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Development of the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale for self-monitoring and self-regulation of momentary mood states YOSUKE SAKAIRI*, KENTARO NAKATSUKA, and TAKESHI SHIMIZU University of Tsukuba Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a measure for self-monitoring and self-regulation of momentary mood states. The Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS), consisting of eight words selected on the basis of pleasure and arousal, was created as an efficient measure of self-monitoring. In Study 1, the validity and reliability of the TDMS were examined by administering the measure to 904 university students. Structural equation modeling revealed that mood states were constructed of two components, arousal and pleasure, and factor analysis found two factors, vitality and stability. In Study 2, differences between two mood manipulations, acti- vation (exercise) and relaxation techniques were examined in 224 university students. The results showed that exercise induced higher vitality ( η P 2 62 = . , η G 2 28 = . ) but no change in stability (η p 2 01 < . , η G 2 01 < . ), while relaxation resulted in an increase in stability (η p 2 43 = . , η G 2 11 = . ) but no change in vitality (η P 2 04 = . , η G 2 01 = . ). The TDMS can be combined with various mood manipulations to enable individuals to self-regulate and alter negative psychological states. Key words: self-regulation, mood manipulation, body-based practice, psychometric scale. Psychological research on the self-regulation of negative mood and emotion has increased rapidly in the past decade (Gross, 2007; Vohs & Baumeister, 2011). The aim of the present study was to develop a system for individual self- regulation of psychological and health-related conditions, such as excessive tension or daytime fatigue. The proposed system of mood regula- tion includes adjustments to psychological arousal level, similar to the systems of Larsen (2000) and Thayer (2001). Such interventions could potentially enhance an individual’s quality of life and result in increased work productivity. The mechanism of self-regulation consists of continually monitoring the value of a target and regulating the intended, desired state using some kind of control operation. For example, a system that adjusts a thermostat to appro- priate temperature conditions is a type of self-regulation mechanism. To regulate tem- perature, the current temperature condition is monitored by means of sensors (i.e., a monitor- ing system). The difference from the intended condition is evaluated, and the change of tem- perature that is required for heating or cooling is achieved by means of a switching operation (i.e., a control system). As with temperature adjustment, in order to regulate one’s psycho- logical state, it is necessary to establish the targeted psychological state, to develop a mea- surement scale for monitoring the current state, and to find methods for switching to achieve the desired state. Various methods are available to alter the psychological condition. To regulate the *Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to: Yosuke Sakairi, Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8574, Japan. (E-mail: [email protected]) Japanese Psychological Research 2013, Volume 55, No. 4, 338–349 © 2013 Japanese Psychological Association. Published by Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd. doi: 10.1111/jpr.12021

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Development of the Two-Dimensional Mood Scalefor self-monitoring and self-regulation of

momentary mood states

YOSUKE SAKAIRI*, KENTARO NAKATSUKA, and TAKESHI SHIMIZUUniversity of Tsukuba

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a measure for self-monitoringand self-regulation of momentary mood states. The Two-Dimensional Mood Scale(TDMS), consisting of eight words selected on the basis of pleasure and arousal, wascreated as an efficient measure of self-monitoring. In Study 1, the validity andreliability of the TDMS were examined by administering the measure to 904 universitystudents. Structural equation modeling revealed that mood states were constructedof two components, arousal and pleasure, and factor analysis found two factors,vitality and stability. In Study 2, differences between two mood manipulations, acti-vation (exercise) and relaxation techniques were examined in 224 university students.The results showed that exercise induced higher vitality (ηP

2 62= . , ηG2 28= . ) but no

change in stability (ηp2 01< . , ηG

2 01< . ), while relaxation resulted in an increase instability (ηp

2 43= . , ηG2 11= . ) but no change in vitality (ηP

2 04= . , ηG2 01= . ). The TDMS can

be combined with various mood manipulations to enable individuals to self-regulateand alter negative psychological states.

Key words: self-regulation, mood manipulation, body-based practice, psychometricscale.

Psychological research on the self-regulation ofnegative mood and emotion has increasedrapidly in the past decade (Gross, 2007; Vohs &Baumeister, 2011).The aim of the present studywas to develop a system for individual self-regulation of psychological and health-relatedconditions, such as excessive tension or daytimefatigue. The proposed system of mood regula-tion includes adjustments to psychologicalarousal level, similar to the systems of Larsen(2000) and Thayer (2001). Such interventionscould potentially enhance an individual’squality of life and result in increased workproductivity.

The mechanism of self-regulation consists ofcontinually monitoring the value of a target andregulating the intended, desired state usingsome kind of control operation. For example,

a system that adjusts a thermostat to appro-priate temperature conditions is a type ofself-regulation mechanism. To regulate tem-perature, the current temperature condition ismonitored by means of sensors (i.e., a monitor-ing system). The difference from the intendedcondition is evaluated, and the change of tem-perature that is required for heating or coolingis achieved by means of a switching operation(i.e., a control system). As with temperatureadjustment, in order to regulate one’s psycho-logical state, it is necessary to establish thetargeted psychological state, to develop a mea-surement scale for monitoring the current state,and to find methods for switching to achieve thedesired state.

Various methods are available to alterthe psychological condition. To regulate the

*Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to: Yosuke Sakairi, Faculty of Health and SportSciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai, Tsukuba 305-8574, Japan. (E-mail: [email protected])

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Japanese Psychological Research2013, Volume 55, No. 4, 338–349

© 2013 Japanese Psychological Association. Published by Wiley Publishing Asia Pty Ltd.

doi: 10.1111/jpr.12021

psychological state under excessive tension ordaytime fatigue, body-based practices, such asactivation (i.e., exercise) and relaxation tech-niques are useful. This study proposes a self-regulatory system for the psychological stateby means of both activation and relaxationtechniques.

In the present research, the theoretical struc-ture of the targeted psychological state forself-regulation is developed, and the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS) is proposedas an efficient means for self-monitoring of thisstate, named the momentary mood state. InStudy 1, the validity and reliability of theTDMS were examined. In Study 2, differencesin the effects of two types of mood manipula-tions, activation (exercise) and relaxation tech-niques, were confirmed by use of the TDMS.

Theoretical model of the

momentary mood state

Two theoretical issues are important in definingmomentary mood state.The first concerns theo-retical definitions of affect. Psychological theo-ries of affect can be divided into three broadcategories: (a) basic emotions theories (Ekman,1972, 1992; Izard, 1971, 1991); (b) appraisaltheories (Frijda, 1986; Roseman, 1984; Scherer,1997; Smith & Ellsworth, 1985); and (c) dimen-sional theories (Larsen & Diener, 1992; Russell& Feldman Barrett, 1999; Thayer, 2001; Watson& Tellegen, 1985). Affect is generally dividedinto two components: emotion and mood.But, researchers make different distinctionsbetween emotion and mood (Russell &Feldman Barrett, 1999). At the least, a cleardistinction between an emotional response anda mood state is required. The first two theorieshave some advantages for explaining an emo-tional response to external events (e.g., goodnews or a stressful incident, resulting in delightor anger), as these assume processes for evalu-ating an external stimulus.

In contrast, dimensional theories havemainly focused on psychophysiological activa-tion (Thayer, 2001) and current affect (Yik,Russell, & Feldman Barrett, 1999), rather than

cognitive evaluation. As the psychologicalstate discussed in the present study is not theemotional response but the mood state, inparticular a momentary psychological stateidentified by perceived internal psychologicaland physical sensations, such as dullness onwaking or exhilaration after walking. There-fore, the current study adopts the dimensionaltheories.

The second theoretical issue concerns theconcept of mood itself. It is particularly neces-sary to distinguish two different concepts ofmood: continual mood states that last for aweek or so and momentary mood states thatlast for a brief time. One scale used in dimen-sional theories is the Positive and NegativeAffect Scale (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988),which was developed to measure continualmood states. This scale measures the frequencyof affective episodes during a week, similar tothe Profile of Mood State (POMS; McNair,Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). Many studies usethese continual mood scales to estimatemomentary mood states, creating some confus-ing situations.

The notion of the momentary mood state pro-posed here is similar to the concepts of multidi-mensional activation (Thayer, 1978, 2001), coreaffect (Russell, 2003), and, in particular, back-ground feeling (Damasio, 1999). Althoughvarious theories have defined the momentarymood state,all assume a two-dimensional modelof the psychological state,consisting of two axes:either pleasantness (pleasant-unpleasant) andarousal (excitement-sedation) or energeticarousal (high arousal / pleasure-low arousal /displeasure) and tense arousal (low arousal /pleasure-high arousal / displeasure), which are

the rotated axes (Thayer, 2001). The presentstudy named energetic arousal and the reverseof tense arousal as “vitality” and “stability,”respectively.

In a two-dimensional model of psychologicalstates, a momentary mood state can be repre-sented as a point in two-dimensional space, anda change of psychological state over time orpsychological responses can be represented as aline. By measuring the psychological staterepeatedly as a coordinate point, the change

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in direction of a psychological state and itsmagnitude can be shown as a vector. A scalethat measures the magnitude of change in apsychological state can be considered as asensor that can be used in the regulation of thepsychological condition. By utilizing a simple,quantifiable scale of the momentary moodstate, people can monitor their own psychologi-cal state on a daily basis, much as they canmeasure their physiological state using a ther-mometer or heart rate monitor.

Measurement of the

psychological state

In measuring psychological mood states basedon a two-dimensional model, it is necessary tofocus on the momentary mood states instead ofthe continual mood, from the perspective ofmeasurement validity.

Numerous psychometric methods have beenused to measure the psychological state (e.g.,Ekkekakis, 2011). A variety of scales includefactors that indicate psychological dimensions,such as degree of pleasure, excitement, relax-ation, and psychological activation. Theseinclude the Activation-Deactivation AdjectiveCheck List (AD ACL; Thayer, 1978), theAffect Grid (Russell, Weiss, & Mendelsohn,1989), the UWIST Mood Adjective Check List(Matthews, Jones, & Chamberlain, 1990), theMood Check List (Hashimoto & Tokunaga,1995), and the Physical Activity Affect Scale(Lox, Jackson, Wasley, & Treasure, 2000).

Based on dimension theories, this study rep-resents a mood state as a point on a two-dimensional coordinate plane and a moodchange after self-regulation as a vector on theplane. No more than two axes are necessary toconstruct a two-dimensional coordinate systemrepresenting a psychological state. A set ofeither vitality and stability or pleasure andarousal can be enough.

When a mood is represented as a point on atwo-dimensional plane, the words that describeit most often reflect the far corners of the fourquadrants: high arousal / pleasure, low arousal /displeasure, low arousal / pleasure, and high

arousal / displeasure (Russell & FeldmanBarrett, 1999). This means that high arousalstates are typically described in terms of eitherpleasure or displeasure, and few words are usedthat express a neutral state of excitement.Further, words such as “happy” and “sad” havebeen used in prior research to measure levels ofpleasure and displeasure, but have encom-passed a wide range of arousal levels.

To determine the two axes to be used in themeasurement of mood states, we have identi-fied three requirements for development of thescale to be used in the self-regulation system.

First, we need a practical and convenientexpression for the change from the currentmood state to the targeted mood state in theself-regulation experiment. The AD ACL(Thayer, 1989), which evaluates methods ofactivation and relaxation, fulfills this require-ment, because the two factors of AD ACL canbe used as indicators of the effects induced bythe two methods.

Second, we require high efficiency of ourmood scales during measurement. A largenumber of items would inevitably place con-straints on participants and require a long timeto answer, preventing a flexible experimentaldesign. A smaller number of items within thescale would permit greater efficiency, particu-larly when repeated measurements are con-ducted in experiments. In the many scales basedon dimension theories, the number of itemsranges from 20 to 65, suggesting that scale effi-ciency has not yet been achieved. Even 20 itemsis a large number. It is necessary to minimizethe number of items in the scale to the degreepossible.

Finally, we need to confirm the scale reliabil-ity at the same time. Although the Affect Grid(Russell et al., 1989) allows the individual toself-rate pleasure and arousal levels using oneitem for each level, achieving very good effi-ciency, this scale is difficult to use when wetake measurement reliability into account.Using the test-retest method would providean estimate of measurement reliability, butthis is invalid, because momentary moodstates would be measured over time withoutstability.

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For these reasons, no existing scales cansatisfy our requirements. A new scale must bedeveloped, and the number of items must bedecided based on considerations of both mea-surement efficiency and reliability.

In order to reduce distortion of the psycho-logical state caused by responding over a longtime period, the number of scale items wasminimized. In this study, we tested a theoreticalmodel in which the momentary mood state con-sists of two composite variables, pleasure andarousal, and two factors, vitality and stability.Thus, it was possible to construct a unipolarscale with a minimum of four items and abipolar scale with a minimum of two items. Toconfirm the reliability of the scales, eight andfour items, or two sets of each respective item,are necessary.

The Two-Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS)was developed as a psychometric scale witheight items measured by self-assessment usingmood-expressing words placed in the fourquadrants. The TDMS was assumed to consistof two factors: vitality and stability of psycho-logical states. Pleasure and arousal were

calculated from the sum of the componentscontained in each item.

The results of the mood state measuredusing the TDMS appear as points on a two-dimensional graph, as shown in Figure 1. Bygraphing the intended psychological state andthe current psychological state, the vectordirection and magnitude of change required toachieve the intended state can be shown. Thus,the TDMS can be utilized as a monitoring scalein a self-regulation system of the current psy-chological condition. The changes in scores forthe vitality and stability factors are assumed tobe indicators of the effectiveness of the moodmanipulations of activation (exercise) andrelaxation techniques, respectively.

The purpose of the present study was todevelop a measure for the self-monitoring andself-regulation of an individual’s momentarymood state. Study 1-1 involves the creation ofthe TDMS as a self-monitoring measure. Study1-2 examines the reliability and validity of themeasure. Study 2 tests the effectiveness ofself-adjustment of the psychological state byexercise and relaxation.

Pleasure

High VitalityEnergetic

Lively

High StabilityCalm

Relaxed

+10 +10

Relaxation

00High

ArousalLow

Arousal

LowStabilityNervous

LowVitality

LethargicListless

-–10–10

DispleasureIrritated

RelaxationActivationActivation

GoalGoal

Figure 1 A model of self-regulation using the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale.

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Study 1-1

The purpose of Study 1-1 was to create a scalethat can reliably and efficiently measuremomentary mood states. According to thisscale, the psychological state consists of the twodimensions of pleasure and arousal.

Method

Procedure. Item collection for descriptorsof the psychological state was conductedusing a variety of sources. Eighty-three wordsexpressing mood state were derived from Japa-nese versions of mood scales used in previousstudies (Hashimoto & Tokunaga, 1995; Loxet al., 2000; Matthews et al., 1990; Thayer,1978). Seventy-one words representing pleas-ant mood and 51 words representing unpleas-ant mood were derived from the Dictionary ofEmotional Words (Nakamura, 1993). An addi-tional 85 words were collected from a survey ofmood during sports from 51 university studentsin the Athletic Department of the University ofTsukuba. All words were written in Japanese.From these words, 17 words commonly used toexpress mood state were selected based on theresults of pilot studies. Words were excludedthat expressed emotional responses that weredifficult to understand or ambiguous for univer-sity students and also for a variety of Japanesepeople, from junior high school students toadults over 70 years old.

The scale was administered to 120 universitystudents (62 male, 58 female) at the Universityof Tsukuba. The participants were instructed to

rate each word in terms of pleasure level(displeasure-pleasure) and arousal level (lowarousal-high arousal) using an 11-point scaleranging from -5 to +5.

ResultsBased on the results of the assessment of the 17words with affective meaning, eight items werechosen, as shown in Table 1. The actual itemswere Japanese words; the English words shownin the table are equivalent items based on backtranslation. The eight words selected repre-sented the four quadrants of the two-dimensional coordinate plane, in the followingcategories: (a) high arousal-pleasure (A+P+); (b)low arousal-displeasure (A-P-); (c) low arousal-pleasure (A-P+); and (d) high arousal-displeasure (A+P-). The TDMS was createdusing a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 0 “Notat all” to 5 “Extremely.” The participants wereasked to indicate how they were feeling at thattime by using the scale.

After the TDMS was scored, pleasure andarousal levels were calculated based on the for-mulas below.These equations use the measureddata from the four sets of words, with affectivemeaning based on pleasure and arousal levels.

Pleasure level P A P A P A P A P: = + − −+ + − + + − − −

(1)

Arousal level A A P A P A P A P: = + − −+ + + − − + − −

(2)

The two items A+P+ and A-P- and the two itemsA-P+ and A+P- are located in opposite corners

Table 1 Evaluation of the affective meaning of items used in the Two-DimensionalMood Scale

Quadrant Affect Arousal level Pleasure levelM (SD) M (SD)

High arousal-pleasure 活気にあふれた Energetic 3.57 (1.17) 3.80 (1.19)(A+P+) イキイキした Lively 3.06 (1.47) 4.13 (1.18)Low arousal-displeasure 無気力な Lethargic -3.65 (1.58) -3.20 (1.74)(A-P-) だらけた Listless -3.30 (1.44) -3.20 (1.82)Low arousal-pleasure リラックスした Relaxed -2.10 (2.39) 3.89 (1.30)(A-P+) 落ち着いた Calm -2.40 (2.14) 3.10 (1.66)High arousal-displeasure イライラした Irritated 2.72 (2.37) -4.00 (1.39)(A+P-) ピリピリした Nervous 2.88 (2.04) -2.75 (1.85)

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of the two-dimensional coordinate plane. Byrotating the axes, the two factors of vitality andstability can be extracted, allowing use of thefollowing scoring formulas:

Vitality level V A P A P: = −+ + − − (3)

Stability level S A P A P: = −− + + − (4)

Each scale score of the TDMS was calculatedusing the four equations above. If calculationswere to be carried out via computer, factorloadings and path coefficients should have beenused as weighting factors for each item.However, because the scale was intended to beused in a paper and pencil test as a tool forself-monitoring, simplicity of self-scoring was apriority. Thus, the raw scores were used withoutweighting factors.

Study 1-2

The primary goal of Study 1-2 was to verify thefactor structure of the scale using structuralequation modeling (SEM) path analysis. Ourmodel hypothesized two axes of pleasure andarousal levels on a two-dimensional plane. Thesecond goal was to examine the reliability ofeach factor.

Method

Participants. The participants were 904 uni-versity students (male = 493, female = 411;mean age � SD = 20.4 � 2.3 years) enrolled infive undergraduate classes at the University ofTsukuba.All participants voluntarily consentedto the evaluation.

Procedure. Table 1 shows the eight items ofthe TDMS. All participants were asked to com-plete the TDMS questionnaire in class. Thequestionnaire asked about the present psycho-logical state of each participant using a 6-pointLikert scale ranging from 0 = “Not at all” to5 = “Extremely.” Students in four of the fiveclasses (n = 685) also completed an 11-pointmeasure of pleasure-displeasure and arousallevel on a scale ranging from -5 to +5.

Structural equation modeling. As shownin Study 1-1, the eight items measuring moodstate can be represented on the following fourquadrants of the plane: high arousal-pleasure,low arousal-displeasure, low arousal-pleasure,and high arousal-displeasure.

A path model was constructed based on theassumption that pleasure and arousal are twocomposite variables that consist of latentfactors corresponding to the four quadrants.These two composite variables are latent vari-ables in the model and have external criterialinked to the observed variables of pleasureand arousal. Variances of all the latent factorswere fixed at one. Although measurements ofthe observed variables of arousal and pleasurewere missing in one class, parameters were esti-mated using full information maximum likeli-hood (FIML; Arbuckle, 1996) so that all dataobtained could be used in parameter estima-tion. All parameters in the path model wereestimated using the SEM software Mplus 6.1.

Exploratory factor analysis. The items ofthe TDMS consisted of words with affectivemeaning associated with both the pleasure andarousal axes. After rotation of the axes byfactor analysis, the vitality factor that polarizedhigh arousal-pleasure and low arousal-displeasure and the stability factor that polar-ized low arousal-pleasure and high arousal-displeasure, were extracted. A factor analysisconfirmed the factor structure of the scale usingSPSS 17.0. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA)was conducted, fixing the number of factors attwo and estimating maximum likelihood usingpromax rotation. After EFA, the reliabilities ofthe vitality, stability, pleasure, and arousal scaleswere calculated using Spearman-Brown’s coef-ficient and Cronbach’s a.

ResultsThe mean scores were 3.38 � 4.36 SD forstability, 0.42 � 4.29 SD for vitality, 3.80 �

6.72 SD for pleasure, and -2.96 � 5.43SD forarousal (n = 904).

As expected, EFA extracted two factors,which can be interpreted as stability and

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vitality, with positive correlation, r = .31 (seeTable 2); cumulative R2 was 65.5%.

The path model in SEM showed a relativelygood fit, with CFI = 0.964, TLI = 0.927, andRMSEA = 0.090 (Figure 2), indicating that thecomposite variables of pleasure and arousalwere independent of each other, r = .001.These results indicated that the TDMS had asatisfactory level of factorial and constructvalidity.

Using Spearman-Brown’s coefficient, thereliabilities of each scale for stability, vitality,pleasure, and arousal were .90, .89, .91, and .87,respectively. All scales reached a satisfactorylevel of reliability. Using Cronbach’s a, the reli-abilities of each scale were .83, .80, .77, and .58,respectively. The reliability of the arousal scalewas not high, as this was computed using thedifference scores between vitality and stability(V - S). As discussed by Feldt and Brennan(1989), difference scores with a positivecorrelation inevitably result in a decrease inreliability.

Study 2

The purpose of Study 2 was to examine thedifferences in the psychological effects ofmanipulating mood states by activation andrelaxation techniques using the TDMS. It washypothesized that the vitality score wouldincrease after use of low-intensity rhythmicexercise as an activation technique, and that the

Table 2 Factor loading matrix of theTwo-Dimensional Mood Scale

Stability (安定度) Vitality (活性度)

Relaxed 0.85 0.03Calm 0.84 -0.04Irritated -0.62 0.01Nervous -0.61 0.12Energetic 0.01 0.90Lively 0.19 0.76Lethargic 0.07 -0.60Listless 0.23 -0.53R2 0.40 0.26

Figure 2 Principal component and factor analysis in the path model. Both P and A are principal component.Paths of correlation between factors (A-P+, A+P+, A+P-, A-P-) were omitted in this figure.

Y. Sakairi, K. Nakatsuka, and T. Shimizu344

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stability score would improve after use of arelaxation technique. The predictive validity ofthe vitality and stability scales of the TDMS asindicators of mood manipulating effects wasexamined.

Method

Procedure. Two hundred twenty-fourundergraduate students participated in theexperiment (n = 224; male = 165, female = 59;mean age = 19.4 � 3.0 SD years). All partici-pants performed both activation and relaxationconditions based on a within-subjects factorialdesign. The participants were divided into twogroups and the order of the conditions wascounterbalanced. Participants completed theTDMS both pre- and post-intervention for eachtechnique, for a total of four separate adminis-trations per participant. To confirm the differ-ences between the activation and relaxationtechniques with regard to physiological effects,heart rate (HR) in beats per minute (bpm) wasalso measured for each participant pre- andpost-intervention.

Activation condition. During the activationcondition, the participants were asked to formpairs and face one another. The participantswere then instructed to perform low-intensityexercise using the whole body for 3 min (meanpre-exercise HR = 65.2 bpm, mean post-exercise HR = 71.7 bpm). During this time,music with a rhythm of 136 bpm was played inthe background.

Relaxation condition. After simple musclerelaxation of the upper body (face, neck, shoul-ders, and arms), participants were instructed toscan their bodily sensations from head to legs.The total duration of the relaxation con-dition was 3 min (mean pre-relaxation HR =63.8 bpm, mean post-relaxation HR = 61.9bpm).

Analysis. Using the mean vectors for vital-ity and stability scores on the TDMS pre- andpost-exercise and relaxation, a MANOVA wasused to test the differences in the following four

conditions: (a) between pre-exercise andpre-relaxation (no differences were expected);(b) between pre- and post-exercise; (c) betweenpre- and post-relaxation; and (d) between post-exercise and post-relaxation. If the MANOVAmodel reached significance, within-subjectsrepeated measures ANOVAs would be con-ducted as post hoc analyses to test each scaleof the TDMS (vitality, stability, pleasure, andarousal). Generalized eta square ηG

2( ) (dis-cussed by Bakeman, 2005), as well as partial etasquare ηP

2( ), were calculated as effect sizes. JMP9.0 and SPSS 19.0 were used for the statisticalanalysis.

ResultsPre- and post-intervention TDMS scores forvitality and stability and HR are shown inTable 3. Pleasure and arousal levels are alsoshown. Changes in mood state on the two-dimensional space of psychological state areshown in Figure 3.

As seen in Figure 3, no difference wasobserved between the pre-exercise and pre-relaxation conditions. The MANOVA revealedno significant difference between these condi-tions, F(2, 222) = 0.98, ns; therefore, mood statesat the start of treatment in both conditions werenot different from each other.

There was a significant change in meanvector from pre- to post-exercise, F(2, 222) =192.4, p < .001. A post-hoc ANOVA revealed asignificant increase in vitality, ηG

2 0 279= . ; F(1,223) = 367.8, p < .001, but no change in stability,ηG

2 0 000= . ; F(1, 223) = 0.29, ns. After exercise,both arousal, ηG

2 0 245= . ; F(1, 223) = 274.8,p < .001, and pleasure, ηG

2 0 162= . ; F(1, 223) =169.7, p < .001, significantly increased, relativeto the pre-exercise condition.

A significant mean vector difference was alsofound from pre- to post-relaxation, F(2, 222) =84.0, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis found signifi-cant differences both in stability, with a sub-stantial effect size, ηG

2 0 114= . ; F(1, 223) = 167.2,p < .001, and in vitality, with a very smalleffect size ηG

2 0 007= . ; F(1, 223) = 8.67, p < .01.After relaxation, the pleasure scores increasedηG

2 0 059= . ; F(1, 223) = 81.5, p < .001, although

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© Japanese Psychological Association 2013.

the decrease in arousal level was small,ηG

2 0 021= . ; F(1, 223) = 24.60, p < .001.Finally, the two post conditions were com-

pared to examine the effects of exercise andrelaxation on mood state. There was a signi-ficant difference between the two techniques,

F(2, 222) = 192.19, p < .001. Post-hoc analysisshowed significant differences in both vitalityηG

2 0 222= . ; F(1, 223) = 257.9, p < .001 andstability ηG

2 0 162= . ; F(1, 223) = 146.7, p < .001.The difference in arousal was large, ηG

2 =0 366. ; F(1, 223) = 385.7, p < .001, although the

Table 3 Changes in Two-Dimensional Mood Scale scores and heart rate pre- andpost-intervention

Exercise Relaxation

Effect size Effect size

Pre Post ↑ or ↓ ( ηG2 ) ( ηp

2 ) Pre Post ↑ or ↓ ( ηG2 ) ( ηp

2 )

Vitality M 0.06 4.55 ↑*** 0.28 0.62 0.26 0.90 ↑ ** 0.01 0.04SD 3.98 3.21 3.91 3.61

Stability M 5.32 5.21 0.00 0.00 5.53 7.38 ↑*** 0.11 0.43SD 2.90 2.58 2.80 2.33

Pleasure M 5.38 9.76 ↑*** 0.16 0.43 5.79 8.28 ↑*** 0.06 0.27SD 5.43 4.51 5.29 4.61

Arousal M -5.26 -0.67 ↑*** 0.25 0.55 -5.27 -6.47 ↓*** 0.02 0.10SD 4.36 3.68 4.28 3.97

Pulse(bpm) M 65.15 71.70 ↑*** 0.09 0.52 63.82 61.91 ↓*** 0.01 0.09SD 9.69 11.41 10.78 9.06

**p < .01.***p < .001.

PleasurePre Post

Exercise

Relaxation

High VitalityHigh Stability

+10+10

HighArousal

LowArousal 0

+5+5

0

–5 –5

LowStability

LowVitality

–10–10

Displeasure

Figure 3 Changes in mood states with exercise and relaxation.

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difference in pleasure was small, ηG2 0 026= . ;

F(1, 223) = 27.8, p < .001.These results showed that 3 min of light exer-

cise increased arousal and pleasure levels,resulting in a mood state with a high vitalitylevel. In contrast, the 3-min relaxation tech-nique decreased arousal levels and increasedpleasure levels, causing high stability levels.Overall, these changes in mood state supportedour hypothesis. The direction and magnitudesof changes in mood state are shown in Figure 3as vectors in two-dimensional space.

As indicators of change in mood states,scores of both vitality and stability levels andpleasure and arousal levels can be used,depending on the intended purpose. Thepresent study used the indicators of vitality andstability levels primarily as a way to examinethe difference in the effects induced by exerciseand relaxation techniques. However, in othersituations, it may be more suitable to use plea-sure or arousal levels. For example, pleasuremay best be used for improving pleasant moodstates irrespective of arousal level.

In self-regulation of the psychological state,it is important to adjust the direction of thegoal and the magnitude of the effect. Differ-ences in the effects of the two manipulationtechniques used in this study were demon-strated and are shown in Figure 3 as a vector.For future consideration, it is necessary toquantify the psychological effect as a vector,not only for body-based practice but also forvarious manipulation techniques. Choosing theproper technique according to the intendedpurpose may play a useful role in psychologi-cal self-regulation.

Discussion

The goal of the present study was to develop ameasure that would allow an individual to self-monitor changes in his or her psychologicalstate and to use this information to engagebody-based practices for the self-regulation ofmood. For this purpose, the TDMS was devel-oped in Study 1, and experiments were con-ducted in Study 2 to confirm the expected

changes in mood states after self-regulationtechniques.

The validity of the scale was confirmed usingSEM based on factor analysis using 904 col-lected ratings.Thus, the consistency of the theo-retical model in terms of the momentary moodstate and the construct validity of the TDMSwas verified in a large sample. The results ofSEM indicated that the momentary mood statemeasured using the TDMS can be explained byfour different unipolar scales, corresponding totwo orthogonal axes of pleasure and arousal.The criteria for scale development includedhigh reliability, validity, efficiency, and easeof use.

The proposal of two factors of vitality andstability in the theoretical model was partiallysupported. Based on procedures for creatingcommon measures using factor analysis, thecohesion of the factors relative to loadings of0.4 or more was determined. In the presentstudy, factor loadings of 0.61 to 0.85 for stabilitylevel and 0.53 to 0.90 for vitality level wereobtained, with higher values for coefficient aand the coefficient of reliability. Because thedata showed a correlation between the twofactors, the axes of vitality and stability wereshown to be nonorthogonal. This result mayhave been due to the time period in which datacollection was conducted (i.e., during universityclasses), which may have caused the distribu-tion of arousal to be small relative to pleasure.In a pilot study (unpublished data),TDMS datacollected in the early morning, at noon, and inthe evening resulted in a large dispersion ofarousal levels, and the correlation coefficientbetween the two factors was negative.There is aneed for broader data collection of psychologi-cal states to confirm whether the typical trendof the axes is orthogonal or oblique.

Unlike numerous psychological scales formeasuring psychological traits, the TDMS mea-sures the psychological state, which is assumedto change continually for every individual aswell as in different situations.A scale of psycho-logical traits can be standardized by accumulat-ing data according to various factors, such asage and personality type. However, a scale forthe psychological state is difficult to generalize

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due to large individual differences and the vari-ability of the data. Therefore, the accumulationof a wide range of data will eventually beneeded in order to create a useful database.Thevalidity and reliability of the Japanese versionof the TDMS was confirmed in this study. AnEnglish version of the TDMS must be con-firmed by collecting data from people who useEnglish.

To regulate an individual’s mood stateadequately, a manipulation system consisting ofboth activation and relaxation techniques isrecommended, as well as a monitoring systemutilizing the TDMS. In Study 2, the mood-changing effects of exercise and relaxationtechniques were examined using the TDMS.The results supported the hypothesis that low-intensity exercise as an activation techniqueincreases vitality levels, whereas relaxationtechniques increase the stability level of a moodstate. Differences in psychological state causedby 3 min of exercise and relaxation were clearlydistinguished by the TDMS. The change in sta-bility level was small compared with the changein vitality level. This result could have beenobtained because an individual’s psychologicalstate at pre-intervention during class was ahighly stable condition.

The TDMS can be used to assess mood statesat any time in an efficient manner. The resultsconfirmed that changes in mood state occurredin the expected directions after exercise andrelaxation techniques. The advantage of theTDMS is that it can be completed in a shortperiod of time through a self-evaluation usingexpressive words, rendering it high in validityand efficiency. In addition, the use of a theoreti-cal model with a two-dimensional space of psy-chological state makes it possible to illustratethe magnitude and direction of the change inmood state using a visual image (Figure 3).

If individuals can reliably use the TDMS as atool for self-monitoring their psychologicalstates throughout the day, they may be able touse mindful, body-based practices to improvetheir own negative psychological states. Toincrease the ease of use and accessibility, theTDMS can be programmed for use on a cellphone or PC, allowing individuals to indepen-

dently accumulate data and display resultsautomatically. In sum, the TDMS appears to bea useful measure for the self-monitoring andself-regulation of mood states on an individualbasis. Further research with larger samples isneeded to further validate and test the clinicalutility of this measure.

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(Received June 27, 2012; accepted March 2, 2013)

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