HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermany

Lecture 15Lecture 15The Cold War Division of The Cold War Division of

GermanyGermany

The Morgenthau Plan The Morgenthau Plan Drawn up by the US Secretary of Drawn up by the US Secretary of

State, Henry Morgenthau.State, Henry Morgenthau. Designed to ensure that Germany Designed to ensure that Germany

could never again be a threat to could never again be a threat to her neighbours.her neighbours.

Germany to be divided into Germany to be divided into independent states, higher independent states, higher education prohibited and heavy education prohibited and heavy industry destroyed.industry destroyed.

Pressure from the public to punish Pressure from the public to punish Germany led to this being adopted Germany led to this being adopted as official US and UK policy until as official US and UK policy until the spring of 1945.the spring of 1945.

US Secretary of State, Henry Morenthau Jr.(1891-1967)

The Yalta ConferenceThe Yalta Conference An Allied Control Commission An Allied Control Commission

to be established to govern a to be established to govern a defeated Germany.defeated Germany.

Germany to be occupied by Germany to be occupied by the 3 wartime allies and the 3 wartime allies and France. Each power was to France. Each power was to occupy and administer a zone occupy and administer a zone of its own.of its own.

The USSR was to retain the The USSR was to retain the territory seized under the Nazi-territory seized under the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 & the Soviet Pact of 1939 & the borders of Poland were to be borders of Poland were to be shifted westwards.shifted westwards.

Reparations to be extracted Reparations to be extracted from Germany.from Germany.

Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin at the Crimean resort of Yalta, February 1945

Source: R. Overy, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich (1996)

Occupied Berlin

Divisions within the Divisions within the AlliesAllies

The Americans wanted a decentralized, federal The Americans wanted a decentralized, federal democratic system in Germany (modelled on the US democratic system in Germany (modelled on the US constitution).constitution).

Great Britain wanted Germany denazified and Great Britain wanted Germany denazified and demilitarized, but then a revival of the economy – demilitarized, but then a revival of the economy – “security from attack, then business as usual” (Kramer).“security from attack, then business as usual” (Kramer).

Russia envisioned a united and neutral Germany. Her Russia envisioned a united and neutral Germany. Her priorities were to consolidate gains in Eastern Europe & priorities were to consolidate gains in Eastern Europe & extract reparations from Germany.extract reparations from Germany.

French aims were similar to those after WW1 – They French aims were similar to those after WW1 – They wanted Germany broken up into weak states that would wanted Germany broken up into weak states that would be no threat to French security and the creation of buffer be no threat to French security and the creation of buffer zones in the Rhineland and the Saar.zones in the Rhineland and the Saar.

Problems facing the Problems facing the AlliesAllies

Germany is social, political and economic chaos.Germany is social, political and economic chaos. German cities had been destroyed by Allied bombing: 75% of German cities had been destroyed by Allied bombing: 75% of

buildings in Berlin had been demolished, only 1% of buildings in buildings in Berlin had been demolished, only 1% of buildings in Hanover were undamaged.Hanover were undamaged.

Communications & infrastructure had been similarly disrupted: Communications & infrastructure had been similarly disrupted: roads, rail networks, bridges etc.roads, rail networks, bridges etc.

Social chaos: old social structures disrupted, German men killed or Social chaos: old social structures disrupted, German men killed or imprisoned during the war, women had to fend for themselves.imprisoned during the war, women had to fend for themselves.

Refugee crisis: up to 12 million Germans migrated from the east, Refugee crisis: up to 12 million Germans migrated from the east, plus thousands displaced within Germany, POWs and concentration plus thousands displaced within Germany, POWs and concentration camp inmates.camp inmates.

Source: R. Overy, The Penguin Historical Atlas of the Third Reich

Problems facing the Problems facing the AlliesAllies

Germany is social, political and economic chaos.Germany is social, political and economic chaos. German cities had been destroyed by Allied bombing: 75% of German cities had been destroyed by Allied bombing: 75% of

buildings in Berlin had been demolished, only 1% of buildings in buildings in Berlin had been demolished, only 1% of buildings in Hanover were undamaged.Hanover were undamaged.

Communications & infrastructure had been similarly disrupted: Communications & infrastructure had been similarly disrupted: roads, rail networks, bridges etc.roads, rail networks, bridges etc.

Social chaos: old social structures disrupted, German men killed or Social chaos: old social structures disrupted, German men killed or imprisoned during the war, women had to fend for themselves.imprisoned during the war, women had to fend for themselves.

Refugee crisis: up to 12 million Germans migrated from the east, Refugee crisis: up to 12 million Germans migrated from the east, plus thousands displaced within Germany, POWs and concentration plus thousands displaced within Germany, POWs and concentration camp inmates.camp inmates.

Political chaos: no authority or administration, need for restoration of Political chaos: no authority or administration, need for restoration of law & order.law & order.

Basic necessities of life had to be restored: gas, electricity, water, Basic necessities of life had to be restored: gas, electricity, water, food supplies, housing etc.food supplies, housing etc.

The Potsdam ConferenceThe Potsdam Conference The Allies agreed on the broad The Allies agreed on the broad

principles for the treatment of principles for the treatment of Germany:Germany:

Demilitarization & disarmament.Demilitarization & disarmament. Denazification & democratization.Denazification & democratization. Industry to be decentralizaed & Industry to be decentralizaed &

reconstruction focus on ‘peaceful reconstruction focus on ‘peaceful domestic industries’.domestic industries’.

No central government for the time No central government for the time being.being.

Reparations in kind rather than cash – Reparations in kind rather than cash – each power authorized to seize goods each power authorized to seize goods from their own zone. The USSR to get from their own zone. The USSR to get 50% of the total amount.50% of the total amount.

All decisions to be taken collegially All decisions to be taken collegially within the Allied Control Council.within the Allied Control Council.

These temporary measures, pending a These temporary measures, pending a formal peace conference.formal peace conference.

Attlee, Truman and Stalin at Potsdam. Standing

behind them are their respective foreign ministers:

Ernest Bevin, James Byrnes & Vyacheslav Molotov.

DenazificationDenazification Nuremberg Trials: 22 Nazi leaders Nuremberg Trials: 22 Nazi leaders

put on trial, 12 condemned to put on trial, 12 condemned to death.death.

Four-power agreement on the Four-power agreement on the need to remove Nazis from the need to remove Nazis from the civil service, judiciary, education civil service, judiciary, education etc.etc.

Differences in approach:Differences in approach: Russians saw Nazism as an Russians saw Nazism as an

outgrowth of German capitalism – outgrowth of German capitalism – radical structural reforms.radical structural reforms.

Americans wanted to remove Americans wanted to remove Nazism but maintain the existing Nazism but maintain the existing social & economic structure – a social & economic structure – a more bureaucratic approach.more bureaucratic approach.

British & French saw Nazism as British & French saw Nazism as inherent in the German national inherent in the German national character – an emphasis on re-character – an emphasis on re-education.education.

Denazification ultimately devolved Denazification ultimately devolved to German tribunals.to German tribunals.

DemocratizationDemocratization 1947: Break up of the old state of Prussia.1947: Break up of the old state of Prussia. Creation of new administrative areas (Creation of new administrative areas (LLänderänder) within the ) within the

zones of occupation.zones of occupation. Differences in approach:Differences in approach:

A more centralized approach in the British zone – unelected A more centralized approach in the British zone – unelected German officials made up Central Economic Office & Zonal German officials made up Central Economic Office & Zonal Advisory Council. Municipal elections in autumn 1946, elections Advisory Council. Municipal elections in autumn 1946, elections to state assemblies in May 1947.to state assemblies in May 1947.

The Americans keen to introduce democracy as soon as The Americans keen to introduce democracy as soon as possible: elections held in Jan. 1946. By the beginning of 1947 possible: elections held in Jan. 1946. By the beginning of 1947 power had been devolved to the power had been devolved to the LänderLänder in the US zone. in the US zone.

The Russians established a central authority, the Soviet Military The Russians established a central authority, the Soviet Military Administration of Germany (SMAD), in July 1945 at the same Administration of Germany (SMAD), in July 1945 at the same time as governments in the time as governments in the LänderLänder in their zone. in their zone.

The EconomyThe Economy Major dislocation in the economy after 1945 – food shortages, Major dislocation in the economy after 1945 – food shortages,

valueless currency etc. led to a thriving black market.valueless currency etc. led to a thriving black market. Ongoing disagreements over reparations: the Americans saw the Ongoing disagreements over reparations: the Americans saw the

revival of the German economy as a priority whereas the Russians revival of the German economy as a priority whereas the Russians wanted reparations as soon as possible.wanted reparations as soon as possible.

July 1946: the USA suspends reparations deliveries to the Russian July 1946: the USA suspends reparations deliveries to the Russian zone and offers an economic merger of the zones. Only the British zone and offers an economic merger of the zones. Only the British agree, leading to the creation of the Bizone on 1 Jan. 1947.agree, leading to the creation of the Bizone on 1 Jan. 1947.

The French and Soviets continued to extract reparations in kind The French and Soviets continued to extract reparations in kind from their zones – by 1949 the Russians had secured over $10 from their zones – by 1949 the Russians had secured over $10 billion worth of resources and equipment. billion worth of resources and equipment.

In the Soviet zone a radical programme of nationalization and land In the Soviet zone a radical programme of nationalization and land reform.reform.

In the western zones an insistence from the Americans that In the western zones an insistence from the Americans that reconstruction and reform be achieved within the framework of the reconstruction and reform be achieved within the framework of the free market. free market.

Steps Towards DivisionSteps Towards Division 21 April 1946: Merger of the SPD and KPD in the Soviet Zone to form the 21 April 1946: Merger of the SPD and KPD in the Soviet Zone to form the

Sozialistische Einheitspartei DeutschlandsSozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party, SED) (Socialist Unity Party, SED) Establishment of the Bizone – interpreted by the Russians as an attempt to Establishment of the Bizone – interpreted by the Russians as an attempt to

create a separate state hostile to the USSRcreate a separate state hostile to the USSR July 1947: Centralization of Bizonia with new political & economic institutions set July 1947: Centralization of Bizonia with new political & economic institutions set

up.up. In response the Russians establish the German Economic Commission (DWK) in In response the Russians establish the German Economic Commission (DWK) in

their zone.their zone. Nov-Dec. 1947: Failure of the London Foreign Ministers Conference – Nov-Dec. 1947: Failure of the London Foreign Ministers Conference –

Convinces the Western Allies that the Russians are trying to establish a Convinces the Western Allies that the Russians are trying to establish a Communist puppet state. They determine to devolve more power to West Communist puppet state. They determine to devolve more power to West Germany & integrate it into Western Europe to provide a buffer against the Germany & integrate it into Western Europe to provide a buffer against the spread of Communism.spread of Communism.

Feb-March 1948: London Conference: Western Allies meet to decide the Feb-March 1948: London Conference: Western Allies meet to decide the fate of Germany.fate of Germany.

April 1948: The Bizone included in the Organization for European Economic April 1948: The Bizone included in the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) & accepts Marshal aid.Cooperation (OEEC) & accepts Marshal aid.

June 1948: The Western powers announce their intention to convene a June 1948: The Western powers announce their intention to convene a constituent assembly to draw up a constitution for a separate West German constituent assembly to draw up a constitution for a separate West German state.state.

The Berlin BlockadeThe Berlin Blockade 20 June 1948: A new currency, the 20 June 1948: A new currency, the

Deutschmark, introduced in Bizonia, Deutschmark, introduced in Bizonia, the French Zone and West Berlin.the French Zone and West Berlin.

The Russians fear that this will The Russians fear that this will destabilize the economy in their destabilize the economy in their zone & move to cut off road & rail zone & move to cut off road & rail access to West Berlin in the hope of access to West Berlin in the hope of pressuring the west to abandon their pressuring the west to abandon their plans for a separate state.plans for a separate state.

June 1948-May 1949: The allies June 1948-May 1949: The allies airlift fuel & food into West Berlin.airlift fuel & food into West Berlin.

A symbolic struggle that back-fired A symbolic struggle that back-fired on the Russians & only accelerated on the Russians & only accelerated the integration of West Germany into the integration of West Germany into the Western European system.the Western European system.

The Formation of the The Formation of the FRGFRG

July 1948: 65 member July 1948: 65 member Parliamentary Council established Parliamentary Council established to draw up a constitution for the to draw up a constitution for the Western zones.Western zones.

10 Feb. 1949: The proposed 10 Feb. 1949: The proposed constitution presented to the constitution presented to the Military Governors for their Military Governors for their approval.approval.

8 May 1949: The Parliamentary 8 May 1949: The Parliamentary Council adopts the ‘Basic Law’ by Council adopts the ‘Basic Law’ by a vote of 53 to 12.a vote of 53 to 12.

Elections in August return a Elections in August return a majority for a centre-right coalition majority for a centre-right coalition of the Christian Democrats (CDU) of the Christian Democrats (CDU) and the Free Democrats (FDP).and the Free Democrats (FDP).

Konrad Adenauer elected first Konrad Adenauer elected first Chancellor of the Federal Republic Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany on 15 September of Germany on 15 September 1949.1949.

The Formation of the The Formation of the GDRGDR

Despite the long build up, the establishment of the FRG took both Despite the long build up, the establishment of the FRG took both the Russians and the East Germans by surprise.the Russians and the East Germans by surprise.

Stalin still hoped that a single neutral German state could be formed Stalin still hoped that a single neutral German state could be formed and was reluctant to agree to proposals from the SED leadership for and was reluctant to agree to proposals from the SED leadership for a separate state in the East.a separate state in the East.

But establishment of the Federal Republic ended such hopes and But establishment of the Federal Republic ended such hopes and on 7 October 1949 the establishment of the German Democratic on 7 October 1949 the establishment of the German Democratic Republic was announced.Republic was announced.

A draft constitution had already been drawn up in the spring – on A draft constitution had already been drawn up in the spring – on paper this was very similar to that of FRG. In practice the GDR was paper this was very similar to that of FRG. In practice the GDR was a single-party state dominated by the SED backed up with Russian a single-party state dominated by the SED backed up with Russian tanks.tanks.

12 October: A new government led by Otto Grotewohl formed.12 October: A new government led by Otto Grotewohl formed.

The Berlin WallThe Berlin Wall Berlin remained under four-power Berlin remained under four-power

control after 1949 & Berliners control after 1949 & Berliners could move relatively freely could move relatively freely between the Eastern & Western between the Eastern & Western Zones.Zones.

This led to many East Germans This led to many East Germans fleeing to the West via Berlin.fleeing to the West via Berlin.

The East German leadership The East German leadership wanted to plug this gap & wanted to plug this gap & proposed doing so by force.proposed doing so by force.

1958-61: Berlin Crisis – a stand-off 1958-61: Berlin Crisis – a stand-off between the USSR & USA over between the USSR & USA over the position of Berlin.the position of Berlin.

The East Germans use this as an The East Germans use this as an occasion to close the border occasion to close the border crossings & erect a wall 140 km crossings & erect a wall 140 km (87 miles) long across Berlin.(87 miles) long across Berlin.

Formalized the division of Formalized the division of Germany and became the symbol Germany and became the symbol of the Cold War division of of the Cold War division of Europe.Europe.

ConclusionConclusion Germany’s total defeat in WW2 placed her in the hands of the Allies.Germany’s total defeat in WW2 placed her in the hands of the Allies. Most Germans were more interested in the day-to-day struggle to Most Germans were more interested in the day-to-day struggle to

survive than politics.survive than politics. The division of Germany therefore has to be seen in the context of The division of Germany therefore has to be seen in the context of

emerging Cold War tensions between the Superpowers.emerging Cold War tensions between the Superpowers. Historiography:Historiography:

Orthodox school = the Soviet Union primarily to blame for the Cold War Orthodox school = the Soviet Union primarily to blame for the Cold War & division of Germany.& division of Germany.

Revisionist school = the Western powers (and the USA in particular) Revisionist school = the Western powers (and the USA in particular) primarily to blame for the Cold War & division of Germany.primarily to blame for the Cold War & division of Germany.

Post-revisionist school = both sides share equal blame – the division of Post-revisionist school = both sides share equal blame – the division of Germany a consequence of mutual suspicion and irreconcilable Germany a consequence of mutual suspicion and irreconcilable ideological differences.ideological differences.