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Darjeeling Tea & Wild Yunnan Mushrooms: production, perceptions and valuation

Peter Oviatt

The New School for Social Research peter.oviatt@gmail.com

Li Xue Yunnan University 10595527@qq.com

Shiladitya Basu University of Calcutta

ronniebasu88@gmail.com

Abstract

Food lies at the intersection of ecology and economy. This project addresses that intersection. It is set in two very unique ecologies, Northwest Yunnan Province, China, and Darjeeling, India. The crops in question, wild Yunnan mushrooms (WYM) and Darjeeling tea (DJT) are highly idiosyncratic and intrinsic to the ecosystem and culture they are a product of. As commodities-- both globally and locally-- DJT & WYM have become representatives, or symbols, of the regions they are a product of. This project explains how these symbols came to be, and asks: what do these symbols represent? Who or what shapes these symbols? Is there a disconnect between the reality and what these symbols represent? Analysis then centers on how to sustain-- and increase-- the high value of these symbols, including the benefits that this ‘high value’ provides.

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Why research tea and mushrooms?

The study of food lies at a generative intersection of ecology and economy. This project

looks at unique ecologies: Northwest Yunnan Province, China, and Darjeeling, India. The focus

in on luxury and idiosyncratic crops that are intrinsic to these unique ecosystems: wild Yunnan

mushrooms (WYM) & Darjeeling tea (DJT). In other words, this is more than a study on tea &

mushrooms. It is a study on a highly distinct and luxury version of these foods, and the particular

ecosystems and cultures they are a product of.

These crops are viewed as commodities, both on a global and local scale. Their ascent to

strong and influential symbols is explored, and it is asked: what do these symbols represent?

Status? Refined taste? A connection to nature? Who or what shapes these symbols? How does

the reality behind these symbols match up to this representation? And finally, how is the value of

these symbols sustained and increased? What benefits arise?

Discussing with locals, and visitors, in Yunnan and West Bengal, including those who

consume exports of DJT & WYM, we have found that the two commodities share a few traits:

they are both of highly limited quantity, internationally coveted, and intrinsic to unique, bio-

culturally diverse ecosystems. Additionally, as global commodities and symbols of certain

geographies and cultures, their histories are surprisingly short.1Both commodities saw

remarkable growth rates and global attention. Primarily through production and tourism-- related

to DJT & WYM--Yunnan and Darjeeling have undergone extensive change.

This symbolism of DJT & WYM plays a significant role in how the world perceives

these regions. Partly this is done through branding; the experiential, sensual aspects of the

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 In terms of globally recognized commodities, DJT is not yet two hundred years old, while WYM only stretches back to the latter half of the 21st century.

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commodities themselves also play a role. Such information and experience flows out, through

global exports and marketing, and flows in, through tourism that relates to DJT & WYM (e.g.

eco-tourism, ethno-tourism, or food-based tourism). In this sense, DJT & WYM become

ambassadors of their regions. Importantly, however, they are ambassadors with what motive? It

is not uncommon that people know Darjeeling as a tea, and not as a region, with land and people

that must also be considered.

To operationalize this theory-- of DJT & WYM as global symbols that increasingly

represent these unique ecologies and cultures— we asked how value is determined, and how

these commodities gain and retain ‘high value’. Through our fieldwork, a working definition of

‘high value’ was established. High value, here, centers on DJT & WYM production- its

distinctiveness, richness and sustenance. High value ensures that DJT & WYM are effective and

powerful ambassadors, making the world aware and in awe of all that the regions have to offer.

According to our findings, the value of DJT & WYM relies heavily on the health of the

ecosystems and culture that comprise the producing regions. If these commodities are not

considered along with the ecology and local culture that they are one with, beyond losing their

value, they turn self-destructive. In order to sustain, and improve upon, the value behind these

symbols and commodities three factors must be included: 1) ecosystem health in the producing

region, 2) local culture/knowledge of producers, and 3) the quality of the commodities

themselves. As described above, these commodities originate in sensitive and unique ecologies

and cultures that make these commodities what they are. Our fieldwork revealed a deep concern

that these facts are neglected in the name of short-term profit, and demands for ever-increasing

quantity. According to the discourse that our fieldwork found, in order to establish and retain

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high value, DJT & WYM require emphases of quality over quantity and long-term thinking over

short term.

Project Overview

First, the commodities are discussed separately, as two narratives. Told in tandem, the

two narratives reveal intriguing similarities and contrasts. A synthesis of the two narratives

follows. This synthesis will help couch the narratives in a more macro picture. It is also a format

that will provide directions forward- these complex commodities demand numerous directions of

future work.

In general, our findings describe the current state of DJT & WYM (including their

ecologies and local cultures) to be worrisome. Retain the status quo and the future looks bleak;

initiate change and immense potential arises. Currently, local knowledge is pressured and

suffocated by increased global information flows, monoculture and extraction are overpowering

biodiversity and conservation, and all ecosystems (human and non) are stressed from the

obsession for short-term profits and quantity (over long-term and quality).

In Darjeeling, the story of tea is recent; its antecedents are clear, and the perversity of the

industry today—colonial tea estates operating in the 21st century—demands wider attention. This

need is addressed, and highlighted, through a very hopeful model that sprung up from colonial

failure to become a thriving community and environment that is producing high value DJT:

Mineral Springs farmer co-operative.

In Yunnan, wild mushrooms are part and parcel of the ecosystem, and its human culture.

However, WYM, as a commodity, is a phenomenon more recent than even DJT. This continues

to place immense pressure on WYM and the ecosystem they are part of. The mushrooms are

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dwindling and much of the local wild mushroom culture/trade is forced to shift its attention

elsewhere. Simultaneously, due to the rise of foreign markets (e.g. the Japanese demand for

matsutake), increasing numbers of outsiders are coming to Yunnan to forage for the illusive

fungi. Thus deeper, more sensitive forest areas are trammeled without the prudence and respect

that long-held local knowledge has for sustaining wild mushrooms and their delicate and

glorious ecology.

Indeed, it is by design that these two stories are told in tandem, and then analyzed as a

whole. Apart from their unique ecologies and cultures, the regions are set within two of the

world’s most rapidly changing countries. India and China are undergoing impressive economic

growth, while the entire world witnesses’ information, commodity and bodily flows at an

unprecedented rate. It is this macro picture that spurred the presently discussed issues

surrounding DJT & WYM. However, while this macro level is necessarily part of the picture, it

is not discussed in detail. Rather, it is hoped that this work will fit within a larger dialog of India

and China within a modernizing world.

In the end, if DJT &WYM retain a level of high value (as described here), then the

commodities will be important trendsetters across the globe. WYM & DJT have potential as

leading exemplars in the use of local knowledge, and respect of its character and diversity, the

need for ecological harmony, and finally the long-term economic bounty that results. DJT &

WYM should be archetypes that the world envies and strives for.

Scope, methodology, and formation of the project

In kunming, as our fieldwork began, our team of three came together over the theme of

ecotourism. We immediately determined this to be too broad a topic, and thus created a research

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question that asked how tourism in culturally and environmentally sensitive areas affects local

food production. Conducting fieldwork around this question, we continually found ourselves

discussing wild mushrooms. We conceded. We allowed our fieldwork to direct our focus- thus

our research on wild mushrooms in Yunnan.2 Specifically our fieldwork inquired on valuation

and perceptions surrounding WYM, both locally and globally. We asked how production is

affected by such perception and valuation.

As our fieldwork site moved to West Bengal, Darjeeling tea was quickly decided as a

generative counterpart to WYM.3

DJT & WYM proved complex. Thus our focus on how global/local perception around

these commodities affects local ecology, culture and economy.4 A main concern is how to

preserve such local culture- and the ecology it depends upon. Due to the limits of our project

(one month in Yunnan, one month in West Bengal) we were not able to delve into the complex,

and critical, questions of labor; we were not able to inquire how money is distributed amongst

producer households and communities; despite efforts, we could not, with sufficient authority,

speak for nuances and patterns amongst consumers (their behaviors and perceptions).5

Additionally, in terms of exports, this study does not take dried WYM into consideration; the

study is limited to the temperamental export of fresh WYM.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 It should be noted that although we conducted research in Yunnan before West Bengal, we decided to structure this report by discussing DJT before WYM. Primarily, this is because of the richer data we

unearthed in West Bengal. We attribute our admittedly lopsided findings to spending much of our time in

Yunnan refining our research question. Indeed, this project would benefit from additional fieldwork in both locations. 3 The program under which this project was conducted, The India China Knowledge and Capacity

Building Initiative (ICKCBI), organized by the Indian China Institute, set our fieldwork sites and dates. We molded our project to these parameters. For more information on ICKCBI see,

http://indiachinainstitute.org/ 4 ‘Culture’ refers to local know-how/knowledge, including practices & beliefs. 5 Until further work is done, this project can only speak for generalities amongst consumers (e.g. characterizing by nations, regions or classes)

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In both Yunnan and West Bengal, rich ethnographic data came readily and abundantly.

Our methodology centers on this ethnographic work. We spent our time in various field sites,

following a participant observation sensibility. Observation included lurking at farmers markets,

restaurants, teashops, and cafes; participation included discussing, buying and consuming WYM

& DJT. Informal and semi-structured interviews came out of such participant observation work.

Additionally, we conducted structured interviews with key figures. These figures included

owners of restaurants, teashops, tea estates, and travel agencies. We also interviewed employees

of NGOs working on environmental and cultural issues and government officials whose work

addresses these commodities.

Thus our methodology addresses the qualitative over the quantitative. Quantitative data is

relegated to framing our findings, and situating these commodities in terms of history and their

place amongst the global (and local) economy. Let it be clear, this is not a work of

demographics. Although commodities are the subject, and the economy is central, our topic is

viewed with a qualitative lens. In this regard, our concern lies on economic cultures and

perceptions of value.6

Part II:

Tea production in the Queen of Hills

Current state of production

Darjeeling tea is world-renowned. It is branded as the ‘Champagne of Tea’. The Darjeeling

hills, the Queen of Hills, is equally renowned for its stunning landscapes and heralded by

international environmental groups for its numerous biodiversity hotspots (Pandit, 2007). The

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6 For standard, quantitative studies of economics surrounding DJT, see (The Tea Board of India & Darjeeling Tea Industry)

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global perception of Darjeeling tea is one of high quality. This has lead to the grave issue of

counterfeit DJT. A few decades ago, at the height of the debacle, “an estimated 40 to 50 million

kilograms of tea is sold worldwide as ‘Darjeeling tea’ to credulous customers, when the actual

exports of genuine Darjeeling tea from India are no more than 8 or 9 million kilograms!”

(Dasgupta, 1987 [131]). This issue has been mitigated, slightly, through the Geographical

Indication (GI) initiative, that strives to ensure that all tea labeled ‘Darjeeling’ comes from

Darjeeling. However, the GI initiative has given rise to other issues.7

DJT Production

As found through our fieldwork, the current state of DJT production is not so rosy. Tea

estates are dwindling. As Padam Nepal, a professor of economics at St. Joseph college in

Darjeeling said, tea estates in Darjeeling have diminished from 139 to 87.8 Speaking to

Darjeeling locals ranging from estate managers, to shopkeepers, to pluckers, we found a deep

concern for decreasing quality of DJT. Partly, this is due to lower global tea prices, which

pressure estates to make up the profit loss by increasing quantity.9 This pressure for high

quantities of tea, which often compromises quality, turned out to be a regular complaint. For

instance, the manager at an organic tea estate in Kurseong, described what he called the

“immense difficulties facing organic estates” to produce more tea, while retaining “lower

yielding” organic production.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!7 For more on this issue see the work of Tarit Kumar Datta (Datta, 1991). 8 Quoted from a special conference in Darjeeling for fellows of the 2012 ICKCBI summer program (as

referenced above). 9 Global drops in tea prices are often attributed to an overall increase in global supply of tea. Amongst

other reasons, this occurs as new countries enter the market, such as Kenya. For more on this see, (Owuor, 1997).

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This comment exemplifies the discourse surrounding high value DJT. There is a tension

between retaining the image, the perception of DJT as HV, and increasing production, regardless

of quality, to ensure impressive corporate balance sheets.

Concern seems to focus on what will sustain DJT’s stellar reputation in the long run. This

is in reference to ecological and cultural health. This point is especially prominent with today’s

ease of information flows, and increasing numbers of tourists who are visiting Darjeeling.

Tourism and increased knowledge surrounding Darjeeling and its tea production, has the

potential to continue to increase the value of DJT. As tourists revel in the natural beauty, and

consumers believe that lives are being transformed by their buying decisions, the value of DJT

stands to benefit.

This is why the status quo was described to us as unacceptable. Roshan Rai of local

NGO, DLR Prerna, explained the difficulties workers face under the still operating, colonial-

style tea estates. With no rights to the land, no voice in questions of production, and little

incentive beyond their daily wage of 90INR, worker’s quality of life is hardly something to show

off. In an era of increasing consumer consciousness for labor and social issues, as seen in the

explosion of ‘fair trade’ labeling10 this is a highly sensitive area in terms of ensuring the DJT

remains of high value.

As people from all aspects of Darjeeling’s tea industry expressed the same concern, a

theme fell upon our laps: most of the problems Darjeeling tea faces can be attributed to the estate

structure, or ideology.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10 For more on fairtrade see, (Cocken, 2006; Boonman, 2011).

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Albeit, a few estates, Makaibari being the poster child, are taking steps to better the

environmental and cultural harm that tea estates have wreaked on Darjeeling for nearly two

hundred years. However, while Makaibari should be commended for its efforts (as done below),

most of the bio-dynamic or ‘fair trade’, efforts are best described as “ribbons and bows” (as

lamented by Samuel Thomas of local NGO ATREE).

Thus the need for a new model, a break from the archaic plantation ideology, is clear.

And indeed such a model exists and touted for replication. This model provides self-

determination for the workers and their lives, not to mention ownership of the land they toil and

live on. Such a best practice model, seen in Mineral Springs farmer co-operative, is discussed

below. But first, a discussion on what happens after production.

Markets, sales and auctions

Another archaic, and “dwindling”, pillar of Darjeeling’s tea industry occurs in Kolkata.11

This concerns the step after the tea is processed and packaged in bulk. This stage of the game

used to consist of a monopsony. Not long ago, Darjeeling tea growers had one buyer: the Kolkata

auction. A major reason for this has to do with Darjeeling tea’s prominence as an export crop.

While the figures vary, with extremes stating that, in 2006 “nearly 98% of Darjeeling tea was

exported” (Jena & Grote, 229), and others stating 70% exports (Datta, 123 72pp essay on DJT),

the bottom line is that the majority of DJT is exported. Darjeeling tea fetches such a high price

on the international market, that Indians are willing to sell the coveted tea as a sort of sacrifice,

“we export the tea in the name of GPR growth”.12

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 ‘Dwindling’, was the words of Benoy Thapa, a pioneer in the online auctioning of Darjeeling tea. He is

discussed below. 12 This quote comes from an employee of India’s Tea Board.

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Tea sold at the Kolkata auction may benefit the economic growth of India, but it hardly

trickles down to the average Darjeeling local, let alone those landless laborers plucking leaves at

estates run by India’s wealthiest. Thankfully, the past decade or so has seen rapid changes on this

front. An exemplar/catalyst of this change is seen in Benoy Thapa, who pioneers an online

system of tea auctioning and sales. Benoy’s entrepreneurial efforts bring more of DJT’s value

chain into the local Darjeeling economy. His efforts are discussed more below, in the section on

the future of DJT. But first, a history of how DJT, its producers, and the land came into this

current state.

History

The history of Darjeeling tea is recent- less than two hundred years, in fact. It is one of

colonial discovery and exploitation. Dr. Campbell is the name most often heard when enquiring

upon tea’s origins in India. Dr. Campbell was a British surgeon who was said to bring seeds of

camellia sinensis from China and began experimenting with cultivation in Darjeeling’s hills.13

Along with Dr. Campbell, there are many and sundry stories (perhaps ‘tales’ is a more

accurate description) that surround tea’s origin in Darjeeling. The diversity and frequency with

which such stories are related speaks to the mystique and many perceptions that follow this

influential plant.

One anecdote centers on the Singhpho tribe. The antagonist of this story is an elephant

who would never tire. The elephant worked and worked and never needed rest like the other

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!13 This ethnographic work on DJT, is not the place for a proper history of Darjeeling tea. For such an

account see the recent work of Gillian Wright (Wright, 2011).

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elephants. Pondering over why this was so, it was noticed that the elephant had a habit of

munching on the leaves from a certain tree. The rest of the anecdote is obvious enough.

A second tale speaks of a group of British who made a fire to heat up water underneath a

certain species of tree. When a leaf from this tree happened to fall into the heating-up pot of

water the British were fascinated over the dark color the leaf changed the water to. Curiosity led

them to drink the brew.

Another, even less credible Darjeeling native, told us of the African origins of camellia

sinensis.

The British introduction of tea production to Darjeeling ensured that DJT would meet a

world market. The distinct and flavor and aroma of DJT carried the commodity to the high

reputation and value it now enjoys.

However, not long after the British left India, the Indian government, worried over the

continued high quality production and marketing of Indian tea. It passed the 1953 Tea Act that

established the Tea Board of India in the interest of promoting the cultivation, processing and

trade of tea, both at home and abroad.

Additionally, The Tea Promoters of India (TPI) take great strides in aiding small farmers.

They hand out saplings of new species (even clones), and also act as a buyer of green leaf

(unprocessed) tea.

Today, global trade of DJT is still substantial: “In 2006, the total exports of Darjeeling tea

amounted to 11.5 million kg, which fetched around Rs. 917 million (approximately US$20.3 m.)

(Jena & Grote, 229). Largely, its high value status is intact: “Darjeeling tea receives a high price

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premium in the tea auctions in India; for example, in 2006, it varied between Rs. 11.7 and Rs.

49.3 per kg, which is in the range of 17% to 162% (Tea Board of India, 2007).

But these numbers are far from stable. And they face growing global competition. This

competition is coming from new tea production in a few African countries and China. People in

Darjeeling are highly aware of this, and have some strong opinions towards the future of DJT.

The Future of DJT

Production

The future of tea production seems to be taking two routes. One can be seen in old tea

estates that adopt new philosophies concerning environment, society and life in general. This is

in reference to perhaps Darjeeling’s best publicized estate, Makaibari. As paraphrased by

employees at local NGO DLR Prerna, ‘the folks at Makaibari are master marketers’. And indeed

they are. From Darjeeling to Kolkata, Makaibari was by far the most spoken of tea estate. And

comments consistently centered around respect for the environment, the many wild animals that

live on the estate, and the care shown to Makaibari’s workers. We interviewed Makaibari’s still

new CEO (he has held the position for over three years now), Kuldip Basu. Most of the time was

swallowed up by philosophical mantras of ‘not resisting life’, finding deeper understanding of

‘one’s position in this world’, and how to ‘let go’, find acceptance, and truly ‘experience this

world’. It was great advice, but perhaps better suited to a retreat on Spiritual Environmentalism.

Finding answers to our questions was frustrating. But for a company that boasts of following

permaculture philosophy, perhaps it was to be accepted.14

However, no matter how much it tries to re-invent itself, Makaibari cannot get beyond the

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14 For an explanation of permaculture, see (Mollison, 1990).

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stark fact of being a monoculture amongst a biodiversity hotspot that follows a colonial era,

plantation social system in the 21st century.15 This brings us to the two small farmer cooperatives

of DJT: Mineral Springs and Organic Ekta.

Mineral Springs is historically interesting and embodies what many see as the ‘best

practice model’ for high value DJT.

As the leaders of Mineral springs’ governing body explained, the name came from a

British explorer who came through the area with some sort of skin ailment. After bathing in the

spring he was cured. He then named the area as such and a tea estate was opened. But in 1957

the estate closed down.16 The workers went through decades of destitution that forced them to

cut down trees and tear out the tea bushes. Due to unique circumstances they were able to ‘grab

the land’, and take ownership of personal plots. This responsibility encouraged the farmers.

Various crops were planted and the remaining tea shrubs nurtured.17

With the help of local NGOs, Mineral Springs formed into a co-operative of organic,

smallholder farmers. As Iran, one small farmer told us, “while others follow [the model of]

deforestation, we follow [sic] aforestation.” And it is true. A drive through the bumpy, tortuous

roads of Mineral Springs reveals abundant trees with a diverse understory. Tea bushes are the

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15 Another way in which Makaibari is attempting to break out of the plantation ideology is through tea tourism. Tea tourism is split into two categories: one for the affluent and another for the common people.

High-end tea tourism consists of staying in the ‘bungalows’ where British plantation owners used to stay.

Glenburn tea estate is one example. For other examples and further information on this high-end brand of tea tourism see, (Financial Express news staff, 2005).

Makaibari is now experimenting with a more affordable brand of tea toursim. It consists of ‘home stays’.

A home stay is a situation where tourists stay at the homes of workers of tea estates. However, in either form, tea tourism is in a nascent stage. But it has immense potential. It is discussed in the synthesis

section of this paper. 16 Some who we spoke to at Mineral Springs attribute the closure to worker-manager disputes that led to

worker rebellion, others to general mismanagement. 17 For more on this history see, (Rai, 2007).

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minority. Other crops include orange and mandarin trees, ginger and turmeric, cardamom and

broomstick amongst others. It is true multi cropping; it is probably better described through the

new term of ‘agroforestry’, despite these farmers ignorance to such terminology.18

Because the farmers own the land, and have self-determination, they have an strong

incentive for the long-term health of the land. One farmer related a story to us of a visit to a tea

estate. He said that he saw a group of laborers take a large bag of manure and dump it all over

one tea shrub, then walk away. “You have to spread the manure”, this farmer explained, “each

tea shrub needs individual care”. He went on to explain the marked difference of worker’s

mentality and lives at tea estates vs. Mineral springs. When discussing the topic with another

farmer, over tea in his living room overlooking Mt. Kanchenjunga, he said, “at first, when times

were tough, we felt the estate workers had it better. But now I feel lucky”.

While small farmers are able to hand process tea, it requires the sun to be out (which is

never a safe bet in Darjeeling). It is hardly a viable option. The fact of the matter is that they

have to sell their tea unprocessed and thus at a stage of low value. The ‘dream’ of the co-op is to

purchase processing equipment and means of minimal packaging. If this were to occur the

product sold by Mineral Springs (processed and packaged tea, vs. unprocessed green leaves)

would be of immensely higher value. However, there are other ways to bring these steps of the

value chain into the local Darjeeling economy, as explained in the following section.

Packaging, marketing, selling (value-chain analysis)

If the tea supply-chain means following the commodity from production to end

consumption, the value-chain refers to where value is added along that chain. This is crucial

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18 For more on agroforestry see (Schroth, 2004).

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because the money is made where value is added. As mentioned above, production carries paltry

value, and processing little more. Unfortunately, substantial value is added after processing, by

which time the tea tends to leave the local economy.19 Thankfully, however, commonly held

opinions, such as the below quote, are becoming out of date:

The value chain of tea in Darjeeling is characterized by the production system of the tea estates. These estates sell their tea to the auctions in Kolkata (and to some extent in Siliguri), from where the purchasing companies buy it, blend it, brand it and then sell it. The tea-purchasing companies which are almost completely controlled by foreign blending companies are the dominant players in the value chain, receiving a considerable share of the net income along the chain (Sharma and Das, 2009).

This brings up the work of Benoy Thapa. In 2004 Mr. Thapa started Thunderbolt Tea, a

company that he runs out of Darjeeling. Mr. Thapa tastes and buys the best teas from

Darjeeling’s tea estates, then packages and sells them online. By doing this, Mr. Thapa creates a

situation in which the local Darjeeling economy benefits from the entire value of the DJT

supply-chain.20 And Benoy is not alone. More and more, people are circumventing the Kolkata

tea auction and buying directly from the estates. Not all of theses entrepreneurs are small or

local. Such companies stretch across the globe, such as Le Palais des Thés, Leafull, and Günter

Faltin. All of these companies bypass the Kolkata auction by coming straight to Darjeeling and

buying the tea directly from the estates. As Benoy discussed this changing scene to us, he painted

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!19 Consider this quote: “Tea is usually exported at a relatively early stage in the supply chain. Blending

and packaging, the most lucrative part of the tea trade, is mostly carried out by the tea companies in the buyer country. The large profits do not therefore accrue to the tea-producing countries, but are made

abroad. In Europe, 30 to 50% of the consumer price of tea goes towards blending, packing, packaging

materials and promotion” (European Fair Trade Association EFTA, 1998). 20This point brings up the large topic of packaging. Due to project limits, it is unfortunately relegated to

this footnote. It should briefly be noted that co-ops and small entrepreneurs are taking steps to fabricate minimal, cost effective packaging. Packaging is another step in Darjeeling locals controlling more of the

value chain. Consumer consciousness towards packaging is another aspect to this topic. Consumers

should be taught of the consequences of demanding fancy packaging, or better yet, the benefit of buying

in bulk. Not only does such packaging prevent small farmers from climbing the value chain, it is unnecessary waste in the environment.

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a picture in which the Kolkata auction fads into the background.21

The work of Mr. Thapa’s adds value to DJT in a few ways. For one it places more

emphasis on ‘single-estate’ teas. This adds variety to Darjeeling tea, while diversifying tastes,

and providing a space for the highest quality Darjeeling teas to be sold. More importantly, is the

benefit that smallholder farmers receive when they make a deal with someone like Mr. Thapa.22

When Mr. Thapa’s company is involved, the value-chain shrinks to two players: the farmers and

Thunderbolt Tea.23 Not only does this bring more profit to farmer co-ops and local

entrepreneurs—and out of the hands of multinational companies or India’s wealthiest—it also

gives power, agency and thus freedom to local players. As local players have higher interests in

the local ecosystem and culture, this helps ensure the long-term high value of DJT.24

Part III:

Hidden fungi in the pine forests of Northwest Yunnan

“The Wild Mushroom kingdom”

If Darjeeling tea as a global commodity has been around for some 150 years, the

commodification of wild Yunnan mushrooms has an even shorter history. While humans have

been eating wild mushrooms in Yunnan for probably as long as the two have cohabited, wild

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!21 Local Darjeeling store ‘Life & Leaf’ represents another manner in which smallholder farmers can avoid

the Kolkata auction and take control of more of the value chain. Life & Leaf (started by an employee of

the NGO ATREE) works with small farmers to sell their tea in the Darjeeling storefront. Currently, Life & Leaf sells tea from Mineral Springs and Organic Ekta. 22Additionally, there is potential for smallholder farmers to work with larger international companies. For

example, Equal Exchange, of America, is trying to work out a situation where it can buy directly from farmer co-ops in Darjeeling. 23Again, this assumes the farmers are able to process their own tea- an ability that co-ops should

consistently have in the near future as they gain access to processing equipment. Then they wont have to

rely on the seldom-sunny day for hand processing. 24 For additional benefits of altering the value chain, see (Tsing, 2009).

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mushrooms as a symbol of Yunnan, or in any way impacting the economy of Yunnan only goes

back to the latter half of the 20th century. It is under this consideration that we speak of WYM.

The mushrooming phenomenon of WYM

Indeed, the contemporary trade and reputation of WYM has mushroomed into existence.

This is exemplified in the role WYM play in the hit new Chinese documentary A Bite On China:

Narrator Li Lihang described China as a vast nation with possibly the richest natural resources for food on earth. The very first food item featured in the premier episode is the fairy-like rare fungus of pine mushroom from the forest of Shangri-La25

A Bite On China, is popular viewing across the whole of China. This takes on more

serious consequences when Professor Sujie Wang with Shandong University states that China

will be “ the world’s leader in both inbound and outbound tourism by 2020” (Wang, et al., 327).

This point is amplified when we remember the connection to nature that wild mushrooms

(eating them and foraging for them) bring to consumers and tourists, and the growing trend of

ecotourism. WYM at once draw in culinary tourists and ecotourists.

And Yunnan’s government is not ignorant to this point. As told to us by Prof Zhao Bole

of Yunnan University, in the mid 1980’s , the government made a strategy of promoting WYM

and tourism. They saw in WYM the connection of a unique food commodity to a unique

ecosystem. It was twice the draw for tourists, and the strategy has worked.26

Tourism is now an important player in Yunnan’s economy: “In 2006, total receipts from

tourism in Yunnan Province reached CNY 49.97 billion (USD 6.2 billion), almost 90% of which

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25 This excerpt is taken from an article in China Post (June 26, 2012). The article discusses the popular

documentary series ‘A Bite on China’. 26 And as will be discussed below, the same formula is applied to tea tourism in Darjeeling

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came from Chinese tourists. Receipts were up 16.7% on the previous year, and accounted for

12.5% of the provincial GDP” (Perng, 2007).

However, WYM are more than a tourist trap. The Fifth International Workshop of Edible

Mycorrhizal Mushrooms, labeling Yunnan “The Wild Mushroom Kingdom”, is further proof of

the escalating popularity of WYM. This workshop ushers in modern forms of this global

commodification, such as e-trade, e-commercial, export and rapid processing facilities, air-

conditioned logistics and wild mushroom cultural tourism service together.

Another trend, beyond eco and culinary tourism, is causing workshops of edible wild

mushrooms to grow in popularity. It is the growing consciousness towards the health benefits of

wild mushrooms, and natural (wild, organic, etc) food in general. This point hits on global

information flows, scientific knowledge, trends/fads, etc. The trend is clearly seen in Kunming,

through stores and CSAs (Community Supported Agriculture) that cater to this new demand. For

instance, Cloud Farm is a new store in Kunming that works directly with farmers, financing the

organic cultivation of heritage varieties of grains and other produce. Hao Bao, China’s largest

organic farm company is growing rapidly as a result of this increased consciousness in healthy

and natural foods.27

Probably the most respected store in Kunming that supports organic food grown by small

farmers is Lu Geng. Lu Geng works directly with farmers, educating them on sustainable

practices, while supporting them in not losing their indigenous knowledge.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!27 Information on Hao Bao’s growth came from an interview conducted with a manager at Hao Bao’s Kunming office, and an organic specialist with the company.

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The growing WYM industry is translating into economic gain. Officials in Chuxiong

county, a region famous for matsutake and Niugan mushrooms, plan to reach 2 billion RMB in

output by 2020.28

The government is also active in building the commodity, perception, and value of

WYM. The Yunnan Provincial Commercial Department is now planning to create a brand and

trademark for WYM, to successfully introduce them into international markets. The policy

focuses on three facets, ‘green’, ‘ecology’, ‘ethnic’, to create the Dian cuisine brand.29

Additionally, the wild mushroom matsutake is critical to Japanese culture. It is both

frequently gifted and cooked. However, the mushroom no longer grows in Japan (Saito, 2008).

Of course, matsutake grows well in The Wild Mushroom Kingdom, which has spurred a growing

export market of fresh matsutake from the hills of Yunnan.

Threats to WYM & how to sustain high value

The surge in WYM has created a situation of expanding demand with (highly) limited

supply. Thus a common story is popping up: in once bountiful mushroom foraging locations, no

edible fungi are to be found. An unfortunate example of this is West Mountain, on the edge of

Kunming. As we discussed with pickers at Kunming’s farmers markets, we heard over and over

that “there are no more mushrooms on West Mountain”. As a result of such trends, those who

have developed decades of experience foraging for mushrooms are forced to turn to other forms

of employment. However, the high price of WYM is bringing novice pickers deeper into

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!28 Reference found at http://www.emushroom.net/news/show.php?itemid=10512 29 Reference found at http://www.dh.gov.cn/bofcom/432635848182202368/20090811/ 238736.html

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sensitive woods. And these pickers, either desperate for money or without the know-how of

sustainable picking, are going deeper into sensitive ecosystems.

While causal connections are hard to make, it is hard not to think that the recent scarcity

of WYM has nothing to do with escalating demand for precious fungi. If this scarcity is true, a

paradox arises in which a region that was recently labeled ‘The Wild Mushroom Kingdom’ is

running dry of wild mushrooms. It is hard to gauge how serious the situation is, however. And if

the situation is serious, determining causes is even more difficult.

Mycologist David Arora continues to carry out extensive fieldwork in rural Yunnan.

Arora remarks over the wealth that the global matsutake trade has brought to once impoverished

communities. Interestingly, he is firm when stating that mushroom picking (in accord with a few,

commonsensical rules) doesn’t attribute to a decline in mushroom numbers (Arora, 2008). In

fact, Arora argues that picking the fruiting body of mycelium30 in no way harms the organism. In

fact, by carrying picked mushrooms around the forest, with spores dispersing and falling behind

the picker, it is thought that the picker acts as a sort of Johnny Appleseed of mushrooms.31

Local Accounts

Tourism that invades the deep recesses of Yunnan’s forests is fast becoming detrimental

to the fragile fungi and the local knowledge that knows how to respect wild mushrooms (not to

mention find them). It is for such reasons that figures such as Li Bo are fighting for a responsible

brand of tourism (see, Bo, Li, 2003 & 2005). As we discussed with locals of Shangr-La, Lijiang,

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!30 Mycelium can be thought of as the root system of mushrooms. Mycelium forms a complex network of

threads just beneath the forest floor. A mushroom is the fruiting (reproductive) body of the mycelium. For

more information see (Stamets, 2005). 31 Such spore dispersal is why mushroom pickers use baskets and not solid containers to put their findings in as they continue to forage around the forest.

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Dali City, and other tourist hotspots around Yunnan, (whether this be ecotourism, food based

tourism, or ethno-tourism), we heard opinions of tourism as economically pleasing, even with the

potential to promote cultural diversity and environmental respect. But more frequent, were

accounts of the dangers that tourism presents to local culture and environment.

At the tourist destination of Dali City, we spent time with local families to better

understand their perception of tourism, WYM and the region’s biological and cultural richness.32

To these families the mushrooms are something special, something to be respected, with a season

that should be patiently waited for. To them, part of their love for WYM is the simple fact that

the delicacy must-- indeed can only-- be enjoyed in a limited quantity. Most of the locals in Dali

didn’t perceive tourism, or the expanding export market of WYM, as a threat to their continued

enjoyment of WYM.33

Similarly, in Kunming, as we sat down to a lunch that included WYM with a local

family, the same perception was showcased: that WYM is to be enjoyed in limitation, and the

understanding that nature only provides a limited quantity of these ‘gifts’. During lunch, an elder

gentleman announced happily, “this is the first and last time that I will enjoy these [WYM] this

season”. In that particular lunch, we ate cultivated mushrooms along side the wild variety. We all

agreed on the enhanced texture and flavor of the wild mushrooms. Even for the foreigners at the

table, the distinction was clear. The wild variety had a complex texture, with a full, nutty flavor,

while the artificial specimens were pale and limp, both in texture and flavor.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!32 It must be revealed that the families and informants we discussed with were of a high social stratum.

They had the money and means by which to enjoy the delicacy of WYM. 33 Again, this could be due to the fact that the locals we discussed with, being affluent, are able to shoulder the rising prices that follow with increased demand.)

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Whether or not the price difference matched this taste difference is less clear. At Zhuan

Tang farmer market, where we bought the mushrooms for that particular lunch, the variety was

called ji zong and they sold for 400-500kg. The artificial variety costs 30-35kg.34

Du Shan: mushroom mountain

Also on that trip we found a lead to one of our most fruitful fieldwork experiences in

Yunnan. While discussing with a distributor of WYM, we brought up our interest in tourism

surrounding WYM. His eyes lit up as he began to describe Du Shan mountain. It turns out that

Mr. Zhang bought a twenty-year lease on Du Shan mountain. He now reserves the mountain for

foraging wild mushrooms. He goes to great lengths to keep renegade foragers off his land.35

Aside from employing pickers, and then selling their findings to local markets and restaurants,

Mr. Zhang set up a tourist operation on Du Shan. Tourists can come for the day, attempt to

forage for the mysterious mushrooms, and then, if they choose, hand over the mushrooms to an

onsite cook who will prepare them for enjoyment in a makeshift, outdoor restaurant. And if the

foraging attempt wasn’t successful, the tourists can have some previous foraged mushrooms

prepared for them.

As of yet, the tourist operation is only for day trips. There are no overnight

accommodations. And as Mr. Zhang, as his family who help him run the operation, only speak

local Kunming dialect of Cantonese, his customers are limited to domestic tourists. When we

explained the interest that foreigners would have over the experience that he offers, a hopeless

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!34 This price difference brings up issues of class divide, and who has the privilege of enjoying these mushrooms. This issue is only exacerbated as rising demand also pushes up price. The issue of class

divide and WYM, is an important topic that demands further research. 35 Outsider foraging of WYM on private land is becoming a serious issue in Yunnan. The issue has even

forced government officials to create new legislature concerning public land us. For more on this topic see, (Aurora, 2008).

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look came over his face. He explained that he would have no idea of how to advertise for such an

expansion. He then explained that he doesn’t have the means of building a fancy restaurant and

better facilities. It took awhile to explain that his outdoor dining area with a canvas roof and

pine-needle flooring was part of the experience; it was hard for him to understand that people

will come for the mountain itself, the mushrooms that it produces, and his twenty years of know-

how and local knowledge that reveals the ‘gifts’ of the mountain.

This conversation led into the sad scenario of dwindling mushrooms. It was a

conversation point that persistently occurred. Mr Zhang, took us to a specimen of mushrooms

similar to gamba or crispa. He had it specially covered with a lid constructed of sticks and

leaves. He revealed it with care, and explained how these used to grow prodigiously, all over the

mountain. When we enquired on the reason for its scarcity, the answer was unclear. ‘Changing

environment’, he said. It is due to such trends of diminishing growth of WYM that Mr. Zhang is

less than motivated to expand his tourist operations.

As Mr. Zhang recovered the coveted fungi, we asked what measures are taken to protect

wild mushrooms, and ensure their future. Mr. Zhang described how he teaches all of his pickers

never to pick mushrooms smaller than a certain size (akin to throwing small fish back into the

water). He also described issues of foot-traffic on the mountain, and trampled mushrooms. His

answer was not satisfying, we then set up interviews with government employees. We wanted to

ask the same question, but on a macro, policy level.

Government Involvement

Interviews with government employees and background research, revealed numerous

efforts of the government in terms of promoting WYM. Government sponsored mushroom

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festivals is one example. Such festivals help retain the culture of respect that surrounds wild

mushrooms. Mushrooms must remain something that is respected and linked to Yunnan’s unique

qualities (cultural, geographical and biological).

Local Culture

A few themes emerged in our interviews that relate to local culture. One is the

importance that the health benefits of mushrooms remain in the consciousness of the people.

Likewise, it is crucial that locals (in urban and rural areas) continue to respect and value the

knowledge and know-how that is required in picking these mushrooms in a sustainable way.

There is a need for retention of culture (in the face of rising discretionary income). It is

crucial that people retain this sense that wild mushrooms are something to be enjoyed seldom

and in moderation.

Innovation

Innovation was another theme that came up in our discussions. As we spoke with Rudy, a

government employee in the agriculture sector, an increase need for government

environmental/agriculture research to focus on local/indigenous knowledge came up. Cultures

and peoples have built up a knowledge system that allowed them to live sustainably on Yunnan’s

land for millennia. As Rudy explained, despite the immense agricultural and environmental work

the government is doing, this knowledge is hardly being tapped into. But the real innovation

comes from mixing this indigenous, more local knowledge with scientific, or universal

knowledge. Such experiments and research that involves inclusiveness, and respect, for all

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cultures and systems of knowledge, is truly innovative and the best hope for retaining the high

value of WYM.36

Part IV:

Synthesis

As our fieldwork describes, the issues confronting DJT & WYM are of consequence and

voiced. Locals have the interest of sustaining, even raising, the value of their regions’ respective

commodity. However, few were able to group together all the factors necessary to achieve long-

term, high value commodities. We found a lack of people who look at high value production of

DJT &WYM from a holistic/ecological perspective. Not enough in Yunnan and Darjeeling

understand that all these factors must be respected for long-term high value: local knowledge and

culture, labor, environment, responsible (or limited) tourism, and concern over global

perceptions.

Global Symbols

DJT &WYM are cultural ambassadors for Darjeeling and Yunnan. The two food

commodities have become brands of the regions in question. These brands (or symbols) must

represent the diverse environment and culture of the two regions. This should be beneficial in

promoting the interests of these regions; to be beneficial, these brands must stay of high value. If

the value or reputation falls, the culture and environment of these regions will also slip into

disrepair. If Darjeeling and Yunnan lose their international standing, the commodities that these

regions rely upon will also wane in desirability. The economies of the regions will suffer.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!36 These two forms of knowledge that were discussed with Rudy, are clearly laid out by James Scott. See,

(Scott, 1998). Additionally, for a study on how such knowledge systems mix, including the dangers and benefits, see (Lowe, 2006).

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Tourism, health & discretionary income

A major connection between DJT & WYM is the imminent tourist industries they

accompany. As a health consciousness that centers on the foods people eat crosses the globe,

high quality tea and mushrooms become hot topics. Part of this trend is knowledge over food

origins and hunting out the freshest possible specimen. As growing hoards of people gain

command over discretionary income, the above trends translate into tourist draws. Foodies (the

food obsessed) and the health conscious are attracted to the regions that DJT & WYM are now

popularizing.

The health benefits associated with the peace of mind an urbanite gains from a vacation

in the beautiful Darjeeling or Yunnan hills adds to this draw. Health doesn’t have to be the aim.

As Darjeeling tea connoisseur Benoy Thapa said, “for me, tea is an addiction”. Mr Thapa doesn’t

buy into the tea-for-health campaign that players such as India’s Tea Board are promoting.

Status, or a conspicuous show of ‘refined taste’ are other reasons why people are willing to go to

the extreme (either of their pocketbook or the globe) to experience unique and delicious food.

Darjeeling and Yunnan are just starting to tap into these interests. At this point there is

more buzz surrounding tea or wild mushroom tourism than actually exists. But we suspect that in

a decade the situation will be drastically different.

Directions forward: future work

- For DJT, the farmer co-operative of Mineral Springs seems the most hopeful model for

sustaining high value Darjeeling tea. The question then becomes, how to replicate this

model?

- As stated, tourism offers immense benefit to the local culture, environment and economy.

Arguably, however, it presents an even bigger danger to all three. The question then

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becomes, how does one promote responsible tourism? Does it require making people

‘responsible’ even in their daily lives?

- On the question of exports of DJT & WYM (and these commodities as symbols of the

regions and cultures), how do we create a more accurate representation of the Darjeeling

and Yunnan

o Additionally, how do we create a more ethical and conscious consumer

- More scientific knowledge is needed on the reproduction of mushrooms and their role

within ecosystems. Also, on this front, how to create a more equal mixture of scientific

and local knowledge systems

- The negative colonial hangovers of Darjeeling deserve greater attention (this applies on

many fronts)

- Tea production is commonly perceived as a monoculture and destructive. The beauty of

Mineral Springs is how it supersedes this perception. It is part of the acceptance that

humans affect ecologies, and perhaps, to a limited extent, this is ‘natural’ and not

detrimental. With this reasoning, tea is now a ‘natural’ part of Darjeeling’s environment.

The question is then, how can the plant be nurtured and harvested in a way that allows the

surrounding bio-diversity to thrive. In other words, re-conceiving tea production as an aid

to biodiversity is an important direction forward.

- As Prof Jayanta Bandopadhyay of the Center for Development and Environment Policy

at the Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta told the authors, “mountain

development in Asia is important”. Prof Bandopadhyay went on to describe two critical

characteristics of mountain products: “low weight and high value”, and how both DJT &

WYM fit the bill. In this sense, another important direction forward is to consider DJT &

WYM specifically as mountain products, or amongst other mountain products.

- This work needs to be couched within the broader topic of India and China interactions,

and the even broader picture of global modernization

- Finally, with the success of DJT & WYM as high value commodities, accurately

representing the regions they are a part of, they should be used as a best practice model in

promoting the environment, culture and economy of unique regions across the globe

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Author Biographies

Peter Oviatt

Peter is a M.A. candidate in the Politics Department at The New School for Social Research. In broad terms, his academic interests revolve around the cultural interactions of foreign development, particularly knowledge systems as they relate to food systems and agriculture. Amongst other experiences, Peter has worked with NGOs in Cameroon and participated in the Democracy and Diversity Institute in Johannesburg. Andrée Lee (Li Xue)

Andrée is a PhD candidate of International Relations, focusing her research on the fields of national policy, energy security (specifically crude oil, international policy and transportation), higher education, and psychology. Recently she assisted with translating an academic book on Indian politics, and is now eager to conduct her own research on India. Andrée believes that collaborations between students from India and China this summer will produce great outcomes. Shiladitya Basu

Shiladitya is a M.A. candidate of the Department of South & South East Asian Studies at the University of Calcutta. His study of this area arose after having been in the field of political studies for some years. He is interested in Indian policies towards neighboring countries and multilateral diplomacy in regional & subregional forums.