CHAPTER 33CHAPTER 33

LONG TERM

NATIONALISM Rivalry between Great Powers for Status, Influence

Germany, Austria France, Great Britain, Russia

Nationalist Aspirations Balkan States sought to united same peoples in one state Balkan nationalism posed threat to Russia, Austria, Turkey

Competition between national economies for profit IMPERIALISM

The competition for foreign empires in Africa, Asia Rivalry for influence in independent nations Competition for markets

MILITARISM, NAVALISM Nationalism demanded modern armies and navies Arms race ensued Nations could not permit rival to have better military

ALLIANCES Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy – Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey Triple Entente: France, Russia, Great Britain – Serbia, Belgium Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902

SHORT TERM

July 24, 1914: Serb Black Hand member assassinates heir to the Austrian Throne Austria picks a fight with Serbia, who calls on Russia for assistance Austria asks Germany for help; Russia asks France for help Germany attacks France through Belgium without declaration of war European leaders allowed war to begin because they believed it would be quick,

decisive

H.M.S DREADNOUGHT

Germany's War Plan

Germany called for a swift defeat of France, longer war with Russia Invaded neutral Belgium, Luxembourg without declaration of war Failure to defeat France set stage for 3 years of stalemate Military dictatorship gradually replaced Kaiser, German Reichstag on running war

Allied War Plans

French planned to attack into Alsace-Lorraine to recover lost land French military planners spoke of elan and e’spririt de corps to overcome technology, German Russia was to swiftly mobilize and attack Germany, Austria in the east

Western Front

Soldiers dug trenches length of the front; machine guns and artillery dominate battlefield Neither side could advance against the other's defenses. Allies and Germans both began to use technology to break deadlock Both sides imposed blockades on the other using navies, submarines

Eastern Front

Aristocratic officers, peasant soldiers of Russia unprepared; Germany had world’s most modern army Virtual destruction of the tsarist armies and steady loss of territory to Germany Nicholas II, who had taken direct control of the front, incompetent Germany quickly developed a war of maneuver: no static front

Italian and Balkan Fronts

Russia did well against the Austro-Hungarians Bulgaria joins Central Powers in 1915 Serbia, Montenegro overrun by Central Powers in 1915 Italy joined allies to gain territory but did very poorly. Rumania joined allies to regain Transylvania and quickly overrun

The Submarine or U-Boat

The Tank

The Fighter

The Bomber

The Zeppelin

The Machine Gun

Role of Technology

Allies, Central Powers tried to break stalemate using new weapons New weapons include:

Germans: Submarines, poisonous gas, bombers, fighters Allies: Tanks, destroyers, mass produced freighters Both sides had to develop new foods, techniques to replace what was lost due to failed trade

German unrestricted submarine warfare led to American entry to the war in 1917T

echnology was one way conflict became a total war

The Ottoman Empire

Sided with Germany as UK, Russia had proven enemies Allies try to force way through Dardanelles

Needed to open supply route to Russia Gallipoli was a disaster for ANZAC troops used Cost UK support amongst Australia, New Zealand

British invade Middle East Used Indian, colonial troops Twin pushes - through Palestine, Iraq Capture Jerssalem, Baghdad before 1918

Russia and the Turks Russian armies drove Turks back into Anatolia Christians welcomed Russians Germans rushed to aid Turks, stop Russian advances Military failures led to a genocidal assault on Armenian Christians,

Arab Revolt

Ottomans ruled Hejaz (Mecca, Medina) and south coast of Persian Gulf Arabs under Shariff of Hejaz rose in rebellion against Turks Seek Arab state(s), independence With British aid, cut railways in region Move up into Jordan, Syria from desert Capture Damascus before British arrive

Allied Promises

French, British promise Arabs independence after war Secretly made plans to partition area amongst Allies (Sykes-Pikot Treaty) Promised Jews a homeland too (Balfour Declaration)

The War Outside Europe

Fighting spread to the colonies Troops from the colonies were recruited for war in Europe British naval power contributed greatly to the globalization of the war The Indian Army provided much of Britain’s overseas armies for all fronts Indian Army instrumental in Mesopotamia, Africa

Asia-Pacific Japan seized German possessions in Asia , Pacific China joined war to get voice at peace conference China sent 100,000 porters to Europe to free up troops Germans sent their East Asian fleet on cruise to raid commerce in Pacific, Indian

Ocean Africa

Allies quickly overran all German colonies except East Africa Germans in East Africa led by a military genius who was never defeated Germans invaded Belgian Congo, British East Africa, and Mozamibique The Dominions contributed supplies and troops to the British effort Many African divisions served in Europe, Middle East

The United States

Germany made a major mistake with unrestricted submarine warfare – US hated it

Germany made a major mistake with Zimmerman Telegraph to Mexico The U.S. entry into the war made it a major global power U.S. supplies and troops led Germany to believe it needed to launch a

major offensive.

The Eastern Front

Germany completely outclassed Russia; Russia only able to make headway against Austria

Germany simply was overstrained by two fronts and could not devote troops for a quick victory

1916

Russia is in trouble militarily and collapse near at any time Germans have cut two of three supply routes from West to Russia (Baltic, Black Seas) Allies forced to resupply Russia either through Murmansk in north or Siberia, both of

which froze Troops are ready to mutiny as underfed, peasants are starving and workers are upset

1st Russian Revolution or Democratic Revolution

February 1917 Troops mutiny and refuse imperial orders Workers, soldiers, and sailors join revolt; form soviets or councils New government formed: forces tsar to abdicate and declares Russia a republic

The Kerensky Government A socialist government without much power – too many competing interests Under pressure from Allies continues war, delays reforms Soviets infuriated, infiltrated by the Bolsheviks (Communists) Communists organize private army – Red Guard Conservatives attempt to halt spread of socialism with military takeover – Red Guard defeats it

2nd Russian Revolution or Communist Revolution

October 1917 Red Guard and supporters seize control of state from Socialists Create a communist government Russia signed peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany Left war freeing German army in East for western front

Proletariat of theProletariat of theWorld, Unite!World, Unite!

Join the Red Army!Join the Red Army!

The Tsar,The Tsar,The Rich,The Rich,

The ChurchThe ChurchAs EnemiesAs Enemies

Of TheOf ThePeoplePeople

V. I. LeninV. I. Lenin

Trotsky on Guard!Trotsky on Guard!

The Home Fronts in Europe

Soldiers at front became angry with political leaders Disturbed by civilians who continued to support the war Governments

Took direct control of many industries Rise of strong centralized state bureaucracies Made use of sophisticated propaganda

Workers and Women Unions, socialist leaders increasingly tied to government; workers rejected support of

war Labor protests in Russia helped spark the fall of the Tsar Women's participation in labor force increased Many pushed out of work after war ended Participation in the war effort helped them gain vote in Britain, Germany, and USA

The Return to Offensive Warfare

Failure of April 1918 offensive by the Germans US troops arrived quicker than expected and halted German advance Collapse of Austrians, Bulgars, Turks led Germany to agree to armistice in November

1918 Revolution in Germany 1918 – 1919

Soviet, Socialist revolutions lead to collapse of German empire, creation of a Republic Many Germans came to blame the civilian government that replaced the Kaiser.

Cost

Immense destruction in Europe and very high death tolls (10 million) Allies owed billions to the US: had to collect billions in reparations from

Germany Compounded by worldwide influenza epidemic that killed 50 million more.

14 Points

Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points Thwarted by the Entente allies

Britain and France demanded reparations Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war

Paris Peace Conference, 1919

Allied leaders assembled in Paris Germany was deliberately humiliated Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism Colonies of European Nations, China

Largely ignored Envoys were often not even consulted

Wilson’s 14th Point

Only part of the 14th Points enacted US Senate did not ratify the treaty USSR, former Central Power nations were not admitted

The League of Nations

Goal: International organization for nations to consult, avoid war Reality: had no real power to enforce peace, punish aggressors Reality: France, UK dominate Colonies not represented

World War I impacted colonies

Colonial Contribution African, Asian troops conscripted for European armies Battles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese

troops British conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials

During the course of the war European vulnerability became evident European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts Administrative personnel were recalled Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans

To maintain support Europeans made many promises Promised independence But they often failed to fulfill them after the war

War cast doubts on claims of European superiority Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements.

Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace

German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France

Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj

India colonized long before Africa, Asia Was first to establish independence movements Western-educated minorities organized politically Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes

Indian National Congress Regional associations of Western-educated Indians Most often urbanized elite Formed Indian National Congress party in 1885 Primary function of early party was to present grievances to British Most of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poor Despite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of Indian identity

Social Foundations of a Mass Movement

British economic and social policies Helped the Congress party attract a mass following Marginalized all Indians including elite

Indians Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, high-salaried bureaucrats Tolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods.

Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food supplies Induced nationalists to blame the British policies Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food to commercial

crops.

The Rise of Militant Nationalism

Some nationalists such as B. G. Tilak emphasized Hindusim Tilak, supporters used Hindu religious festivals as means of recruitment. Tilak urged the boycott of British manufactured goods Tilak's conservative Hinduism frightened moderates, Muslims, Sikhs Tilak's support for violence led to his arrest, deportation

Some Hindus Embraced terrorism as a means of ending British rule Terrorist groups favored secret organizations Targeted British officials and public buildings British suppression, lack of mass support reduced threats Peaceful schemes for protest drew support from Tilak, terrorists Congress Party lawyers emerged as leaders of nationalist movement

All India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah League founded in 1906 to represent Muslim interests Jinnah joined in 1916 and helped bring Congress Party and League together

The Emergence of Gandhi and the Nationalist Struggle

India played a significant role in World War I Even the nationalist leaders of India supported the war effort Wartime inflation reduced standards of living among the Indian peasants Produced famine in some regions.

Following the war Nationalists were frustrated by the British refusal to move directly toward independence. Initial promise of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 Offset by the Rowlatt Act, which limited Indian civil rights.

Frustrations led to the Rise of Gandhi Permitted Gandhi to build a nationwide protest against colonialism Gandhi combined the qualities of a Hindu mystic with the acumen of a Western-educated

lawyer Both peasants and the middle classes supported his leadership His boycotts, campaigns of civil resistance made him acceptable to both radical, moderate

nationalists As a Hindu mystic, Gandhi could mobilize widespread support for his movement

In the years after World War I

Ottoman rule collapsed Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, Armenians Only a small Turkish state built around Ankara remained Constantinople placed under international control Greeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state

Rise of Turkish Nationalism Turks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armies Drive Greek armies out of Asia Minor Negotiates with Allies for return of Turkish lands Abolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republic Begins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, culture Massive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East

Arabia

Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War I Wahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influences Religious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia

Arab Uprising against Turks Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under Hashemite Emirs After World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel pro-British Hashemite

emirs Create unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia

British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi mandates

The British and Egypt

British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi Rebellion Left the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlords British left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy, defense

Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt. Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works. The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes.

Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countryside The great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian land Small landholders reduced to tenancy.

Resistance to the British administration of Egypt Resistance by the elite

Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army, Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classes Journalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movement Journalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes

Three nationalist parties were created To forestall more violent nationalist movements

The British granted a new constitution to Egypt Allowed parliamentary representation When World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and imposed martial

lawR

evolt in Egypt 1919 Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the

peasantry British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace conferences This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'd Zaghlul

Between 1922 and 1936

British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms.

Entente powers broke promises made to Arabs

Allies promised Arabs independent states in Middle East following War Sikes-Pikot Treaty

Divided Middle East between Allied Nations Gave Arab lands to European powers

Arabs expected independent Arab states

British and French forces occupied Ottoman empire Created artificial states within the League of Nations

Called Mandates, placed under control of British, French Allies were supposed to prepare Arabs for independence French did not, British did

In Syria, Iraq, Lebanon Arab resistance to the mandate system was common British eventually placed Hashemite King on Iraqi throne

Palestine, Balfour Declaration and Zionism

Zionist movement largely Eastern Europe until 1894 Zionists were Jews seeking to create Jewish homeland in Palestine Theodor Herzl

Mobilized West European Zionism Formed the World Zionist Organization

British Foreign Minister Balfour promised Zionists in 1917 support for Jewish homeland Pogroms against Jewish communities accelerated migration to Palestine Both Zionism, British takeover of Palestine seemed to violate assurances Rising Arab opposition caused the British to limit Zionist settlement in Palestine Zionists thus began to arm themselves in order to resist both British, Arab opposition Arabs in Palestine remained without a voice concerning the fate of their region.

During World War I

Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes. The war effort disrupted African economies

Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war

After the war

Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement This led to strikes and civil disobedience Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies

Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread

First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African

movements In French Africa

A literary genre, négritude arose Celebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudes Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World Socialism Movement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African diaspora

French Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain rights Little involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French Europeans

In British colonies British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African movement Actual political parties were slow to emerge Political associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for political

reform Educated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist movements

1920 1920

The second Pan-Africanist conference resulted in the issue of the "Declaration of the Rights of the Negro People of the World" by the United Negro Improvement Organization, led by Marcus Garvey

1920 1920 The French suppressed Garveyite newspapers in Senegal 1921 1921 Blaise Diagne accused W.E.B. Du Bois of being a Bolshevik

1921 1921 Harry Thuku helped to found the Young Kikuyu Association in Kenya.

1921 1921 The South African Communist Party was founded1922 1922 The French arrested a group of Gambian Garveyites near Dakar

1923 1923 The British Land Ordinance prevented white settlers from occupying all of the best land in the mandate territory of Tanganyika

1923 1923 Herbert Macauley founds the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), but it remained an elite party in Lagos that was ignored by the British .

1924 1924 The United Negro Improvement Organization approved a $2 million plan for the "recolonization" of Africa"

19241924The Liberian government issued an order forbidding the promotion of Garvey's ideas

1925 1925 Chagga communities in central Tanganyika formed the Kilimanjaro Native Planters' Association to defend farm prices.

1925 1925

African students in Britain organized as the West African Students' Union (WASU) under the leadership of the Nigerian Ladipo Solanke (1884-1958) and the Sierra Leonean Bankole-Bright, and with "moral support" from Casely Hayford of the Gold Coast.

1928 1928 Ras Tafari became the king of Ethiopia.

Changing Realities

World War I undermined Europe's global dominance At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world power Rise of United States and Japan in world influence First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly

Communism as Anti-Imperialism

Revolution broke out in Russia and the East Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models

Socialism as Change

Socialists gained ground in the western democracies Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals

Changes in Gender Roles

Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had After World War I many Western states gave women the vote

The War Encouraged Economic Changes

Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene

Beginning of Decolonialization

The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope Indian independence movement had gained in influence Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Gavrilo Princip

Nicholas II

Georges Clemenceau

David Lloyd George

Woodrow Wilson

B. G. Tilak

Mohandas K. Gandhi

Lord Cromer

Ataturk

• Hussein• Ibn Saud• Leon Pinsker• Theodor Herzl• Alfred Dreyfus• Marcus Garvey• W. E. B. Du Bois• Leopold Sedar

Senghor

Sarajevo (Bosnia)

Western Front

Eastern Front

Gallipoli

Armenian Holocaust

14 Points

Self-Determination

League of Nations

National Congress Party

Morley-Minto Reforms

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

Rowlatt Act

• Satyagraha• Effendi• Dinshawai Incident• Mandates• Zionist• Balfour Declaration• Wafd Party• Pan-Africanism• Negritude

Movement