Education and Information Technologies 9:4, 387–404, 2004. 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Manufactured in The Netherlands.

Designing and Implementing a Project-Based ICTCourse in a Teacher Education Setting:Rewards and Pitfalls

HELEN DRENOYIANNIAristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Education, Pyrgos Paidagogikis Sxolis, Panepistimioupoli,541 24 Thessaloniki, GreeceE-mail: edren@eled.auth.gr

Abstract

ICT literacy is more than the ability to operate a computer system. It includes an intricate and sophisticated setof higher order skills and cognitive capabilities. In view of the relevant literature, a project-based ICT literacycourse was designed with the aim of addressing and developing such capabilities in combination to technicalskills acquisition. The course was implemented in a Greek university and a small cohort of undergraduate traineeteachers participated in it. Analysis of the tutor’s field notes and students’ anonymous written comments anddescriptions of the course led to a list of successes and failures regarding the objectives set, the learning envi-ronment, the assessment method employed and the project themes selected. Students’ evidenced lack of basicinformation skills and inexperience with project work were the main factors inhibiting and influencing the wholeprocess. Findings are discussed with reference to previous studies and they seem to reinforce the idea that theproblems encountered in ICT education are mostly pedagogical rather than technological.

Keywords: ICT literacy, information skills, initial teacher training, case study, project-based approach

Introduction

The wide proliferation of information and communication technology in primary and sec-ondary education, as well as in society itself has led to the introduction of ICT as an in-dispensable component of the initial professional development of teachers. The nature andthe form of this introduction is variable across countries and dependent upon a range of in-stitutional and other factors, but many teacher preparation programs are trying to achieve abalance between comprehension of the pedagogical uses of ICT tools and the developmentof ICT operational skills.

Relevant literature (McNair and Galanouli, 2002; Beyerbach et al., 2001; Chrisostomouand Selwood, 2001; Cuckle et al., 2000) suggests that basic computer skill-focused coursesfail to prepare teachers to use ICT to support teaching and learning. Furthermore, the sameliterature proposes the employment of a horizontal approach in which ICT componentsare integrated into subject methods courses and teaching practice. However, the integratedapproach is not without weaknesses. Its success is conditional and dependent on a rangeof critical factors, such as the presence of a coherent, consistent and committed ICT policy

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Figure 1. ICT Literacy organizational scheme (ETS, 2002: 18).

and development plan, the availability of resources and the level of “ICT literacy” skillsof both educators and students (BECTA, 2003a, 2003b; Larson et al., 2002; McNair andGalanouli, 2002; Chrisostomou and Selwood, 2001; Cuckle et al., 2000; Trushell et al.,1995).

It also appears that trainees enter teacher education programs with variable computeroperating skills, with some never having used a computer and others being quite proficient(Pritchard, 2001; Cuckle et al., 2000; Roblyer and Edwards, 2000; Fisher, 2000; ACE,1999). Obviously, lack of computer skills is a major obstacle that cannot be ignored. It canimpede pedagogical training in the use of ICT for teaching and learning and it is a prereq-uisite for efficient and effective classroom use of ICT applications (OECD, 2001; Chrisos-tomou and Selwood, 2001; Fisher, 2000). Thus, it seems that beginning computer usersprefer or need to be taught basic skills before tackling pedagogical uses of ICT (BECTA,2003b; Snoeyink and Ertmer, 2001; Fisher, 2000). Even in-service teachers, who have al-ready had some ICT training, perceive the development of technical skills and knowledgeas a major training priority (Williams et al., 2000).

Apparently, lack of technical skills is only part of the problem of teacher training in ICT.ICT relevant literacies, such as ICT capability (DfEE-QCA, 1999; OECD/CERI, 2001;Kennewell et al., 2000), digital literacy (Gilster, 1997; OECD/CERI, 2001), IT fluency(CITL, 1999) and ICT literacy (ETS, 2002), consider intellectual/cognitive proficienciesand critical competencies as inseparable parts of the nature of ICT education. Even though,a comparative view and discussion of these literacies’ working definitions is provided else-where (Drenoyianni and Mylona, 2004) it seems necessary for the purposes of this paperto refer to one of the most recent and prevailing definitions of ICT literacy. According tothe International Panel of ICT Literacy of the Educational Testing Service, “ICT literacy isusing digital technology, communications tools, and/or networks to access, manage, inte-grate, evaluate and create information in order to function in a knowledge society” (ETS,2002: 2).

As illustrated in Figure 1, ICT literacy is represented as the development of five criticalICT proficiencies, each of which requires the integration and application of both cognitiveand technical proficiency skills. As such, ICT literacy is more than the ability to operatea computer. It presupposes the acquisition of basic technical skills, but it extends beyondthis and includes a complex and sophisticated set of capabilities related to collecting andretrieving, organizing and managing, interpreting and representing, evaluating and creatinginformation.

Consideration of all of the above mentioned issues point to important concerns regardingthe content, the structure and the organization of the ICT experiences offered in the con-

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text of teacher education institutions. It is the author’s viewpoint that simplistic dichotomyquestions of the type “either stand alone courses or integration of skills” may cause disori-entation because they seem to concentrate on the form of training provision rather than itscontent and objectives, and may overlook the complexity of the multiple roles of ICT ineducation. It could be argued that initial teacher preparation in ICT might be better servedby the employment of a multi-level and multifaceted approach in which different skills andknowledge and/or differentiated levels of skills and knowledge are addressed at differentphases of the teacher education experience. A particularly good example of such an ap-proach is the one recommended by the International Society for Technology Education,which is extensively presented and described in detail in the book “Preparing Teachers toUse Technology” (ISTE, 2000). To be more specific, the employment of a multi-level ap-proach may mean that the development of student teachers’ ICT literacy skills and knowl-edge should precede training addressing the pedagogical integration of ICT and should beplaced in the foundation or general preparation stage of the teacher education program.It could also mean that students’ ICT literacy development may be achieved through theprovision of both ICT specific courses and the integration of ICT literacy skills across thefoundation courses of a typical teacher education curriculum.

This line of reasoning gave rise to the idea of designing and implementing an ICT coursethat would adequately address the development of student teachers’ ICT literacy skills atan early phase of their studies. Furthermore, the course would sufficiently prepare themto meet the requirements of the next phase, namely the main professional stage of theirprogramme, which would be targeted at the use of ICT for teaching and learning and its in-tegration in education. The small scale study reported in this paper attempts to describe theplanning and implementation procedure of this ICT literacy course, review the outcomes,and examine students’ attitudes and reactions towards it. Finally, it should be noted thatthis study took place in a Greek university with a small cohort of undergraduate, primarytrainee teachers. As a result, a description and discussion of the Greek educational contextin terms of both teacher education and ICT training provision appears necessary.

The Greek Educational Context

According to the Greek constitution, education is a basic mission of the state and is pro-vided free of charge at all levels. Due to the firm and strict state control of the Ministry ofEducation and Religious Affairs, the Greek educational system has been repeatedly por-trayed as ‘centralized’, ‘bureaucratic’ and ‘authoritarian’ (Kazamias, 1990; Ifanti, 2000;Chrysos, 2000), and the prevailing educational rationale seems to follow a ‘humanistic’and ‘encyclopaedic’ tradition (McLean, 1990; Kynigos, 2001). Some of the attributes thatappear to justify such characterizations are reported below:

• The curriculum is national, compulsory and uniform and it is designed, formulated andcontrolled by the Pedagogical Institute and the Ministry. The curriculum is more like asyllabus, as subject matter and number of hours put into each content area are describedin detail (Eurydice, 2003; Ifanti, 2000; Pigiaki, 1999).

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• There is a single compulsory textbook for each subject approved by the Pedagogical In-stitute and the Ministry (Eurydice, 2003). Each textbook contains the topics and lessonsto be taught, the questions to be posed and problems to be solved by the pupils, as wellas assessment and evaluation sheets. Textbooks cover a great deal of subject matterand their content is very much ‘academic’, a simplified version of university contentknowledge. As such, the teaching environment is dominated by a reproductive, knowl-edge transmission-oriented philosophy and the teachers’ anxiety to cover the textbookmaterial (Vosniadou and Kollias, 2001; Kynigos, 2001; Papagueli-Vouliouris, 1999).

• Teacher education takes place at university level and consists of an eight-semester pro-gram of study. Recruitment is based on a written competitive examination for vacantposts. Teachers, who succeed in the exams, are employed by the Ministry, they havea civil servant status and their duties and responsibilities, inspection and evaluation arespecified by relevant state legislation (Eurydice, 2000/2001; Chrysos, 2000; Pigiaki,1999).

• Educational reforms have been described as short-lived and abortive, influenced by thepolitical priorities of each successive government. Most of the reform measures aim atthe evaluation mechanisms of both student and teacher performance rather than radicalchanges in curricula, teaching methods, and textbooks (Zambeta, 2002; Chrysos, 2000;Vosniadou and Kollias, 2001; Ifanti, 2000; Persianis, 1998).

Within this context, it is realistic to suggest that pre-service education of primary teach-ers cannot remain unaffected. It could be argued, that students tend to enter teacher ed-ucation institutions with a teacher-centered philosophy, which supports an information-transmission and an examinations-oriented model of education. On the other hand, cur-riculum content, course planning, structure and evaluation are significantly influenced bythe extent of funding, the availability of human resources and the number of students ad-mitted. Universities are considered autonomous, but crucial issues, such as the ones pre-viously mentioned, are centrally decided and directed by the Ministry of Education. Assuch, the content and structure of initial primary teacher education programs vary acrossUniversity Departments for Primary Education. However, it could be suggested that mostprimary teacher education curricula follow a three-phase model (Trilianos, 1998). The firstphase focuses on general pedagogical, psychological, sociological and historical principlesunderlying approaches to teaching and learning. The second concentrates on subject spe-cific methodologies of teaching and learning and the third on student practical experience,which may involve observation of classroom teaching and the preparation and implemen-tation of lesson plans in primary schools (Trilianos, 1998).

As regards ICT, it is notable that all Greek primary teacher education institutions haveincluded ICT as a compulsory component of their training program (Eurydice, 2000/2001).Again, the range and the form of this inclusion may vary across institutions, but most pro-grams place emphasis on both the development of ICT skills for personal and professionaluse and the integration of ICT in teaching and learning. The need for skills acquisition maystem from the fact that lack of computing skills is especially marked in Greece (CEDEFOP,2003) and that many students enter teacher education with a degree of anxiety and uncer-tainty, which is significantly associated with their level of computer knowledge/experience

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(Tsitouridou and Vryzas, 2001). On the other hand, training in the use of ICT for teachingand learning is considered an absolute necessity, but it seems that it may suffer from prob-lems and inadequacies relative to the overall Greek educational context. The great majorityof public schools have not incorporated ICT in their everyday practices and whenever ICTis introduced, it “becomes assimilated in the existing teacher-centered transmission ori-ented philosophy of teaching” (Vosniadou and Kollias, 2001: 358).

Designing the ICT Literacy Course

Overview of design issues and background

The need for undergraduate courses that focus not only on the acquisition of basic techni-cal skills, but also on the competent and effective use of a range of ICT applications hasbeen appreciated by many theorists and researchers in the area of ICT (Taylor, 2003; Wonget al., 2003; Dougherty et al., 2002; Wang, 2002; Beyerbach et al., 2001; Clift et al., 2001;Pritchard, 2001; Fisher, 2000). Even though design issues of ICT courses are approachedfrom a variety of perspectives, such as constructivism (Wong et al., 2003; Wang, 2002;Beyerbach et al., 2001) or IT competency frameworks (Dougherty et al., 2002), their pro-posals and recommendations appear to be quite similar and can be summarized in a set ofguidelines. Successful undergraduate and pre-service education training in the use of ICTappears to have the following characteristics:

• It is focused on the process of teaching and learning rather than the provision of instruc-tion and the delivery of pre-specified content. Therefore, it is mainly project-based, hasa problem-solving nature and involves resource-based learning approaches. In view ofthat:

•• The learning tasks and hands-on ICT activities are realistic, germane to trainees’ per-sonal and professional life, with direct relevance to the context of teaching practice.As such, they are interesting and motivating because they have a clear significancewhich trainees can actually understand, and they reinforce the connection betweenthe pre-service training experience and the tangible, real-life use of technologicalapplications (Wong et al., 2003; Taylor, 2003; Dougherty et al., 2002; Beyerbachet al., 2001; Clift et al., 2001).

•• The projects and assignments are carefully chosen so as to cater for the develop-ment of trainees’ information literacy and information handling skills with technol-ogy. Hence, they involve information seeking and analysis, interpretation, evalua-tion, synthesis and, in general, appropriate use of data and information (Wong et al.,2003; Dougherty et al., 2002).

•• The learning environment is supportive, competition free and non-threatening. Help,support and guidance from peers and tutors is greatly valued and trainees are encour-aged to work collaboratively in the pursuit of common learning aims, to share ideas,have discussions and most importantly, enjoy themselves (Wong et al., 2003; Wang,2002; Beyerbach et al., 2001; Fisher, 2000).

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Table 1. The multi-level approach employed in terms of ICT training provision

Courses and year of study Content outline and ICT focus

Year 1 Development of students’ ICT literacy skills and knowledgeIntroduction to ICT(Compulsory module – 36 hours)

Year 2Approaching ICT literacy inprimary school – pedagogical dimensions(Elective module – 36 hours)

Focused on the nature and attributes of ICT literacy, the waysin which ICT is conceptualized in different parts of the world,the ways in which ICT is introduced into primary educationcurricula, and the various ways in which ICT is integrated intoteaching and learning

Years 2 and 3Subject methods modules

Integration of ICT components in various subject methodol-ogy modules, such as Science, Geography, History, and Greeklanguage

Year 3The pedagogical use of ICT in theprimary classroom(Compulsory module – 36 hours)

Focused on the implementation of the Greek ICT primary cur-riculum, review and evaluation of educational software andICT devices, the integration of ICT in relation to the practicalapplication of four pedagogical theories and didactic modelsand issues of designing, organizing and managing ICT use inthe classroom

Year 4Students’ practical exercise

The intention here is for students to develop, plan and imple-ment lesson plans, which integrate ICT into teaching and learn-ing. However, this is not possible at the moment due to lack ofqualified personnel and the necessary school infrastructure

• Assessment methods, if any, are related to the active, project centered character of thetasks and tend to concentrate on the improvement of practice rather than the evaluation ofthe outcome. Thus, the most usual techniques employed are group assignments, writtenprojects, presentations and portfolios (McNair and Galanouli, 2002; Beyerbach et al.,2001; Pritchard, 2001).

An ICT literacy course was designed that took into account both the above set of guidelinesand the attributes of ICT literacy mentioned in the introduction of this paper. It was con-ducted in the context of the Introduction to ICT, a compulsory module offered to all Greekpre-service primary teachers admitted to a B.Ed at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,School of Education. However, it should be noted that this module is the first in a range ofcourses addressing ICT within the overall teacher education program of the School of Ed-ucation. The Table 1 illustrates the multi-level approach employed in terms of ICT trainingprovision.

Consequently, the “Introduction to ICT” course should not be seen as an end in itself,but as a preparatory stage, in which students build on their ICT confidence and learn to uti-lize ICT tools within a context. The necessity of including this preparatory module into theteacher education program has been repeatedly stressed by the students themselves. More-over, a policy of asking students to be computer competent prior to entering the teacher ed-ucation program is incompatible with our department’s philosophy of education. It would

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actually put students of low and middle socioeconomic background in the difficult positionof having to pay for lessons in the private sector.

As part of the differentiation policy employed by the course developer, tutor and authorof this paper, all students enrolling in the course are required to complete an ICT skills test1

on their entry to it. In turn, students are divided into ICT competency groups according totheir score and trained through activities, practical exercises and assignments that acknowl-edge and provide for their diverse needs. The ICT literacy course described was used witha small cohort of 16 students comprising the most experienced ICT users that had enrolledin the Introduction to ICT module in the beginning of spring 2003. Their average scorewas 70/100 (min = 58, max = 88.5) and their responses to the ICT test indicated thatthey had basic knowledge of hardware, they could operate the most common functions ofwell-known technological applications, such as word processors, Web browsers and e-maileditors, but they were less able in the use of spreadsheets.

Procedure and description

The course consisted of twelve 3-hour weekly workshop sessions, all of which were heldin a computer lab. In particular, it required student teachers to spend almost all of theclass time in a lab, working on a semester long project which included the creation of a20-minute presentation. The project themes were not common for all, but students hadto select their favorite theme from a list of about 10 titles. This list was composed aftera discussion of the impact of ICT on education and society that had taken place duringthe first session of the course. The themes included the list were the main issues that thestudents and the tutor raised during this first session. Trainees’ choices of project titles areshown in the list below:

1. Describing and evaluating Web portals for teachers.2. Educational software for Greek children: A description.3. Electronic games and their impact on children’s behavior and values.4. In-service teacher training in the use of ICT – Current initiatives in Greece.5. Action “Odysseia”: A Greek initiative for the introduction of ICT in secondary educa-

tion.6. The study of PISA (OECD-Programme for International Students Assessment) and its

results: The case of Greece.

Students that had selected the same themes were encouraged to work together but theysoon realized that project titles were broad enough to be divided into several sub-themes.After a number of group discussions, each team member ended up working on a specificissue of the main theme selected.

Following project selection, students were asked to search for and locate relevant infor-mation on the Internet. Since no one knew how to perform a complex search, the process

1 This test was developed by the author of this paper as a means of auditing and monitoring students’ computerskills. It was compiled using the current Greek secondary education ICT syllabi and textbooks.

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of finding specific information regarding a particular issue, provided the group with theopportunity to develop their information seeking strategies and address the “Access” com-ponent of the ICT literacy continuum (see Figure 1). Advanced search techniques wereintroduced and the use of Boolean and other operators was applied and understood. Fur-thermore, idiosyncrasies of different search engines and web databases were identified andthe utilization of special ICT tools, such as Copernic Plus2 was considered.

The selection, organization and evaluation of the information gathered followed theprocess of locating relevant information. During this stage students had to produce shortword-processed summaries and outlines of the most valuable information. These weresupposed to help them in the construction and creation of their final presentations.

Based on the information collected and processed, each student was also required toform a question that could be addressed to other pre-service teachers. When all the ques-tions were gathered, the group was able to produce a common questionnaire. As we willsee, this questionnaire would serve multiple purposes. The most important was to in-volve student teachers in the process of collecting, organizing and analyzing research data.Indeed, short discussions and negotiations led to the addition of a number of commonquestionnaire items, representing the independent variables of the cohort’s study. Notably,the process of questionnaire editing and construction enabled students to use the desktoppublishing features and special functions of the word-processor.

Since each student was responsible for administering 10 questionnaires to fellow pre-service teachers, a considerable amount of data was collected. Following the process ofinitial coding and data entry in a spreadsheet, the need for data sharing and exchangingbecame apparent. Every student needed the data gathered by the all the others in order towork on the responses to his/her own question. As a result, networking issues were con-sidered and data exchange was performed using the Intranet facilities of the computer lab.The procedures of data coding, organization and analysis offered students the opportunityto get involved in the actual use of a spreadsheet application and experience its potential.Data sorting, recoding and manipulation, use of filters, statistical functions, pivot tablesand graphs were some of the features utilized. Additionally, and more importantly stu-dent teachers had the chance to realize in practical terms the value of these features insupporting the processes of interpreting and understanding the data collected.

The final stage of the course entailed the creation of a 20-minute presentation of theproject theme selected. It was expected that this presentation would be a coherent synthesisof the information gathered and the research results of the study conducted. During theprocess of presentation construction a number of significant issues were raised. Besidestechnical execution and familiarization with the features and the capabilities of presentationsoftware, design and content composition concepts were considered and widely discussed.

Student teachers’ performance was assessed by means of portfolio and presentation.Their presentations took place on a pre-specified day during the exam period on whichthe course tutor and the cohort met, attended the presentations and posed questions to the

2 Copernic Plus is an award winning meta-search toolbox developed by Copernic Inc. Enables the user to queryover 1000 Web search engines simultaneously, access around 90 search categories, translate Web pages, man-age, organize and export search results in a variety of formats.

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presenters. On the same day, students submitted a portfolio. This “represented an effortto capture the steps and phases through which students passed in the course of developinga project, product, or work of art” (Gardner, 1991: 240) and contained all the resourcescollected and the materials produced throughout the period of the course.

The Implementation: Results and Discussion

In an attempt to capture learners’ perspectives and reactions to the course, a list of open-ended questions was formulated which required students to describe and comment on thecontent, the structure, the benefits and the limitations of the course implemented. Studentswere asked to give considerable thought to all of these points before answering. Theiranonymous written responses were handed in during the last session of the course. Thisfeedback together with the portfolios and presentations, and the field notes kept by thecourse tutor and author of this paper, constituted a comprehensive record of the experiencesand the achievements of all parties involved. Their comparative analysis resulted in thesuccesses and pitfalls, advantages and disadvantages that are reported in the followingsections of the paper.

Meeting the objectives

Fulfillment of course objectives was not an easy procedure. As was expected, the goal ofincreasing student teachers’ technical expertise was the least problematic. Technical skillswere easily acquired due to students’ previous experience, which enabled them to transfertheir knowledge of one application to the use of the features of a new one. This was alsoevident in Taylor’s (2003) study of student teachers’ ICT histories, in which experiencedusers appeared to have “a more sophisticated mental framework of how software normallyworked, into which the details of a particular package were slotted” (Taylor, 2003, p. 136).

On the basis of students’ comments and the contents of their portfolios, it appears thatthey have refined and developed their level of technical proficiency. According to theirremarks, what they found most useful and considered as new knowledge and new skillswere concerned with:

“Statistical analysis, graph creation and the manipulation of multiple variablesthrough the use of spreadsheets;”“The process of seeking information on the Internet without getting lost in a chaosof information;” and“The procedure of preparing and creating a PowerPoint presentation.”

Yet, the most rewarding outcome was that students could discriminate and realize the dif-ferences between the processes of operating a technological application and utilizing it foraccomplishing a particular goal or solving a specific problem. Their comments are quiterevealing:

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“During this course we’ve learned how to benefit from using a computer. In otherwords, we’ve been learning how to make the most of it rather than simply operateit.”“I’d learned a few things about spreadsheets during secondary education but I didn’tremember anything. In this course I’ve learned how to operate applications like Exceland PowerPoint but at the same time I’ve realized their actual value, like what onecan actually do with them.”“In my opinion the most valuable feature of the ICT course was that we’ve learnedhow to conduct and work through a research project in a methodical fashion usingseveral computer applications.”

Undoubtedly, the project based character of the course provided a real and tangible con-text for developing and practicing ICT literacy skills using a range of ICT applicationswith a clear and well-defined purpose. In every step of the process employment of ICTtools never proceeded, but always followed the identification of informational, organiza-tional and other needs as these arose. The success of acquiring ICT skills through problemsolving tasks, and using technological systems for serving specific needs has also been re-ported in the work of other researchers (Taylor, 2003; Wong et al., 2003; Dougherty et al.,2002). According to their findings, the provision of hands-on IT activities, short assign-ments, practical and purposeful exercises can enhance positive attitudes towards ICT andseems to receive the most positive feedback.

Nevertheless, implementation was not without problems. Students’ lack of informationskills was a limiting factor that severely affected the overall quality of course outcomes.Almost all students faced considerable difficulties in the process of information searching.These difficulties were not associated with the technical part of operating search engines,but with the process of using their features efficiently and effectively. The following extractcoming from the course tutor’s field notes is quite representative:

“She tried to utilize several search engines but in all of her attempts she used exactlythe same phrase which would normally return numerous pages of results. I attemptedto intervene by suggesting a range of possible strategies, such as adding more key-words, using the ‘not’ operator, or using more specialized words and phrases. Twentyminutes later she approached me and said that she couldn’t think of any other key-words and asked me to tell her what to do. After whole class discussions and indi-vidual conversations, Marianna is still unable to understand. Yet, she is not the onlyone.”

In particular, most problems encountered were characterized by the absence of a focusedand suitable search plan and were concerned with finding and selecting search terms, phras-ing, formulating and reformulating keyword strings and statements and evaluating the rele-vance and the value of the sources retrieved. The results of research studies, relevant to in-formation searching behavior (Bilal, 2002; Debowski, 2001; Spink et al., 2000; Hepworth,1999), seem to support these findings and stress the need for training, focused on the devel-opment of the analytical, reflective and conceptual capabilities as relates to the process ofinformation retrieval. Indeed, as Debowski (2001) pointed out, searching may be perceived

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as a simple and straightforward procedure, but in reality it is a ‘cyclical’ process, which en-tails all actions and decisions involved in solving a search problem. Within the same line ofreasoning lies Wilson’s (1999) work on information behavior models. Information search-ing is “a complex process embedded in the broader perspective of information-seekingbehavior, and information behavior in general”3 (Wilson, 1999: 267). Following this, itcould be suggested that experience and familiarity with the overall process of informationretrieval and library use may be critical factors affecting the information-searching behav-ior of users of electronic sources. It was apparent that, student teachers participating in thisstudy had little experience in terms of seeking and retrieving information from printed or‘traditional’ sources, which were meant to help students in getting some basic informationabout their specific study topics:

“In the beginning of the session I observed that many of my students found most ofthe resource books that I brought in the lab irrelevant to their study theme. Theirjudgment was based on their titles. They did not look for relevant information in thelist of contents or the index of the books. So, today’s lesson was partly dedicated toexplaining the main parts of books and articles and their purpose.”

In addition, students’ general information behavior was significantly influenced by theidea that all information is true and that information exists to be memorized and repro-duced. Summarizing, outlining, paraphrasing and in general content generation and designconcept application were also problematic. Students encountered serious obstacles in ana-lyzing information, selecting relevant and appropriate parts of it and presenting it in theirown words. Plagiarism, replication and simplistic “information telling” were the usualstrategies employed. In most cases, student teachers were just copying and pasting wholechunks of the information gathered into their presentations. Furthermore, results from theanalysis of the questionnaire data were included in separate slides and stood out from themain body of the presentation. Even though particular care was devoted to the construc-tion of an aesthetically and technically sophisticated outcome, in terms of content, theirfinal presentation was more of an impressive collage than a comprehensive and coherentsynthesis of facts, research findings, opinions and arguments.

Research studies relevant to undergraduate students’ essay writing strategies (McCune,2004; Campbell et al., 1998; Nightingale, 1988) and web authoring processes (Sheridan-Rabideau et al., 2002), report similar findings. They also demonstrate that student defi-ciencies in the processes of producing complex and comprehensive essays and electronicforms of writing are not so much related to the mechanics of writing, the adoption of par-ticular strategies (note taking, draft production, summarizing, etc.) or the technicalitiesof using electronic tools, but to students’ diverse perceptions and conceptualizations oflearning tasks, which may influence both the process and the product of ‘writing’. Relatedliterature (Campbell et al., 1998; Nightingale, 1988; Hepworth, 1999) proposes “teaching

3 According to Wilson’s nested model (1999), the interactions between information users and computer-basedinformation systems (information-searching behavior) are influenced by the methods people employ to discoverand gain access to information resources (information-seeking behavior) and, in turn, by their overall behaviortowards information (information behavior).

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of understanding” and suggests that the processes involved need to be explained mod-eled and practiced prior to project undertaking and essay writing. Apparently, it seemsappropriate to add that understanding, evaluation, analysis and critical synthesis of infor-mation are complex, abstract processes, demanding flexible and long-term approaches fortheir development. Regardless of the guidance, advice and feedback provided, it appearsthat students find it difficult to understand the meaning of both ‘traditional’ and electronicwriting required by their course tutors (McCune, 2004; Sheridan-Rabideau et al., 2002;Campbell et al., 1998). For example, in the study of Sheridan-Rabideau et al. (2002),students’ failure to understand and implement content and design issues of web-authoringprocesses were partly associated to a technocentric conception of technological literacy,which their training experience had not managed to alter. Indeed, it has been suggestedthat students’ conceptions are difficult to change since they may be related to conceptu-alizations of learning and beliefs about knowledge, and their development may dependon interrelated factors, which stem from their prior learning experiences (McCune, 2004;Sheridan-Rabideau et al., 2002; Campbell et al., 1998; Nightingale, 1988).

Consequently, Greek student teachers’ information-searching and information-process-ing behavior cannot be seen in isolation from the “encyclopaedic”, “academic” and “repro-ductive” nature of the overall Greek educational context described earlier, which formedtheir conceptions about learning and constructed their beliefs about knowledge and infor-mation. In this study, student teachers’ weakness in the “cognitive proficiency” aspectof ICT literacy (see Figure 1) is most probably related to lack of past experience and fa-miliarity with the processes of searching, organizing, synthesizing, evaluating, developingand presenting arguments and information. This same lack was particularly demonstratedin the results of the 2000 OECD Program for International Student Assessment (PISA),in which Greek students’ performance ranked 25th (out of 32 countries) in language andscience literacy and 28th (out of 32 countries) in mathematical aptitude (Lakasas, 2001;OECD, 2001). As a result, the provision of undergraduate courses, similar to the one de-scribed in this study, cannot change the social effect of 12 years of school experiences.In realistic terms, they can only introduce students to ICT literacy concepts and hopefullychallenge their conceptualisations and ideas about teaching, learning and ICT.

The learning environment

One of the most advantageous features of the course was concerned with the learning envi-ronment and the relationship that developed between the students and the course tutor. Allstudents’ descriptions of the atmosphere in class were positive and the use of characteri-zations like “supportive, calm, non-threatening, enjoyable, friendly, pleasant, not boring,and family like”, was common among their comments:

“The climate was relaxed, it made me feel quite comfortable. It did not remind meof the typical strict laboratory work and we were all like a group of friends.”

Indeed, the project-based nature of the course encouraged the formation of groups andcalled for interaction, discussion and collaborative experiences among all participants. Ini-tially, cooperation and enjoyment were not so evident but they gradually developed as

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teacher trainees started to work together. Similar to the experiences reported by Wong etal. (2003), the more competent helped the ones who faced difficulties and they all sup-ported each other in the pursuit of common learning goals. However, this did not inhibitindividual work:

“The environment was pleasant and appropriate for the course. I still remember thetime that we had to produce a word-processed document of our thoughts. It wasimpressive that there was complete silence. The only thing heard was the sound ofcomputer keyboard clicks. I really felt like I was in an office.”“I really enjoyed the times when we sang while working on the computer.”

On the other hand, the course tutor’s stance was central and significant for the creationof a supportive, collaborative environment. Her role was to coordinate, guide, advise andassist students rather than to provide instruction and dictate what students should do anddiscuss. As such, students felt comfortable to ask for help and advise and communicatetheir concerns:

“She was always in a good mood. Her attitude helped a lot in the formation of apleasant atmosphere.”“I’m glad that we had her.”“She was available to help, she understood my problems and responded accordingly.”“She was very patient and had a special interest in each one of us.”

Students’ satisfaction and enjoyment of the relaxed and cooperative nature of the coursewas also expressed through indirect comments. Almost all of them reported that they wouldprefer it if all undergraduate courses were taught in the same manner and the majority saidthat they would like to try out this teaching style in their own classrooms with their ownpupils. Notably, the problems that they referred to when asked about the quality of theirstudies were related to lack of appropriate, direct and close communication with sometutors, as well as the distant and impersonal nature of several courses.

The project themes selected

As already mentioned, the teacher trainees were required to work on a semester longproject and were able to select their favourite theme from a list of project titles whichwas created after a whole class discussion on the impact of ICT on education and society.It was hoped that the selection procedure would serve two purposes. Firstly, it would in-crease the degree of project relevance to student interests. Secondly, it would give studentsthe opportunity to examine a range of topics related to the educational content of ICT it-self. The majority of students’ reactions to the topics chosen were quite positive. As theythemselves noted:

“In reality we have chosen our project title. The tutor’s proposals were quite goodand relevant to our studies.”“It’s better that we had to select it from a list. I don’t think that we would be able tofind something appropriate by ourselves alone.”

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“My topic was interesting . . . we’ve learned about things that we knew nothingabout.”

However, there were a few trainees who expressed concern about the theme they selected.In particular, they reported that they would have preferred to choose their own theme be-cause:

“I would have selected something that I knew more about.”“I would be able to use ready-made materials and pre-collected information.”

The difficulty of finding topics and themes meaningful and relevant to students’ personaland professional interests has also been reported elsewhere (Dougherty et al., 2002). Yet,it was interesting that in this study the reasons illustrated in student feedback were notconcerned with personal engagement and intrinsic motivation. Students’ demonstrateddissatisfaction was associated with avoiding the workload involved in project completion.Bearing in mind the characteristics of the Greek educational system, it could be suggestedthat this tendency is associated with students’ lack of familiarity with project work. In fact,the need for pre-structured themes and pre-collected materials and information mirrorsthe problems that the use of a single compulsory school textbook can create in terms ofstudents’ conceptualisations of learning tasks. There is also evidence (McCune, 2004) thatundergraduate students find it difficult to adapt to independent and self-directed learning.It may lead to feelings of uncertainty, nervousness, insecurity and possibly avoidance andtask disengagement, as it can challenge their ability to cope emotionally with significantshifts in their concepts and ideas.

The assessment

According to the American Council for Education (ACE, 1999), effective teacher educa-tion programs share common characteristics. One of the many and most significant re-ported is portfolio evaluation. Indeed, this was the assessment method used in the courseimplemented, and the rationale underlying its selection was that the actual evaluation ofstudents’ performance in itself was not important. Most vital was for student teachersto conceptualize and reflect on the steps and the processes they went through and gain adeep personal understanding of their mistakes and their successes. Since, most of theirportfolios represented just a collective record of the materials and resources collected andcreated during the period of the course, it remains unknown whether students did in factuse this kind of reflective thinking. Admittedly, “a portfolio containing evidence of theuse of ICT is not itself a guarantee of reflective integration and competence development”(McNair and Galanouli, 2002: 193). Even though students were advised to include withintheir portfolios short personal commentaries about the process of project completion, themajority did not provide any commentaries on their thoughts and practices. The ones whodid, referred to the method of assessment rather than a personal description of the steps andthe phases they went through, and their remarks were on a positive, yet sometimes surfacelevel. All of them expressed the view that it was relaxed and less demanding than otherevaluation methods:

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“It is better that we don’t have to take written exams.”“Project presentation was a good way of assessment. It didn’t make me feel stressedand in my opinion it doesn’t require a lot of studying.”“It was fair and sufficient. It showed our level of understanding.”

Perhaps students did not pay attention to the tutor’s advise or misunderstood the purpose ofcommentaries, but it is also probable that they had taken ‘process’ for ‘product’. As such,they did not comment on the process of developing a project presentation but on the presen-tation itself, and when they referred to assessment they meant the presentation, rather thanthe portfolio and the presentation together. That students’ focus on the end product hasbeen also reported in a study of web-authoring processes conducted by Sheridan-Rabideauet al. (2002), while students’ tendency to perceive an ICT portfolio as an accumulationof evidence of having acquired ICT skills has been illustrated in the study of McNairand Galanouli (2002). It has been suggested that this emphasis on product may be re-lated to students’ skill-focused conceptions of technological literacy (Sheridan-Rabideauet al., 2002) and the way tutors understand and present the nature and the requirementsof portfolio evaluation (McNair and Galanouli, 2002). It is also possible that students’past evaluation experiences in combination with their anxiety for high grades prevent themfrom seeing the true purpose of portfolio evaluation. Undoubtedly, further research isneeded on the identification of the parameters influencing portfolio construction. On theother hand, it might be equally significant to separate the process of portfolio constructionfrom notions of assessment and evaluation. A “product-folio” can be transformed into a“process-folio” when it represents the main focus of a course, and, as a result, its contentsare collected, discussed and interpreted during the course and not at the end of it. An ex-cellent example of such an approach is provided by Salvio (1998) in the context of literacy,inspired by the work of Paulo Freire on Popular Cultural Notebooks. On the basis of thisapproach which values education as a critical consciousness process, one could actuallyextract two main ideas, which could easily be transferred to the context of an ICT literacycourse:

1. Students could collect artifacts from their lives that represent their conceptualizationsof ICT and their ICT practices prior to higher education. These artifacts could be ex-tensively discussed and interpreted since they may represent the forms of technologicalcommunication and expression they value when they enter teacher education.

2. Selected readings on the nature of ICT in education could be utilized. They could beused as the theoretical lenses through which students can interpret the significance andthe meaning of the artifacts they include in their portfolios.

Conclusion and Personal View

Clearly, understanding, critical and reflective thinking are processes that cannot be devel-oped within the limited period of an undergraduate course. Nevertheless, if one under-stands that “to understand is to move” (Pinar and McKnight, 1995, p. 184), then the coursedescribed and implemented, has managed to achieve two different kinds of movement:a major and a minor.

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The major one refers to myself as the course tutor and author of this paper. Withouta doubt, the course was a valuable learning experience leading to a more sophisticatedunderstanding of the needs and the characteristics of Greek student teachers, their personalconceptions about teaching, learning and ICT. It has also revealed uncertainties, difficultiesand a wide range of queries leading to reconsiderations, readjustments, and amendmentsin the ICT programme of study.

As regards the minor movement achieved, this refers to the students themselves. Onthe basis of what they said, they appeared to be able to transfer from an operational to aconscious utilization level of understanding of ICT tools. Apart from technical skills re-finement, students were introduced to several information and ICT literacy concepts. Eventhough the application of these concepts proved to be extremely difficult in practice, it isstill an improvement that the student teachers were able to discriminate between technicalexpertise and use with a purpose. Added to this is the experience gained from a project-oriented course, in which they could develop their ability to cooperate and discuss, to workand, at the same time, enjoy themselves and be more self-reliant.

On the other hand, students’ demonstrated lack of information skills and inexperiencein project work was not a particularly surprising finding. Apparently, it is one of the mainoutcomes of a highly centralized educational system that follows a technocentric rationale,promotes a knowledge transmission philosophy, reinforces the logic of evaluation for pe-nalizing, advocates the existence of one truth and consistently ignores educational researchfindings and recommendations. I am, needless to say, referring to the Greek system.

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