crisis as opportunity for spiritual growth

Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 25, No. 1, Spring 1986

Crisis as Opportunity for Spiritual Growth

C. MARGARET H A L L

ABSTRACT: Life-history data from two hundred crisis families and two hundred non-crisis families are examined to specify the influence of crisis conditions on spiritual growth. Members of crisis families making spiritual values their basis for life-orientation appear to live more productively and experience more life-satisfaction than members of crisis families or non-crisis families making no conscious effort to examine values or life-orientation.

These findings invite further substantiation of crisis as opportunity for spiritual growth. A clinical implication is that research on optimal functioning, recovery, and spiritual growth is perhaps more needed at present than continued research on pathology and dysfunction.

Th i s r e s e a r c h grows out of p ro fe s s iona l e x p e r i e n c e as a c l in ica l soc io logis t and f a m i l y t h e r a p i s t over t h e l a s t f o u r t e e n yea r s . 1 More speci f ica l ly , t h e s tudy ex t ends a n d r e f i n e s t he au tho r ' s p r i o r r e s e a r c h on p s y c h o t h e r a p y as s ecu la r re l ig ion , a g i n g a n d f a m i l y p rocesses , a n d r e l ig ion and ag ing . 2

S e r e n d i p i t o u s f i n d i n g s f r o m a n e x a m i n a t i o n of l i f e - h i s t o r y d a t a f r o m abou t four h u n d r e d f a m i l i e s p r o m p t e d the f o r m u l a t i o n of t he h y p o t h e s i s of th is s tudy: cr is is cond i t i ons a r e m o r e conduc ive to s p i r i t u a l g r o w t h t h a n non- cr is is condi t ions . 3 T h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s s u g g e s t s t h a t cr is is m a y be v iewed as a n o p p o r t u n i t y for s p i r i t u a l g rowth .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of d a t a f r o m a n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a m p l e of f a m i l i e s indi- cated t h a t t he mos t e f fec t ive c l in ica l r e s u l t s of cr is is i n t e r v e n t i o n o c c u r r e d in f ami l i e s w h e r e one or more f a m i l y m e m b e r s h a d been ab le to r e o r i e n t t h e i r l ives accord ing to s p i r i t u a l or m o r e s p i r i t u a l va lues . In t h i s r e o r i e n t a t i o n process , t he focus of t h e s e f a m i l y m e m b e r s sh i f t ed away f r o m t h e i r p re - v ious ly -he ld p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e y were v i c t i m s of social or e m o t i o n a l c i r cum- s t a n c e s . A m o r e u n i v e r s a l v iew, w h i c h i n c l u d e d s u p e r n a t u r a l r e a l i t i e s , p rov ided t he se peop le w i t h a f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e for se l f a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n - sh ips w i t h o the r s wh ich a l lowed t h e m to t r a n s c e n d some of the ob jec t ive ly d i f f icul t e m p i r i c a l cond i t i ons of t h e i r ex i s tence . I t a p p e a r e d t h a t i t was p r i m a r i l y t h i s n e w - f o u n d e m p h a s i s on s p i r i t u a l va lue s t h a t e n a b l e d t h e s e people to e x p e r i e n c e m o r e p r o d u c t i v e a n d m o r e s a t i s f y i n g life expe r i ences .

The p a t t e r n s i d e n t i f i e d in t he d a t a we re s u r p r i s i n g , as m u c h c u r r e n t f ami ly t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e d o c u m e n t s t h a t i t is p r e s e n t a n d pas t e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t i e s t h a t m u s t be faced, d e a l t wi th , a n d u n d e r s t o o d i f a p e r s o n is to come to t e r m s w i t h life. 4 F r o m the d a t a in h a n d , however , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a c e r t a i n

C. Margaret Hall, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Chair of the Department of Sociology at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.

(~'/1986 Institutes of Religion and Health 8

C. Margaret Hall 9

amount of purposive denial of empirical reali t ies, th rough strong adherence to t ranscendenta l spir i tual values, was necessary to have hope and be sufficiently motivated to act effectively in the present and on a cont inuing basis.

Those individuals who increased the i r commitment to spir i tual values as a means of coping effectively wi th crisis conditions were viewed as having responded to spir i tual values as opportuni t ies for spir i tual growth. Objective findings, if not experiences lived, suggest tha t there is a s ignif icant proba- bility tha t a crisis may produce constructive changes in l ife-orientation, and that a crisis may become an impor tan t catalyst in reordering personal values. This contradicts the conventional wisdom tha t crises are ha rmfu l and to be avoided.

An assumption made in this research is tha t a single family member who changes values and beliefs has an impact on the values and beliefs of other family membersl br inging about some modification of their values and beliefs eventually. In this respect, the te rms " individual" and "family" are sometimes used in terchangeably in the following commentary.

Statement of research problem

This study pr imar i ly explores the na ture of influences tha t culminate in a l ife-enhancing outcome of a family member's consultat ions with a clinician or family therapist . The hypothesis tha t crisis conditions are more conducive to spiri tual growth than non-crisis conditions requires an examinat ion of the relation between a person's behavior and tha t person's commitment to spir- i tual values. The research specifies to what extent effective funct ioning correlates positively with increased awareness of and increased dependency on spiri tual values in daily living.

Funct ioning is defined as behavior tha t is directed toward deal ing with life conditions realistically. Increased or positive funct ioning describes behavior that is oriented toward dealing with dai ly life both appropriately and effectively. Decreased or negative funct ioning describes behavior tha t leads to an avoidance of real i ty and inappropriate or ineffective ways of coping with life. 5

Spi r i tua l values are def ined as s u p e r n a t u r a l , t r a n s c e n d e n t qua l i t i e s which are characterist ic of a central power or related powers in the universe, such as God, life, love, good, or t ru th . 6 Spir i tual values are ordered to create a meaningful view of the universe, and individuals ident i fy with the values they select as being most s ignif icant for them.

There is an inf ini te variety of possibilit ies of names for spir i tual values, and hierarchies in which individuals order their beliefs7 A person's hier- archy of values may be synonymous with a set of ins t i tu t iona l religious values, a l though an acceptance of establ ished beliefs may not inf luence behavior as strongly as an in te rna l iza t ion of individual ly selected values, s

This research includes a broad range of spir i tual values. As well as exam- ining a series of superna tura l values, and supreme values wi thin the necessary hierarchies of values, the ways in which people express spir i tual beliefs in everyday life are documented.

10 Journal of Religion and Health

Review of existing research

Much current literature in the field of family therapy describes different approaches to therapy, 9 rather than documents findings from applications of particular modes of therapy or the comparative effectiveness of therapies. 1~ The dominant focus in this field is techniques, and relatively little attention is paid to theory construction from accumulated data. Some psychologists 11 and psychiatrists 12 have tried to specify the significance and benefits of religious and spiritual beliefs for life-satisfaction, but most clinical research is markedly secular. In fact, there appears to be a kind of taboo against including religious or spiritual data in clinical examinations of the quality of life of individuals. In addition to these secular emphases, traditional an- thropological and sociological research has focused on documenting partial empirical aspects of essentially spiritual subject matter. 13

By contrast, theological l i terature abounds with a variety of theses on spiritual values such as love and hope. TM These studies are not empirically verified, but they imply that a person's life is enhanced by incorporating religious or spiritual values into daily decision-making. 15

Pastoral counseling literature increasingly attempts to integrate the work of secular social science disciplines with theological or denominational concerns. 16 It is in the narrative and research of the subdiscipline of pastoral counseling that most of the current empirical work on the support functions of religion or belief in God has been done, especially on support functions in times of crisis. 17

Comparisons of the effectiveness of secular and nonsecular modes of individual or family therapy have not yet been satisfactorily documented. Per- haps this lack is due not only to the difficulty of representative sampling, but also to the schism that exists between the professional fields of secular and pastoral counseling. Generally speaking, a therapist is considered to be either secular or pastoral, but not both.

The field of pastoral counseling is itself further divided along denominational or sectarian lines. Pastoral counselors are usually ordained ministers of religion, representing specific series of traditional religious values. One consequence of pastoral counselors' commitment to part icular theologies and their specialized training is that these counselors may not be receptive to working with people who organize their beliefs around individually selected spiritual values.

This overview of li terature on crisis intervention and spiritual values is purposely brief and general, in order to suggest some of the difficulties that exist in interpreting the current state of the art of clinical work in relation to religion and spiritual development. This research project has a primary focus on spirituality rather than on traditional religious values, and begins to document comparisons of spiritual growth between crisis and non-crisis families.

C. Margaret Hall 11

Theoretical orientation

The family theory used in this research is the Bowen family theory, is One postulate of this theory is tha t the qual i ty of family connectedness has a strong influence on the behavior of family members . A successful course of family therapy is considered to be a learn'ing experience that allows family members to different iate self from others in the family emotional system. This theory is used as a base and clinical or ienta t ion in crisis and non-crisis families, especially where family members were not able to make focused examinat ions of thei r own values and convictions.

Jung's emphasis on the significance of religious bel ief for life-satisfaction, especially in the second ha l f of life, is used as a context for unders tand ing the role of spir i tual awareness in recovery from crisis and las t ing behavior change. Jung's specification of the existence of archetypes is also used as a perspective for unders tanding ways in which individual and social values are integrated into daily life. m

An impor tant overall theoret ical or ienta t ion in this s tudy is the evolution- ary theory of Teilhard de Chardin. This theory synthesizes secular approaches to an ima l and h u m a n behavior , and theological , h u m a n i s t i c concerns. For Teilhard, evolution is purposeful and unidirect ional . Individu- als are significant par t ic ipants in broad evolu t ionary processes which can- not be fully unders tood by h u m a n intell igence. Levels of consciousness are heightened through gradual processes of change in the universe. At opt imal functioning, a person becomes a conscious par t ic ipant in evolution. 2~

Teilhard de Chardin's or ienta t ion is also s ignif icant for this research as he delineates a spi r i tual i ty tha t goes beyond t radi t ional religious values. Al- though Teilhard is clearly s t rongly inf luenced by his commitment to Roman Catholicism in his theoret ical formulat ions, he believed that a person's relat ionship with God may have a s t ronger influence on behavior than that person's re lat ionship with the Church. Teilhard considered that the Church tended to be both stat ic and dualist ic , character is t ics and condit ions that are not conducive to spontaneous spir i tual growth in evolution. 21

Methodology

Data were collected from in-depth in terviews that included open-ended and probe quest ions to explore respondents ' spir i tual orientat ions. Life-history data document pa t t e rns of behavior over lengthy t ime periods, genera l ly including at least three genera t ions of family members . The popula t ion of crisis families had many interviews, f requent ly over several years. The detail recorded in this longi tudinal research was richer than informat ion gathered through survey research. Individual life-histories and family histories were used as methodological techniques and uni ts of analysis . 22


The same crisis families were interviewed more f requent ly than the same non-crisis families. Most data on non-crisis families were collected in one interview. In this respect, the research methodology for crisis and non-crisis families was not identical , a l though the substance of the data collected was comparable. Both crisis and non-crisis families were selected from a cross- section of Protestants , Roman Catholics, Jews, agnostics, and atheists, as well as from all social classes and a variety of ethnic groups. The samples were not systemat ical ly representat ive of the population at large.

The subjects in the research were mostly voluntary par t ic ipants , a l though some of the crisis families were referred by the court and school systems. Over the fourteen-year period during which data were collected, the crisis families had an increasingly larger proportion of par t ic ipants from higher social classes. In recent years, the crisis families interviewed tended to be from the upper middle class, while those interviewed fourteen years ago were predominant ly from lower middle or working classes. This shift in the social class of the crisis families interviewed reflects changes in the researcher's clientele in family therapy practice. To a cer ta in extent the reverse shift occurred in the social class characterist ics of non-crisis families: the average social class of non-crisis families was lower in recent years t h a n at the outset of the collection of data.

Research

Each of the interviews with individuals and families lasted about one hour. Notes were t aken in the course of the dialogue between researcher and subject, and identical data from both crisis and non-crisis families were collected where possible. The data were organized, interpreted, and com- pared at different stages of analysis in the research project.

The open-ended questions and probe questions used in the interviews with both crisis and non-crisis families general ly yielded data about three genera- tions of family members. Facts about major events in the family histories, together with informat ion about the religious aff i l iat ion or acknowledged spiri tual beliefs of past and present family members, were recorded. Some a t tent ion was paid to the religious socialization of respondents, and how they had come to formulate the i r own convictions about religion, spiri tuali ty, and values.

A few of the questions asked focused on the relat ion between self-concep- t ion and values. Where probe questions were not resisted, more detailed information about personal beliefs and convictions was recorded. To some extent, it was easier to engage crisis families in "spir i tual" issues, as meetings with these families were more frequent. Consequences of mult iple meetings were tha t the researcher/cl inician was increasingly t rusted, and respondents f requent ly became motivated to make changes in their values and behavior.

Self-reports on spir i tual or ienta t ion were given by both crisis and non-

C. Margaret Hall 13

crisis family members. Where non-crisis family members were genuinely interested in the subject mat te r being examined in the research, series of follow-up interviews were arranged.

Although the inclusion of in tu i t ive leads in all the research interviews may have lessened the degree of objectivity of the researcher and data collected, to some extent mul t ip le interviews served to increase the overall objectivity of the project. The informat ion given by respondents was checked on several occasions through a repet i t ion of identical or related questions, and by the self-reports of different family members.

Cont inui ty in interviews with non-crisis families was less extended than the cont inui ty in interviews with crisis families, and tended to occur most where family members wanted to express how their lives had changed due to the influence of spir i tual values. This kind of self-selection in the sample of non-crisis families interviewed also skewed the data collected, but in some respects--by vir tue of the repeated in te rv iews- -y ie lded more comparative data vis-a-vis crisis families than if the data had been collected in one interview.

Another factor tha t influenced the degree of objectivity of this research project is the inherent l imi ta t ion of the basic categorization of crisis and non- crisis families. Families which had been ident if ied as non-crisis families for research purposes f requent ly described themselves as crisis families in earlier time-periods. Thus, the dis t inct ion between crisis and non-crisis families blurred during the collection of data. A positive correlation between earlier crisis conditions in non-crisis families and spir i tual growth was substantiated, however, as it was between more current crisis conditions and spiritual growth in crisis families. In terview data from all families substan- t iated a related hypothesis tha t an incorporation of spir i tual values into everyday living enhanced levels of funct ioning and life-satisfaction.

All respondents were asked to describe how they saw themselves in relation to their families, to society, and to the universe or cosmos. Those individuals who had already given subs tan t ia l thought to these concerns tended to art iculate more spir i tual values in the i r responses t han those who had not previously given a t ten t ion to these matters . The breadth of vision ar t icula- ted by the more reflective respondents appeared to enable them to t ranscend given conditions of their existence: the reflective respondents appeared to live fully ra ther than to focus their energies on survival or s i tua t ional difficulties.

The cooperation of family members was essent ial for the assembly of this personal and sensitive information. The research process did not seem un- duly influenced by the fact tha t the same person served as clinician and researcher. Some theorists have suggested, moreover, tha t family therapy is effective to the extent that a clinician can become a researcher in the clinical setting. 23 In both the clinical and research set t ings, family members were responsive to the genuine in teres t and concerns of the therapis t / researcher with regard to the spir i tual growth of family members.

Pat terns were identif ied in the data collected from the families, most


at tent ion being given to the values and behavior of those family members who performed effectively in society and repor ted considerable life-satisfaction. 24 This focus was purposely chosen as a research goal in order to counter- balance the predominance of examinat ions of pathology and dysfunct ion in current research. 25 The most detai led collection and examinat ion of data were given in cases where there was super la t ive functioning, ra ther than where behavior was defined by family members and the communi ty as problematic.

Findings

In order to formulate f indings from this preponderance of non-quant i f iable data, pa t te rns of values and behavior were identified, 2~ As this project is exp lora tory- -a closer examinat ion of data related to a serendipi tous f inding from an application of family sys tems theory to crisis and non-crisis fam- i l ies- -character is t ics of the data were used to begin to ar t icula te what appear to be significant aspects of the relat ion be tween crises experienced and spiri tual growth. Some of the clearest pa t te rns in the data are the following:

1) about forty of the four hundred respondents (10%) had a strong spir i tual or ienta t ion in their lives;

2) about th i r ty- two of the forty individuals repor t ing a strong spir i tual or ientat ion (8% of the four hundred respondents) experienced some kind of crisis prior to their commitment to these values;

3) those individuals who had been able to examine and formulate their own spir i tual values (10% of the four hundred respondents) reported the most effective and most sat isfying lives;

4) those individuals who tu rned to religion for support, whe ther or not they had experienced crisis, f requent ly had not incorporated spir- i tual values into thei r l ifestyles at as deep levels as those who had crit ically examined and revised thei r beliefs in crisis conditions. The lives of family members who tu rned to religion were compartmen- talized, as religion and spi r i tua l i ty were thought of as being rela- t ively separate from day-to-day activity;

5) in both crisis and non-crisis families wi th continuing problem behavior, there tended to be e i ther no awareness of religious or spir- i tual values, or a dogmatic, r i tual is t ic religious orientation;

6) qual i t ies of openness to life and adventurousness were more easily ident if iable in the responses of those who placed a high value on spir i tual growth than in the responses of other individuals.

Conclusions

Some of the tenta t ive conclusions that may be drawn from this examinat ion of data and in te rpre ta t ion of pa t t e rns of values and behavior are:

C. Margaret Hall 15

1) crisis conditions appear to be a necessary condition for the more dramatic rates of spir i tual growth recorded in the data;

2) crisis conditions are not a sufficient condition for spir i tual growth: many crisis families did not experience any kind of increased awareness of spir i tual values before, during, or af ter a crisis;

3) spiri tual values influence behavior in positive, l i fe-enhancing ways: where a person placed a high priori ty on the expression of spir i tual values through everyday life, funct ioning and life-satisfaction im- proved;

4) a l though some family members reported a strong focus on spir i tual values in the i r lives and no crisis conditions, the depth of spir i tual or ientat ion did not appear to b e a s g~eat-, or the influence of spir- i tua l i ty as pervasive in the i r lives, as for those who_had consciously reoriented their v a l u e s and beliefs in order to surmount c r i s e s , survive, and live more fully.

Further research

More research a t ten t ion needs to be given to the l ink between sp i r i tua l i ty and health, and spi r i tual i ty and h u m a n nature. 27 Heal th and wholeness in living need to be examined in l ight of the par t i cu la r conditions tha t precipi- tate them, ra ther than pathology and problem development. 28

Research methodologies and tools for measurement are needed to facili tate representat ive and reliable value analyses of individuals in the context of the meanings a t t r ibuted to those values. There is also a need for more rigorous interdiscipl inary research on the effectiveness of clinical work: research findings need to be integrated ra ther than mult ipl ied in f ragmented projects.

One application of the conclusions of this research is tha t recovery from crises can have far-reaching constructive effects on qual i ty of life, so tha t crises are experienced as opportuni t ies for spir i tual growth ra ther t han as deleterious. 29 If this association of crisis and oppor tuni ty is documented in other research, clinical and pastoral t r a in ing programs might begin to ad- dress ways in which individuals and families experiencing crises can be assisted to make t rans i t ions to increased spir i tual awareness in dai ly living. Spir i tual i ty is not an automatic dividend of life lived, but ra ther a conscious cultivation of sources of s t rength and abundance.

A more general long-range goal for fu r ther research is more adequate theory construction in the area of values and behavior. Models need to be broad in scope, with the relat ion between individual and social values spec- ified more clearly.

References

1. Professional experience includes five years as clinical consultant in Community Mental Health Services, Frederick, Maryland, as well as continuous private practice.


2. Hall, C. M., "Psychotherapy as Secular Religion: A Middle-Class Urban Phenomenon in Post-World War II U.S" Paper presented at annual meeting of Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Washington, D.C., October 1974; Hall, C. M., "Aging and Family Processes," J. Family Counseling, 1976, 4, 28-42; and Hall, C. M., "Religion and Aging," J. Religion and Health, 1985, 24, 1, 70-78.

3. At the outset of clinical work and research with crisis and non-crisis families, no particular attention was paid to spiritual growth as a possible correlate of more adequate functioning. In fact, the reverse association was expected: a focus on spiritual dimensions of life would bring with it an unhealthy denial of reality, and a greater likelihood of dysfunction.

4. These themes are central in Toman, W., Family Constellation. New York, Springer, 1976; and Bowen, M., Family Therapy in Clinical Practice. New York, Aronson, 1978, for example.

5. A more conventional sociological or social psychological definition of decreased functioning can be thought of as alienation, including dimensions of isolation, meaninglessness, normlessness, powerlessness, and self-estrangement. See Seeman, M., "On the Meaning of Alienation," Amer. Sociological Review, 1959, 24,783-791.

6. More detailed descriptions of spiritual values which are distinct from traditional religious values may be found in Luckmann, T., The Invisible Religion. New York, Mac- millan, 1967.

7. All values can be viewed as having symbolic significance for the individuals or groups who espouse them. A more global discussion of a variety of symbolic expressions of values is documented in Turner, V., Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors--Symbolic Action in Human Society. New York, Cornell University Press, 1974.

8. All too often religious values may be adhered to for apparently superficial or secular reasons, such as social status. See Goode, E., "Class Styles of Religious Sociation,"Brit. J. Sociology, 1968,19, 1-16. Religious values may also essentially be a traditional or conser- vative application of social ideals. See Heeren, J.; Lindsey, D. B.; and Mason, M., "The Mormon Concept of Mother in Heaven: A Sociological Account of Its Origins and Develop- ment," J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1984, 23, 396-411.

9. Among references that document the development of family therapy modalities in this comparatively new field of applied theory and research are Ackerman, N. W., "The Growing Edge of Family Therapy," Family Process, 1971, 10, 143-156; Bry, A., Inside Psychotherapy. New York, Basic Books, 1972; Framo, J.L., ed., Family Interaction. New York, Springer, 1972; Harper, R. A., Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy--36 Systems. New York, Aronson, 1974; Hall, C. M., The Bowen Family Theory and Its Uses. New York, Aronson, 1981.

10. Examples of assessments of family therapy are Wells, R. A.; Dilkes, T. C.; and Trivelli, N., "The Results of Family Therapy: A Critical Review of the Literature," Family Process, 1972, 11,189-207; and Gurman, A.S., "The Effects and Effectiveness of Marital Therapy: A Review of Outcome Research," Family Process, 1973, 12, 145-170.

11. Pioneering work in this area is James, W., The Varieties of Religious Experience. New York, Collier, 1969. Also, Jung paid particular attention to the continued development of religious and spiritual beliefs in the later stages of the life cycle. See Jung, C. G., Collected Works. New York, Pantheon, 1957-1963 (15 vols.).

12. For example, Laing generally conceptualizes non-empirical aspects of human relation- ships in terms of politics or philosophy. For illustrations of his attention to values see Laing, R. D., The Facts of Life. London, Allen Lane, 1976; and Boyers, R., and Orril, R., eds., Laing and Anti-Psychiatry. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1972.

13. Invisible loyalties influence the values and life-orientation of individuals. See Cole, F. C., "Relations Between the Living and the Dead," Amer. J. Sociology, 1916, 21,611-622, and social honor is conferred beyond the grave. See Kephart, W. M., "Status After Death," Amer. Sociological Review, 1950, 15, 635-643.

14. Among theological works that include practical aspects are Williams, D. D., The Spirit and the Forms of Love. New York, Harper and Row, 1968; Boros, L., Living in Hope--Future Perspectives in Christian Hope. New York, Herder and Herder, 1970; and Ellul, J., Hope in Time of Abandonment. New York, Seabury, 1972.

15. An important study that links religious or spiritual belief and the enhancement of personal and social experience is Tillich, P., The Courage ToBe. New Haven, Yale Univer- sity Press, 1952.

16. Traditional religious beliefs can alleviate experienced stress. For example, Jewish values

C. Margaret Hall 17

can give hope to individuals, supporting them through crises. See Breznitz, S., "The Effects of Hope on Coping with Stress" Paper presented to mental health professionals at Jewish Community Center of Greater Washington, September 1984.

17. Journal of Religion andHealth is a source of research studies in this area. See inter alia, Buxbaum, R. E., "The Use of Religious Resources in the Care of the Aged," J. Religion and Health, 1969, 8, 143-162.

18. Details of this mode of family therapy are found in Bowen, op. cit. 19. Jung, o19. cit. 20. One of the most succinct descriptions of Teilhard de Chardin's theory of evolution appears

in Teilhard de Chardin, P., The Phenomenon of Man. New York, Harper and Row, 1965. 21. A commentary on Teilhard de Chardin's contributions in this area is Raven, C. E.,

Teilhard De Chardin: Scientist and Seer. New York, Harper and Row, 1962. Others who have emphasized the spontaneity of spiritual growth in evolution include Butterworth, E., Unity of All Life. New York, Harper and Row, 1969; and Haught, J.F., The Cosmic Adventure--Science, Religion and the Quest for Purpose. New York, Paulist Press, 1984.

22. The usefulness of biographical approaches to the study of human behavior is frequently underestimated. Among proponents of this methodological tool are Mills, C. W., The Sociological Imagination. London, Oxford University Press, 1967; and Berger, P.L., and Berger, B., Sociology: A Biographical Approach. New York, Basic Books, 1972.

23. See Bowen, op. cit. Bowen also states that family therapists who have researched their own families will be more effective as clinicians than family therapists who have not researched their own families. Commentary on this and related issues can be found in Hall, op. cit.

24. For descriptions and applications of criteria used to define and refine research on life- satisfaction and quality of life, see Andrews, F. M., and Withey, S. F., Social Indicators of Well-Being. New York, Plenum Press, 1976; Campbell, A.; Converse, P. E.; and Rodgers, W. L., The Quality of American Life. New York, Russell Sage, 1976; Campbell, A., The Sense of Well-Being in America. New York, McGraw-Hill, 1981; and St. George, A., and McNamara, P. H., "Religion, Race and Psychological Well-Being," J. Scientific Study of Religion, 1984, 23, 351-363.

25. In Turner, F. H., Family Interaction. New York, Wiley, 1970, the suggestion is made to conceptualize the family as a small group. Turner believes that this emphasis will define patterns in family functioning more clearly than current interests in problems and dysfunction.

26. Research methodology and theory need to be sufficiently flexible to incorporate the context of meaning in social interaction. Identification of existing patterns of values and behavior must be considered in any conceptualization and interpretation of data. See Mehan, H., "Le Constructivisme Social en Psychologie et en Sociologie," Sociologie et Soci~t~s, 1983, 14, 77-95.

27. These topics are generally addressed in terms of personal beliefs rather than as empirically verifiable research projects. An example of descriptions of beliefs is Parker, W. R., and Aldwell, E., Man: Animal and Divine. Los Angeles, Scrivener, 1964.

28. Some attempts to systematize studies along these lines are: Rhine, J. B., New World of the Mind. New York, William Sloane Associates, 1953; Butterworth, E., Discover the Power Within You. New York, Harper and Row, 1968; Butterworth E., How To Break the Ten Commandments. New York, Harper and Row, 1977; Holt, J., Free to Be Good orBad. New York, Harper and Row, 1976; and Simonton, O.C.; Matthews-Simonton, S.; and creighton, J., Getting Well Again. New York, St. Martin's Press, 1978.

29. Learned perceptions and attitudes, social products, can be changed in this regard. See Bach, M., The Power of Perception. New York, Hawthorn, 1965.

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