copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 8–18–1 chapter eight motivation and...

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 8–1

Chapter Eight

Motivation and Emotion


Did You Know That…

• The founding father of American psychology believed there is a human instinct for cleanliness?

• According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable than you would if the tickets had been easy to come by?


Did You Know That… (cont.)

• A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger?

• The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents than to the weight of the parents who raised them


Did You Know That… (cont.)

• Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have?

• Practicing smiling can lift your mood?• There is no emotion center in the brain?• Responding without thinking can be a

lifesaver in some situations?


Module 8.1

Motivation: The “Why’s” of Behavior


Module 8.1 Preview Questions

• What is motivation?• What is instinct theory?• What is drive theory?• How does arousal theory account for

differences in motivational states?• How does incentive theory differ from drive

theory?


Module 8.1 Preview Questions (cont.)

• What is cognitive dissonance theory?• What are psychosocial needs?• What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?


What Is Motivation?

• Factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behaviors.

• Motives: Needs or wants that drive goal-directed behavior.– Cannot be observed, must be inferred.


Biological Sources of Motivation: Instinct Theory

• Instinctive Behaviors: Fixed, inborn patterns of response that are specific to members of a particular species.

• Instinct Theory: All behavior is motivated by instinct.

• Problems with instinct theory:– List of instincts grew too long to be useful.– Instincts label, but don’t explain.– Human behavior is too variable and flexible.


Biological Sources of Motivation: Drive Theory

• Need: State of deprivation or deficiency.• Drive: State of bodily tension.• Drive reduction motivates behavior

– Based on homeostasis

• Types of drives:– Primary Drives: Arise from basic biological needs.– Secondary Drives: Learned or acquired through

experience.


Biological Sources of Motivation: Arousal Theory

• Stimulus Motives: Biologically based needs for exploration and activity.

• Arousal Theory: Organism seeks way to maintain optimal level of arousal.– Sensation-seekers have a high need for arousal.– Optimal levels of arousal vary from time to time.


Figure 8.1: Yerkes-Dodson Law


Psychological Sources of Motivation: Incentive Theory

• Incentives: Rewards or other stimuli that motivate us to act.

• Incentive Value: Strength of “pull” exerted by goal or reward.

• Incentive values influenced by many factors:– e.g., one’s learning experiences and expectancies.– Also determined in part by cultural influences.


Psychological Sources of Motivation: Cognitive Dissonance

• Cognitive Dissonance: Unpleasant state of tension when attitude and behavior are inconsistent.

• Cognitive Dissonance Theory: People are motivated to reduce dissonance by making behaviors and attitudes compatible.

• Effort Justification: Tendency to justify the effort expended in attaining difficult goals.


Figure 8.2: Ways of Reducing Cognitive Dissonance


Psychological Sources of Motivation: Psychosocial Needs

• Need for social relationships or need for affiliation.

• Need for achievement– Extrinsic Motivation: Desire for external rewards.

• Driven by performance goals.– Intrinsic Motivation: Desire for internal gratification.

• Driven by learning goals.

• Achievement motivation vs. avoidance motivation


Figure 8.3:Maslow’s Need Hierarchy


Module 8.2

Hunger and Eating



• How are hunger and appetite regulated?• What causes obesity?• What is anorexia nervosa?• What is bulimia nervosa?• What are the causes of eating disorders?


Figure 8.4: Classic Experiment on Stomach Contractions and Hunger


Figure 8.5: Parts of the Hypothalamus Involved in Hunger and Eating


Brain Chemicals and Hunger

• Neuropeptide Y: Stimulates appetite and eating.

• Leptin: Curbs appetite and eating.• Dopamine & Endorphins: Responsible for

feelings of pleasure associated with eating?• Serotonin: Responsible for feelings of satiety?


Obesity

• A state of excess body fat.• Common and increasing in frequency

– About 60% of Americans are overweight– About 26% of Americans are obese

• A major health risk• Measured by body mass index (BMI)

– Height and weight taken into account


Causes of Obesity

• Behavioral patterns– Consuming too many calories– Insufficient exercise

• Hereditary and biological factors– Slower metabolism– Set Point Theory: Brain regulates body weight

around predetermined set point.– Number of fat cells

• Environmental factors• Emotional states


Table 8.1: Suggestions forMaintaining a Healthy Weight

• Limit fat intake.• Control portion size.• Slow down the pace of eating.• Beware of hidden calories.• Make physical activity a part of your lifestyle.


Losing Weight

• Consume fewer calories than expended• One pound = 3,500 calories• Balance eating and exercise• Problem with “quickie” diets

– Tend to be temporary weight loss only– Drugs may have serious side effects


Eating Disorders

• Anorexia nervosa– Self starvation, dangerously low body weight– Medical dangers– Typically young women

• Bulimia nervosa– Binge eating followed by purging– Typically maintains normal body weight– Medical complications


Causes of Eating Disorders

• Cultural factors– Pressure for unrealistic standards of thinness– Dieting as a normative eating pattern


Figure 8.7: The Thinning of the Ideal Feminine Figure

Source: Data based on Rubinstein, S., & Caballero, B. (2000). Is Miss America an undernourished role model? Journal of the American Medical Association, 283, 1569.


Figure 8.8: Gender Differences in Obesity

Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health (1993, March) Data fact sheet: Obesity and Cardiovascular disease. Bethesda, MD: Author.


Causes of Eating Disorders

• Psychological factors– Issues of control and perfectionism– History of abuse or family conflict

• Biological factors– Disturbances in brain mechanisms controlling

hunger and satiety– Irregular serotonin activity


Module 8.3

Emotions



• What are the three components of emotions?• Are facial expressions of emotion universal?• What role do brain structures play in

emotions?• What are the major theories of emotion?• What are the three components of love in

Sternberg’s model of love?• What is the polygraph?


What Are Emotions?

• Feeling states that have three components:– Bodily arousal– Cognition– Expressed behavior


Figure 8.9: Cross-Species Similarity in Facial Expression


Six Basic Emotional Expressions

• Anger• Fear• Disgust• Sadness• Happiness• Surprise


Figure 8.10: Plutchik’s Color Wheel of Emotions


What Emotion Is This Person Portraying?

• Disgust

• Sadness

• Happiness

• Anger



• Disgust

• Sadness

• Happiness

• Anger


Cultural Differences in Emotions

• Cultural variation in how emotions are experienced and displayed.

• Display Rules: Cultural customs and norms that regulate the display of emotion.

• Cultural differences in gestures and bodily movements.


Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

• Belief that mimicking facial movements will induce an emotion.

• Duchenne Smile: A genuine smile that involves contraction of a particular set of facial muscles.


Where Do Emotions Reside?

• Autonomic nervous system• Limbic system

– Amygdala: Evaluates whether stimuli is a threat.– Hypothalamus: Triggers release of hormones.– Hippocampus: Processes information about

context emotional response occurred.

• Cerebral cortex– Possible hemispheric differences in processing of

emotions.


Theories of Emotion: James-Lange Theory

• Bodily reactions precede emotions.• Emotions occur after sensing a particular

pattern of bodily arousal.• Example: feel afraid because of trembling,

pounding heart, rapid breathing


Theories of Emotion:Cannon-Bard Theory

• Subjective experience and bodily reactions occur simultaneously.

• Example: experience fear and trembling, pounding heart at the same time


Theories of Emotion: Schacter’s Two-Factor Model

• Emotional experiences depend on:– State of general arousal and– Cognitive interpretation (labeling) of the causes of

arousal.

• Doesn’t account for distinctive physiological features of different emotions.


Theories of Emotion:Dual-Pathway Model of Fear

• Two brain pathways to process fear messages.

• Thalamus to cerebral cortex pathway– Careful processing of information

• Pathway direct to amygdala– Allows faster response to danger cues


Figure 8.12: LeDoux’s Dual-Pathway Model of Fear

Source: Adapted from LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain. New York: Touchstone.


Figure 8.13: Theoretical Models of Fear


Love: The Deepest Emotion

• Love is considered to be both a motive and an emotion.

• Romantic love idealized in Western culture.– But not limited to Western culture.


Figure 8.14: Sternberg’s Triangular Model of Love


Characteristics of Emotional Intelligence

• Knowing your emotions• Managing your emotions• Motivating yourself• Recognizing emotions in others• Handling relationships


The Polygraph

• Device used to detect whether people are lying.

• Measures physiological arousal thought to correspond to lying.– Electrical reactivity of skin– Respiration– Heart rate

• Criticized because of reliability problems.


Module 8.4

Application: Managing Anger


Module 8.4 Preview Question

• What can you do to control your anger?


Cognitive Theory on Managing Anger

• Situations do not cause anger.• Anger is caused by a person’s reaction to a

situation.– Angry thoughts– Anger-inducing self-statements

• How can control anger?– Identify and correct thoughts and statements


Suggestions for Anger Management

• Become aware of your emotional reactions in anger-provoking situations.

• Review the evidence.• Practice more adaptive thinking.• Engage in competing responses.• Don’t get steamed.


Suggestions for Anger Management (cont.)

• Oppose anger with empathy.• Congratulate yourself for responding

assertively rather than aggressively.• Scale back your expectations of others.• Modulate verbal responses.• Learn to express positive feelings.

copyright © houghton mifflin company. all rights reserved. 8–18–1 chapter eight motivation and...

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drive theory need

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cognitive dissonance

leading psychological

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