels between first‐century Jewish and Christian

worship. In the first century, both liturgical traditions were diverse, not yet committed to writing, and in

flux. To be sure, first‐century Christians and Jews drew from a fund of liturgical structures, terminology,

and imagery that each group used in increasingly divergent ways in subsequent centuries. Therefore, the

Christian and Jewish liturgical traditions that emerged after the first century were more nearly cousins

than siblings, descendants of liturgical ancestors that in the first century may have been closer relatives

(p. 14).

Key Historical Events (AD 200–500)

There are many significant developments that happened during the historical period spanning the first

to fifth centuries; typically known as the era of the Ancient Church or The Age of Catholic Christianity.

The first century church commences as a ‘home church’ movement and arrives at the doorstep of the

Middle Ages completely separated from their Jewish connections; and with a defined theology.

The following list highlights some of the key historical events and their influences on Christianity during

this time:

Justin’s Apologies (ca. AD 100–165): Among a number of early apologists (including Irenaeus and

Origen), Justin Martyr’s writings have given us some insight into Christian worship alongside his defence

of the Old and New Testaments authority. Written circa. AD 140, Justin’s Apology references the reading

of scripture, public address, prayer, celebration of the Eucharist and tithing. Justin earned the name

‘Justin Martyr’ because of his refusal to recant the Christian faith resulting in his beheading (along with six

other Christians).

“Caesar is Lord!” (AD 249–251): Attesting to political alliance, Roman citizens where required to attend

the Temple of Caesar’s once a year, burn a pinch of incense and proclaim Caesar as Lord. As Bruce Shelley

(2008) notes, “The one thing that no Christian would ever say was: ‘Caesar is Lord’. For the Christian,

Jesus Christ and he alone was Lord” (p. 44). Thus began a conflict of persecution by Emperor Decius which

is estimated to have claimed 3000 Christian martyrs.

Conversion of Constantine (AD 313): With the conversion of the Roman Emperor, Constantine the

Great (306–337 AD), Christianity was afforded freedoms never before experienced. John Sweetman

(2012) writes:

Christianity became a legal religion. This removed penalties for confessing Christianity and

returned confiscated church property. Constantine supported the church financially, built

churches, granted privileges to clergy and promoted Christians to important offices….[In AD 380]

Christianity became the official religion of the Empire as its amazing growth was recognised by

the State. Pagan practices were punished severely by the Emperor…There were huge changes

including the tendency to move from freedom to formula in worship. (p. 2)



Key Developments in Worship (AD 200–500)

We have limited remaining sources which outline worship during this period. Two of the most important

documents, The Apostolic Tradition (ca. 220) and the Didascalia (ca. 240), provide us with an insight into

the design of liturgies during this time. Webber (1994, pp. 96–98) outlines two liturgies from this era:

Liturgy of the Word

Lections: Scripture readings and Letters from Bishops

Psalms sung by cantors

Alleluias

Sermon

Deacon’s litany for catechumens (preparing for baptism) and penitents (those confessing sin)

Dismissal of all but the faithful (or baptised)

Liturgy of the Upper Room

Deacon’s litany for the faithful

Kiss of Peace

Offering

Presentation of Elements: Communion

Preparation of Elements

Presentation of Elements and participation in communion

Psalms 43 and 34 sung by cantor

Thanksgiving

Prayer

Reservation of bread for sick and absent

Dismissal

These two liturgies reveal the central focus of both Word and Table. Whilst the informality of the first

century Christian worship has all but ceased Webber highlights that “the prayers were not fixed and the

liturgy was not so completely structured that free worship could not be contained within the generally

accepted order” (p. 98).

The two rites instituted by Jesus, Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, both

undergo significant development during the second to fifth centuries. John

D. Hannah (2001) presents the development of these sacraments in the

following way:

Baptism in the Early Church (p. 39)

o Second Century

110: Barnabas – “Those who place their hope in the

cross” (Epistle of Barnabas 11.8)

160: Justin Martyr – “Those who are persuaded and

believe” (First Apology, Ch. 61)

o Third Century

220: Tertullian – opposed infant baptism (On Baptism 18) An early church baptism



220: Hippolytus – only believers (The Apostolic Tradition v. 13)

220: Irenaeus – earliest reference to infant baptism (Against All Heresies II 22.4)

230: Origen – earliest to claim apostolic custom (Homily on Luke 14.5)

250: Cyprian – earliest explicit defence for newborn babes (Epistle 58)

o Fourth Century

350: Apostolic Constitutions – the first explicit command (VI. 15)

o Fifth Century

430: Augustine – used as an argument for original sin against Pelagius

By the end of the 5th century infant baptism is general practice.

The Lord’s Supper in the Early Church (p. 41)

o Second Century

100: Clement of Rome – “sacrifice of praise” (The first Epistle of Clement to the

Corinthians 35.12)

120: Didachē

o Third Century

220: Irenaeus – “new oblation” (Against All Heresies IV 7.5)

250: Cyprian – uses the term ‘priest’ for bishop, ‘altar’ for the place of celebration, and

‘sacrifice’ for the observance.

o Fourth Century

340: Cyril of Jerusalem – “we offer up the Christ who was sacrificed for our sins.”

340: Apostolic Constitutions (VIII. 2:12) – “we offer to you…the bread and cup.”

A final observation can be made of worship’s development during this early period of Christianity: the

difference between the East and the West. Driven by the division of the Roman Empire, Christian

worship developed geographical nuances. Webber (1994) explains:

The Eastern worldview was informed by the

Hellenistic love for aesthetic. The great

contributions of this culture were poetry,

literature, art, and philosophy. All of these

interests aided the development of a poetic

mind and a sense of imagery and artistic

expression…Byzantine worship was highly

ceremonial, gloriously beautiful, and deeply

mystical. (p. 99)

By contrast Western worship had a tendency

towards simplicity in both its order and its

use of symbols. “There was great beauty, a

sense of God’s presence, and a feeling of

awe and reverence provoked by the simple

majesty of the Roman rite” (p. 101).

While we commonly speak of the church in the East and the West because of a later schism, there was only one church until the eleventh century. Although there were differences between the East and the West, such as language and philosophical orientation, there was one Catholic Church without a singular earthly head. (Hannah, 2001, p. 54)



Before continuing take a moment to contemplate what might have happened if

Christianity had not been registered as the state religion of Rome in AD 380.

Hypothetically, how do you think this would have affected the development and spread

of Christianity and its worship?

2. TheMiddleAges:AD500–1500

The Middle Ages, by all accounts, is a vast stretch of time covering some 1000 years. James White (1993)

quotes Hobbes’ famous description of this period when we describes medieval life as “nasty, and

brutish, and short” (p. 76). Life during this time was nasty because of poor nutrition and considerably

low living standards; which in turn led to the short life span of many (approx. 35yrs). The infamous

brutality of the era also led to lives being cut short; due in part to the “invasion of Norsemen or warring

neighbours” (p. 77), imperial and national wars (e.g. the crusades), and massive plagues (e.g. the black

death of AD 1353).

For the vast majority, life was spent in small village communities. Each local region centred around their

parish church “served by a priest or two and several men in minor orders” (p. 77).

The Middle Ages can be divided into three periods (Schaff & Schaff, 1910; Sweetman, 2012):

PERIOD I: The missionary period from Gregory I. to Hildebrand or Gregory VII. (AD 590–1073)

o The conversion of the northern barbarians

o The origin and progress of Islam

AD 570–631: The lifetime of Mohammed who recorded his revelations from God in the Koran.

By the end of his life all Arabia was Muslim.

AD 732: The Muslim advance was stopped after invading Spain. From 638 Muslims had taken

Jerusalem, Persia, Alexandria, Carthage, and besieged Constantinople.

o Some subdivide this period by Charlemagne (AD 800), the founder of the German‐Roman Empire

o The separation of the West from the East

AD 1054: After much infighting on issues like what bread

should be used in the Eucharist and the Pope’s claim to

universal jurisdiction, the Great Schism permanently divided

the churches of East and West into Eastern Orthodoxy and

Western Catholicism.

PERIOD II: The palmy period of the papal theocracy from Gregory

VII. to Boniface VIII., (AD 1073–1294)

o The conflict between the Pope and the Emperor

AD 1077: The Holy Roman Emperor stood barefoot in the

snow to beg forgiveness of the Pope. This marked the

establishment of the Pope’s power over European heads of

state for 450 years.

Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, along with his wife and young son, spent three days barefoot in the

snow at Canossa



o The height of the papacy, monasticism and scholasticism.

o The Crusades

AD 1095–1289: Beginning in 1095, some Christian Europeans heeded the call of the

papacy to launch a series of “holy wars” aimed at gaining control of Jerusalem from the

Muslim Arabs and Seljuk Turks. In all, eight crusades were carried out.

PERIOD III: The decline of medieval Catholicism and preparation for modern Christianity, from

Boniface VIII. to the Reformation (AD 1294–1517)

o Scholasticism

AD 1100–1300: Focused on theology with all truth attached to the church.

o The Renaissance (Humanism)

AD 1300–1500: A cultural movement, the Renaissance saw a flowering of literature,

science, art, religion and politics; accompanied by a resurgence in learning. The

Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity, but they valued human pursuits as

well. Many ancient works were rescued from the crumbling Byzantine Empire and taken

to the West for scholars to study. This led to more sophisticated theological definitions.

o The papal exile and schism

AD 1378: Three claimant Popes were elected simultaneously. It was not sorted out until

AD 1417. This exposed the corruption and power‐plays at the centre of medieval

Catholicism with money playing a key role in the corrosion of spiritual leadership for the

church.

o Forerunners of Protestantism & the dawn of the Reformation

John Wycliffe (AD 1329‐1384): Denied transubstantiation

John Huss (AD 1373‐1415): Defined church by Christ‐like living rather than by sacraments

Desiderius Erasmus (AD 1466‐1536): Attacked inconsistency and hypocrisy in the church



Medieval Worship: Mystery and Devotion

The expression of Christian worship during the medieval period orientated

around two major strands: mystery (led by priests) and devotion (led by

monks). Both of these strands had a significant impact on the

development of the church and its worship. Webber (1994) reiterates:

We can trace the beginning of this change from the fourth and fifth

centuries to the early medieval period, the time when two distinct lines of

development become discernible. The established church increasingly

emphasised worship as a mystery, while the monastic movement stressed

the devotional character of worship. (p. 102)

Sweetman (2012) identifies a number of important factors that led to the

development of (and differentiated) both strands:

Worship as Mystery (pp. 6–7)

o The Hardship of Life: This was a time when life was primitive and hard. At a time when people felt

disconnected from God a weekly cleansing through the worship service became very attractive. The

spiritual people (the priests) could do something with God that would avert God’s anger and make

things right. This was later supplemented by the buying of indulgences and possession of relics that

could mysteriously similarly offer forgiveness and salvation.

o State Religion: Because the Roman Empire was Christian (by decree) many compromises were

made in order to accommodate pagan ‘mystery’ religions; including the retaining of pagan festivals

under a Christian mantle. As a result, many practices of the mystery cults (including sympathetic

magic) where not completely abandoned. This in turn led to many Christians believing in a

syncretistic combination of Christianity and mystery religion.

o Low Levels of Education: The people (and sometimes the priests) were poorly educated. The service

was in Latin; so many worshippers did not understand what was happening. All they saw and

understood were the actions of the priests. Consequently theology was rarely subjected to

constructive reflection.

o Separation of Clergy and Laity: The priests

became more separated from the laity and

from the worship service. Eventually the clergy

(priests) took over the whole; i.e. the priests

were the singers, the readers, the congregation

and the celebrant. Specifically, they believed

that the service was a holy act and could not

afford to be spoiled by ‘unholy’ people. The

congregation became observers and screens

were erected to separate the clergy from the

laity in order to ‘quarantine’ the holy act.

Medieval Priest

The people were restricted to the nave (area shown as red)



o The Eucharist: The separation and resulting mystery finally led to the adoption of the doctrine of

transubstantiation (the belief that the bread and wine actually turn into Christ’s body and blood

during the service).

o Reduction of the Word: The significance of the service centred on the sacrifice of Christ and

preaching was not integral to this. The decline of preaching suited many of the clergy who

themselves were poorly educated.

o Ungodly Lives: Because the priest’s job was performing the right actions and saying the right words

the character of the players became irrelevant; and the higher echelons of priestly power became

known for their corruption. Similarly, the people’s part in the pageantry was to get the right words

and actions done for them so that they could be right with God; character was a lesser issue.

Of course these comments are generalized observations with many godly clergy and laity engaging

in a number of reform movements, but overall the church deteriorated in its spiritual influence and

encouraged the superstition of Christians.

Worship as Devotion (p. 8)

o Protest Movement: Originally a protest movement against the growing worldliness of the church,

groups started to separate themselves (from community and religious life) to focus on obeying and

serving God. “Anthony, whom many regard as the first monk, was born about 250 in the village of

Koma” (Shelley, 2008, p. 118) but it was not until the fourth and fifth centuries that the monastic

way of life started to influence every level of the Christian population.

o Prayer as Central: The monastic life revolved around prayer. Webber

(1994) writes, “prayer had always been important in the Christian

tradition, but the new attitude saw prayer as the sole content of

life…everything in life became subordinated to prayer” (p. 105).

o Piety: The monastic movement sought a depth of relationship with

God which was not apparent in the church. However the rigid

emphasis on the discipline of prayer easily turned into excessive piety

at best and legalism at worst. The devotional life of the monastery

became the standard of true spirituality that lay people could not

hope to emulate. Shelley (2008) cites Williston Walker when he writes

’To enter a monastery was to separate from the world, to

abandon the ordinary relationships of social life,’ to shun

marriage and all that the Christian home signifies. And

supporting the whole endeavour was an erroneous view of

man. The soul, said the monk, is chained to the flesh as a

prisoner to a corpse. That is not the biblical view of human life,

and it created a fundamental flaw in monasticism. (p. 123)

o An alternative Path: Monasteries offered an alternative path to

eternal life. People could get to heaven by participating in the mass

(priestly way) and progressing through purgatory, or by the better

way of living a life of devotion (way of the monk).

Interesting Fact:

The organ appeared in the 500s and although initially rejected as

pagan, by the 700s and 800s had emerged in the church, and by the 900s

in the Benedictine monasteries. Initially, the organ was used to sound out the note to start off the chant, but eventually it came to accompany the singing and increase its complexity. By 1300, every significant church possessed an organ and polyphonic music (many sounds) had become

popular.



What are the main aspects of worship that ‘stick out’ to you from the first 1500

years of development? Highlight three major points and comment on their

difference/similarity to 21st century worship.

3. TheReformation:AD1500–1750

Renowned as the birth of Protestant Christianity, the “Reformation delivered essential spiritual and

theological benefits, of course, in the recovery of the biblical gospel of justification by faith through faith

in Christ alone, the translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular, administration of the Eucharist in

both kinds, congregational singing and so forth” (Davis, 2010, p. 79).

As with the previous two periods (the Early Church era and the Middle Ages) the Reformation does not

take place in a historical vacuum. In his book, Exploring Church History, Eckman (2002) writes,

The sixteenth‐century world was one of astounding change. Medieval civilization dominated by

institutionalized Catholicism was disappearing. Modern nation‐states challenged the church for

supremacy, and the voyages of discovery made the world appear smaller. In addition, the Renaissance of

northern Italy had caused many to turn from Catholicism toward the glories of ancient Greece and Rome.

(p. 46)

Within the context of this study, the following historical events are worthy of note:

Printing Press (AD 1440): Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, the printing press facilitated the wide

distribution for information and thought. This in turn challenged the power of political and religious

authorities. By AD 1500 printing presses had already produced an estimated 20 million volumes.

Luther’s 95 Theses (AD 1517): Nailed to the church door at

Wittenberg, Martin Luther’s document of challenge was not

seeking a reformation per se. Moreover Luther was intent on

bringing about renewal from within the established Roman

Catholic Church.

Sola Fide, Sola Scriptura (AD 1520): Ulrich Zwingli adopts

Luther’s doctrines of Sola Fide (by faith alone), Sola Scriptura

(by Scripture alone) to be the heart of his theology.

Diet of Worms (AD 1521): Luther, having burned the papal

bull (issued in response to Luther’s Theses) outside the walls

of Wittenberg, is called before the Diet of Worms but refuses

to recant and is consequently excommunicated by the pope

who declared him a heretic.

Luther's 95 propositions (theses) were motivated by the preaching of John Tetzel

who taught in favour of indulgences.



Vernacular of the People (AD 1522): After hiding at Wartburg castle following his ban from the

empire, Luther returns to Wittenberg and publishes a German translation of the New Testament.

With the aid of the printing press, Luther’s bible translation became a prized book in the homes of

most protestant Christians.

Act of Supremacy (AD 1534): King Henry VIII, having been excommunicated from the Roman Catholic

Church a year earlier, is granted the title “the Only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England,

Called Anglicana Ecclesia.” Consequently, the Church of England separates from Rome.

Institutes of the Christian Religion (AD 1536): John Calvin writes one of the most influential books of

the Reformation, Institutes of the Christian Religion. A systematic theology (from the Protestant

perspective), its two main sources of authority are the Bible and (a distant second, but far ahead of

any other source) Augustine. The volume is published when Calvin is 26 years old.

Congregation of the Inquisition (AD 1542): Largely in response to the Protestant threat, Pope Paul III

establishes the Roman Inquisition (Congregation of the Inquisition); also known as the Holy Office.

Empowered to discover, try, and judge heretics, the Holy Office was the final court of appeal in cases

of heresy.

Council of Trent (AD 1545–1563): The Council of Trent (Roman Catholic) declares the Old Testament,

New Testament, Apocrypha, and unwritten traditions passed through those in line of the apostles to

be authoritative. In so doing it launches what is known as the Counter‐Reformation.

The Peace of Augsburg (AD 1555): Recognizing both Lutheranism and Catholicism in the German

Empire, The Peace of Augsburg, states that Cuius region, eius religio: the doctrinal preferences of the

sovereign dictates that of the region.

In the sixth century, the debate concerning the relationship of the divine and human capacities in Christ divided Christendom. The Chalcedonian Churches experienced schisms in the eleventh century. The Western Church in turn was rent in the sixteenth century over questions concerning salvation, although the roots of the schism go back to the thirteenth century. The Protestant movement very soon gave birth to a number

of Protestant groups divided over doctrine and church government. (Hannah, 2004, p. 1)



The Fourth Reformer (AD 1559): Due to a disagreement with the Lutherans over sacraments and

church government, John Knox (often referred to as the ‘Fourth Reformer’) returned to homeland to

lead the Scottish reformation. Among

his notable works are The Book of

Discipline (AD 1560) and Book of

Common Order (AD 1562).

Birth of the Baptists (AD 1609):

Founded by John Smyth (an ex‐

Anglican Priest), the hallmarks of these

churches are believers’ baptism by

immersion and local government. Early

Baptists are influenced by Mennonites

and Anabaptists. Baptists distinguish

them as being separate from both

Catholics and Protestants.

The Great Migration (AD 1629–1642): The persecution of Puritans in England led to The Great

Migration of immigrants from Europe to America. Religious immigrants (including Puritans, Quakers,

Baptists; as well as German and Swiss Protestants) flocked to Pennsylvania which practiced freedom

of religion. Before it is over, more

than 65 million Europeans will

have moved to North or South

America.

Pietism (AD 1675–): Emphasizing

conversion, individual spiritual

responsibility, practical holiness,

and a relationship with God that

entails emotional involvement, the

Pietistic movement started among

Lutherans but had a great

influence on Protestantism

spawning both the Methodist and

Brethren movements. The focus on the spiritual life of Christians arose as a response to the

increasing worldliness of organized religion, both Catholic and established Protestant.

“What is Protestantism? The best description is still that of Ernst Troeltsch, who early in the

twentieth century called Protestantism a ‘modification of Catholicism’ in which Catholic

problems remain, but different solutions are given” (Shelley, 2008, p. 238).

(Galli & Olsen, 2000, p. 169)

The Great Migration



Key Developments in Worship (AD 1500–1750)

While Luther has been identified and recognised as the instigator and initial catalyst of the reformation,

he was reluctant to direct liturgical change. “In the midst of growing enthusiasm for reformation, he was

afraid that any liturgical dictum from his hand would be quickly snatched up, widely printed, and applied

as a new law. He did not want anyone saying, ‘This proposal Luther writes is the only true way to do

Christian worship’” (Lathrop, 1994, p. 188). In fact, six Protestant traditions contributed to the reform of

liturgy during this era (Sweetman, 2012, p. 11):

i. Lutheran (most conservative)

ii. Reformed (cerebral and didactic)

iii. Anabaptist (anti‐clerical, emphasised freedom)

iv. Anglican (reinterpretation of Roman Catholic rites)

v. Puritan (scripture based, strong on preaching)

vi. Quaker (removal of liturgies, sermons, music, clergy and sacraments)

A Family Tree of Protestant Denominational Groups (Walton, 2005, p. 73)



Considering your current denominational affiliation, what is your liturgical genealogy?

Are you surprised by your religious heritage? If so, what aspects of your reformational

forefather’s worship (liturgy) do you most resonant with? Furthermore, what areas of

your current church’s worship would you reform?

The following quote from Segler and Bradley (2006) distills the differences further between each of the

reformation groups:

During the Reformation, worship took three main forms. The most conservative reform efforts were the

Lutheran and Anglican. The second was more moderate and produced the Presbyterian or Reformed

patterns. The third and most radical form came in the independent churches of Puritan traditions, such as

the Anabaptists and Quakers. These are the forbearers of the patterns of worship among Baptists,

Congregationalists, and other Free Church groups. (p. 32)

Despite the significant differences between the groups there were a range of theological and practical

matters that Protestants collectively agreed upon. Sweetman (2012, p. 11) notes that with the focus on

the rejection of Roman Catholic Church excesses, the protestant reformers held similar views regarding

worship:

They did not hold to the re‐sacrifice of Christ in the Mass. Luther argued that Mass should be for

the thanksgiving not for propitiating God. They agreed that the idea of a priest saying a Mass to

set people free from sin was a direct contradiction of the gospel of grace.

They rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation. They did not hold to the bread and wine

actually turning into the body and blood of Christ.

They believed that the Word was an essential component of the worship service and should not

be subsumed in the Table. They emphasized the need for Scripture and preaching as essential

aspects of worship.

The reformers held that worship should be relevant and accessible to

the worshippers. It should be conducted in the language of the people

and should be simple enough for the worshippers to understand and

participate fully in the service.

Significantly, the major structural change of the liturgy was its focus: moving

from Table (Eucharist) to Word (preaching). We are now starting to realize a

balance is required. In his book, Christ‐centered Worship, Bryan Chapell (2009)

writes “Just as preaching represents the gospel in word, and as the sacraments

represent the gospel in symbol, so also the liturgy represents the gospel in

structure” (pp. 118–119).

Word and Table



References

Chapell, B. (2009). Christ‐centered worship: Letting the gospel shape our practice. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker

Academic.

Davis, J. J. (2010). Worship and the reality of God: An evangelical theology of real presence. Downers Grove, IL: IVP

Academic.

Eckman, J. P. (2002). Exploring church history. Wheaton, IL: Crossway.

Galli, M., & Olsen, T. (2000). 131 Christians everyone should know. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers.

Hannah, J. D. (2001). Charts of ancient and medieval church history (Vol. 1). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Hannah, J. D. (2004). Charts of reformation and enlightenment church history (Vol. 2). Grand Rapids, MI:

Zondervan.

Hurtado, L. W. (1999). At the origins of christian worship: The context and character of earliest christian devotion

(2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Lathrop, G. (1994). Reformation models of worship: Introduction. In R. Webber (Ed.), Twenty centuries of

Christian worship (Vol. 2). Nashville, TN: Star Song Publishing Group.

Schaff, P., & Schaff, D. S. (1910). History of the Christian church. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Segler, F. M., & Bradley, R. (2006). Christian worship: Its theology and practice (3rd Edition ed.). Nashville, TN:

B&H Publishing Group.

Shelley, B. L. (2008). Church history in plain language (3rd ed.). Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson.

Smith, M. A. E., Swann, J., Butler, T. C., Church, C. L., Dockery, D. S., & Publishers, H. B. (1993). Holman book of

biblical charts, maps, and reconstructions. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers.

Sperry‐White, G. (1994). The influence of the synagogue on early Christian worship. In R. Webber (Ed.), Twenty

centuries of Christian worship (Vol. 2). Nashville, TN: Star Song Publishing Group.

Sweetman, J. (2012). Defining corporate worship: Module 6. Unpublished Learning Guide. Malyon College.

Walton, R. C. (2005). Chronological and background charts of church history (Rev. and expanded ed.). Grand

Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Webber, R. (1994). Worship: Old & new (Rev. and expanded ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

White, J. F. (1993). A brief history of christian worship. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press.

White, J. F. (2000). Introduction to christian worship (3rd ed.). Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press.

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