“Although there are many other methods of teaching contempt for pain and death, nothing speaks more eloquently than a munus.” (Cicero, Tusc.Disp. 2.41).

"There are special vices peculiar to this city which children seem to absorb, almost in the mother's women: a

partiality for the theater and a passion for horse-racing and gladiatorial shows" (Tacitus, Dialogue on Oratory 29).

Criminals thrown to the beasts, part of noontime entertainment. Mosaic from Dar buc Ammera,

Libya

Equites fight. From Dar buc Ammera, Libya

Murmillo helmet

Murmillo and Thraex

Murmillo and hoplomachus

Secutor and retiarius. From Dar buc Ammera,

Libya

A wooden cudgel or rudis, a symbol of gladiatorial

emancipation

MVR.>RPROBVSPAVIL.IXXXXIXNATIONE.GERMAH.S.E.S.T.T.LVOLVMNIA.SPERACONIVCI.PIOMERENTIP.VOLVMNIVS.VITALIS.PATRI.PIOS.T.T.L

• And here, the reconstruction:Mur(millo). (contra)r(etiarius)Probus.P(ubli) A(urelii) Vi(talis) l(ibertus). IXXXXX (victoriarum)natione.Germa(nus)h(ic).s(itus).e(st).S(it). t(erra). t(ibi). l(evis).Volumnia. Spera(ta)coniugi. pio.merenti (fecit).P(ublius). Volumnius.Vitalis patri. pio (fecit)S(it). t(erra). t(ibi). l(evis).

• Translation:

• “The Myrmillo, opponent of the Retiarius, Probus, freedman of Publius Aurelius Vitalis, 49 times a winner, German by race, lies here. May the earth be light upon you. Volumnia Sperata, in honor of her affectionate husband, who deserves it, and Publius Volumnius Vitalis, for his affectionate father, made the monument. May the earth be light upon you.”