copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 reproduction and human development (miller chapter 4)

64
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Upload: gloria-doyle

Post on 16-Jan-2016

215 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Page 2: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

The BIG Questions

How are modes of reproduction related to modes of production?

How does culture shape fertility in different contexts?

How does culture shape personality and human development over the life cycle?

Page 3: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Modes of Reproduction

A mode of reproduction is the predominant pattern of fertility in a culture (p. 80).

Fertility is the number of children a woman bears, or the rate of population growth.

Page 4: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Three Modes of Reproduction

There are three major modes of reproduction which correlate with several of the modes of production The foraging mode of reproduction The agricultural mode of reproduction The industrial/informatics mode of

reproduction

Page 5: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Foraging Mode of Reproduction Common among those with a foraging mode

of production Moderate birth and death rates

Average of about 2 children per woman survive to adulthood

Value of children: moderate (labor value) Children do not do much work What work that needs to be done is done mostly

by the adults Remember the “original affluent society” – do not have to

do too much work to hunt/gather all that they need to survive so no need to pull the children into providing for the family

Page 6: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Foraging Mode of Reproduction Indirect means of fertility control: diet,

breastfeeding, work/exercise, spontaneous abortion Low body fat due to low fat diet and lots of

exercise – suppresses ovulation – fewer children

Long length of breastfeeding – suppresses ovulation – fewer children

Page 7: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Agricultural Mode of Reproduction Common among societies with an

agricultural, horticultural, and pastoralist mode of production

High birth rates, moderate or declining death rates Average between 2 and 8 children per woman Differ depending on a number of government

policies and other cultural factors Value of children: high (labor value)

– Need for children to work the land, care for animals, process foods, etc.

– Pronatalism – an ideology promoting many children (p. 80)

– Increased reliance on direct means of birth control Increasing specialization: midwives,

herbalists

Page 8: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction Declining population

Either replacement level fertility in which the number of births equals the number of deaths, leading to maintenance of current population size

Or below-replacement level fertility in which the number of births is less than the number of deaths, leading to population decline

Low fertility and moderate or low mortality Leading to aging population in many industrialized

nations Value of children: mixed or low (labor) Cost of raising children: high

Highly developed professional specializations Mandatory formal schooling for children Parents have fewer children and invest more

resources in them

Page 9: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction Social inequality is reflected in population

patterns – stratified reproduction Middle- and upper-class people – few children with

high survival rates Lower-class – higher fertility and higher mortality

rates Government policies may promote births in the

“native” population while discouraging births in the non-native population e.g. France

Increasing specialization and involvement in the scientific and medical community of all aspects of pregnancy and birth

Page 10: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Changes in the Population of Japan

Page 11: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 12: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Culture and Fertility

Culture affects: Sexual intercourse

Frequency and timing of sexual intercourse Fertility control

Why and when to have a child

Page 13: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Culture Shapes Reproduction at Several Levels

Cultural guidelines…

Government policies…

International organizations…

•when to start having sex

•how many children to have

•when to stop having sex and children

Page 14: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the family level At the state level At the global level

Page 15: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the family level 4 factors are most important in affecting

the desire for children Children’s labor value

High – higher fertility rates

Children’s value as old-age support for parents High – higher fertility rates

Infant and child mortality rates High – higher fertility rates

Economic costs of children High – lower fertility rates

Page 16: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the family level Desire for children may differ based on the parent

Who does most of the work taking care of the children?

Families may prefer sons, daughters, or a combination of both, often depending upon the culture and the gender division of labor Son preference – widespread in Asia and the Middle

East Prefer a balanced number of sons and daughters –

Southeast Asia Daughter preference – some parts of Africa south of the

Sahara and some Caribbean populations

Page 17: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the state level State governments formulate policies that

affect rates of population growth within their boundaries Vary from being pronatalist (favoring many

births) To antinatalist (opposed to many births)

Page 18: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the state level Factors that affect government policies

include… Projected jobs and employment levels Public services Maintaining the tax base Filling the ranks of the military Maintaining ethnic and regional proportions Dealing with population aging

Page 19: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Decision Making

At the global level Global corporations such as

pharmaceutical companies and religious leaders influence country-level and family-level decision making In the 1950s it was popular for Western nations

to promote family planning programs of many types in industrializing countries

In the 1990s the U.S. adopted a more restricted policy toward family planning, withdrew support for certain features such as abortion, and began to promote abstinence as the foundation of population control

Page 20: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control People in all cultures since prehistory

have had ways of influencing fertility Methods to increase fertility Methods to reduce fertility Methods to regulate its spacing

Even among non-industrial cultures Research in Afghanistan in the 1980s

found over 500 fertility-regulating techniques in just one region! 72% - increasing fertility; 22% - contraceptives;

6% - inducing abortion Fertility knowledge held by the everyday

woman rather than just medical specialists in contrast to more industrialized societies

Page 21: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control Direct methods

Taking medicines or herbs that induce abortion, act as contraceptives, or increase fertility May involve plant or animal substances Taken as pills or teas Inhaled as vapors Vaginally inserted or rubbed onto the woman’s

stomach Condoms Cross-culturally, often the women who possess

the most information about these methods

Indirect methods E.g. Long periods of breast feeding to

reduce the chances of conception

Page 22: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control Induced abortion

A review of 400 societies found that induced abortion was practiced in virtually all of them Attitudes towards abortion very greatly

Methods include… Hitting the abdomen Starving oneself Taking drugs Jumping from high places Jumping up and down Lifting heavy objects Doing hard work Invasive procedures / surgical procedures

Page 23: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control Induced abortion

Reasons to induce abortion Economic reasons

Mobility Pastoralists moving around a lot and carrying heavy

loads so cannot care for many small children at once

Poverty May find abortion preferable to bearing a child that

cannot be fed

Cultural reasons “Illegitimate” child

Social penalties for bearing an illegitimate child are often motivations for abortion

Page 24: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control Induced abortion

Governments intervene in family decisions to regulate access to abortion, either promoting it or forbidding it U.S.

Abortion legally allowed but the issue is often still hotly contested

China One-Child per-Couple Policy started in 1978

Often forced abortions and sterilizations Increase in female infanticide because of cultural

preference for sons Brazil

Predominantly Catholic country Outlawed abortion Still intense poverty, so in practice 1/3 of women had

abortions

Page 25: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control New Reproductive Technologies

In vitro fertilization (IVF) Often used among middle- and upper-class

couples in the U.S. who cannot have children the “natural” way

Often last resort because of hefty price tag and the “natural” ways is more highly valued in Western culture

May be some stigma attached to infertility the “natural” way

May be religious objections – Catholic church

Meanings depend on cultural context In Greece it seen as “natural” because it allows women

to realize a key aspect of their feminine nature through pregnancy and birth

Page 26: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control

Infanticide Infanticide is the deliberate killing of offspring

Practiced cross-culturally, but is rarely a frequent practice within a culture

Direct infanticide Death of an infant or child resulting from actions such as

beating, smothering, poisoning, or drowning

Indirect infanticide A more subtle process, may involve prolonged practices

such as food deprivation, failure to take a sick infant to a clinic, or failure to provide warm clothing in winter

Page 27: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Fertility Control

Infanticide Motives include…

Having a “deformed,” very sick, or very ill child Sex of the infant Unwed mother – “illegitimate” child Too many children in the family Poverty

Can occur as a perceived necessity (creating “angel babies”) rather than as a result of cruelty

Page 28: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Infanticide as “Family Planning”

The killing of an offspring

Direct or indirect

•poverty•due to child deformity or sickness

•if child does not meet family expectations

Page 29: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Personality and the Life Cycle Personality is an individual’s patterned and

characteristic way of behaving, thinking, and feeling (p.88) Formed largely through enculturation

The process by which culture is passed from one generation to the next and through which individuals become members of their society

The process of socialization – learning a culture through both informal and formal processes

Also a genetic component to personality Psychological anthropology is the study of

the interactions between culture and personality

Page 30: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Personality and the Life Cycle

Birth and infancy Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

Page 31: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Birth and Infancy The cultural context of birth affects an

infant’s psychological development There are a variety of different cultural

practices that occur at birth which are considered essential for the baby’s physical and psychological welfare

Often times will have conflicting views about what practices are essential between cultures Baby born to Turkish immigrant family in a

suburban U.S. hospital (p. 91) Often requires someone to act as a cultural

broker – someone who is familiar with the practices and beliefs of two different cultures and can promote cross-cultural understanding to prevent or mediate conflicts

Page 32: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Birth and Infancy Pre-birth

Babies may also begin to be enculturated when a child is in the womb Baby may hear sounds and feel activity patterns of the

mother

Birth Members of the household play the key role in

enculturating the newborn Infant begins to develop a sense of self-awareness

About 2 years old in industrialized and post-industrial societies

A bit sooner in foraging societies Co-sleep with a parent (more stimuli, more breast feedings)

leads to quicker rate of neuromotor development

Page 33: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 34: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 35: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Birth and Infancy Bonding

Different cultures believe in different times and ways of bonding with children

U.S. Believe that should start bonding with baby at birth Adaptive in low-mortality/low-fertility societies

Brazil Bonding occurs several years after birth Adaptive in high-mortality/high-fertility societies

Page 36: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Birth and Infancy Naming

Personal names are important devices of self-definition in all cultures. Without a name an individual has no self, no identity

It is through naming that a social group acknowledges a child’s birthright and establishes it’s social identity

Naming varies cross culturally Aymara Indians of Bolivia – do not even name a child until

he/she is about 2 and begins to speak the language Only then does the child become truly human and fully

accepted into the community Inuit – women going through a difficult labor shout out

names of deceased ancestors Name called at the time of delivery will be the child’s name.

Belief the spirit helped with that delivery, and the child is then identified with that spirit

Page 37: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Birth and Infancy Oriented with surrounding world

Object orientation What various objects are Which ones are important, which ones are not

Spatial orientation How to get from one place to another Mental map of the landscape – memory

Temporal orientation How calendar works How past actions are connected to future ones

Normative orientation Values, ideas, and principles What types of behaviors are acceptable, and

which are not

Page 38: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Infancy and Identity

Sex and Gender in Infancy Sex is something that everybody is born with

Has three biological markers: genitals, hormones, and chromosomes

Either male or female Gender is a cultural construction and is

highly variable across cultures Learned behaviors and ideas attributed to males,

females, or third genders Children are taught their gender roles beginning

in infancy Does not necessarily correlate to biological

characteristics (sex)

Page 39: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Gender and Identity Gender identity is influenced both by

biology and culture Many individuals born with XX (biological

female) or XY (biological male) Can choose to be culturally male, female, or a

third gender Some individuals are born as intersexuals

(about 1 percent of humans – over 60 million individuals worldwide) People who are born with reproductive organs,

genitalia, and/or sex chromosomes that are not exclusively male or female

Hermaphrodite – has both testicular and ovarian tissue Can choose or may be forced to be culturally male,

female, or a third gender

Page 40: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Gender and Identity Gender identities can be fluid

Individuals might change their gender at different points in their lives Transgenders are people who cross over or

occupy a culturally accepted position in the binary male-female gender construction

Berdache in some native North American groups Biologically a male who opts to wear female clothing,

may engage in intercourse with a man or a woman, and does female tasks such as basket weaving and poetry making

May be chosen by individual or individual’s parents Source of pride in that culture

Amazon – a woman who takes on male roles and behaviors

Page 41: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Gender and Identity Hijra in India

Dress and act like women in many ways, but they are neither truly male nor truly female

May be dancers or musicians on the street Earn a living by begging They are a stigmatized group, separated from mainstream

society Fa’afafines in Samoa

Males who take on the identity of females Is an accepted option for boys who prefer to dance, clean

house, and care for children and the elderly Highly valued – may be able to do the heavy kinds of

labor that most women find difficult Sambia people of New Guinea

Ritual homosexuality – adolescent males engage in homosexual acts as a pathway to masculinity

Males then go on to marry females, have a family

Page 42: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Gender and Identity Intersexual, transgendered, and/or homosexual

individuals in U.S. Becoming more accepted in our culture, but still

endure much discrimination in many context where 2 genders and heterosexuality are the norm

This discrimination takes a psychological toll on a person

Hate crimes, wage and benefits discrimination, high suicide rates

Page 43: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 44: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Gender and IdentityGender identity and sexual orientation is determined by amix of genetic and cultural factors

Gender pluralism – the existence within a culture of multiple categories of femininity, masculinity and androgyny that are tolerated and legitimate

“Third genders” – some cultures permit the expression of varied forms of sexual orientation: for example, the berdache

Page 45: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Childhood and Personality

Childhood is a relatively recent concept The concept of “the child” emerged in the last

few centuries with the growth of industrial capitalism

Cross-cultural studies have shown two general patterns of child rearing (opposite ends of a spectrum) nurturant-responsible dependent-dominant

Page 46: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Childhood and Personality Nurturant-responsible child rearing

Emphasizes caring and sharing acts toward other children Aggressive or selfish behavior is actively discouraged

Idea of the group transcends individualism Socializes children to think of themselves in terms of

the larger whole Emphasizes obedience and supportiveness of group

Prominent in areas where extended families raise children and where decisions are made collectively In foraging, egalitarian societies In horticultural societies children take on adult responsibilities

at a very young age, sometimes as young as 3 years old, which contribute significantly to the family’s welfare

In pastoral societies

Page 47: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Childhood and Personality Dependent-dominant child rearing

Emphasizes independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement Common is societies where self-sufficiency and

personal achievement are important traits for survival and success

Children have fewer acts of caregiving, seek more attention, try to assert dominance over other children

Prominent in areas where parent(s) and offspring are the basic social unit In agricultural and industrialized/informatic societies,

children have fewer tasks and less responsibilities When they do take on tasks it is often for personal benefit

(i.e. to spend an allowance as they wish) rather than as contributions to the family’s welfare

Page 48: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Childhood and Personality Often in childhood other individuals

outside the household are brought into the enculturation process Extended relatives Peers School teachers in societies with formalized

schooling, such as the U.S.

Page 49: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 50: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adolescence Puberty is a time in the human life cycle

that occurs universally and involves a set of biological markers

Adolescence is a culturally defined period of maturation from around the time of puberty until the attainment of adulthood Length of adolescence varies cross-culturally

Length and activities of adolescence varies by gender

Maasai Males have a long period of adolescence where they

prepare to be warriors Females have virtually no period of adolescence –

get married shortly after puberty

Page 51: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adulthood Usually thought of as the period of entering into

some form of marriage or long-term relationship and having children

In U.S., adulthood is often thought of as becoming economically self-sufficient

Often a rite of passage occurs during the transition from adolescence to adulthood May be a period of isolation May be circumcision or female genital cutting (FGC) Giving birth

Often include trials of pain and stamina, a time of reflection and introspection – a ritual transformation – a symbolic death and rebirth into a new life phase

Page 52: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adulthood Becoming a mother

Matrescence is the cultural process of becoming a mother Varies cross-culturally in terms of duration and

meaning In U.S. a woman becomes a mother when she gives

birth In other cultures it can be when conception occurs or

when a woman delivers an infant of the “right” sex or at the right time period in her life

Often a number of prenatal taboos, including food taboos, in cultures

Proper behavior insures a good delivery and a healthy baby

Page 53: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adulthood Becoming a father

Patrescence is the cultural process of becoming a father Couvade are beliefs and customs applying to a

father during his wife’s pregnancy and delivery Often occurs in societies in where father have prominent

roles in child care Father is symbolically bearing some of the woman’s birth

pain Often involves him lying in a bed around the time of

birth and feeling exhausted and may experience pain Proper behavior insures a good delivery and a healthy

baby Paternal involvement in child rearing varies cross-

culturally Aka foragers of the Central Africa Republic spend half

their time each day holding or within close reach of their infants – more likely to kiss and hold them than their mothers are

Page 54: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Page 55: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Example of paternal child care among the Aka of the Central African Republic

Page 56: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adulthood Middle Age

Typically seen as being between 30 and 70 years old in industrial/informatics societies Often about 40 years of age in the U.S.

May have a “mid-life crisis” Feelings of restlessness, rebelliousness, and

unhappiness that may lead to family break-ups May be because of fear and denial of death

May occur earlier in societies where the life expectancy is shorter

For women, going through menopause is a significant aspect of middle age

Depending on the culture, can be a time of stress or crisis, or it can be a time of relief

May or may not lead to role changes

Page 57: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Adulthood The Senior Years

The elderly are variably recognized, defined, and valued in different cultures In many cultures, elders are highly revered and their

life experiences are valued as the greatest wisdom Often have a higher status when they continue to live with

their families More prevalent in nonindustrial societies

Samoa – status increases as responsibilities lighten, highly valued by fellow villagers, lax restrictions, party time!!

In other cultures, the elderly are perceived as becoming burdens to their families and to society

Elderly are often relegated to retirement homes or nursing homes

More prevalent in industrial societies

Page 58: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Death In many industrialized societies such as the U.S.

A large resistance to death High dependence on medical technology Try to avoid it often at high financial and psychological

costs In many other cultures

Is a greater acceptance of death, but still have various rules and burial practices that must be followed if living relatives are to avert psychological suffering

Grief Outward expression varies greatly from huge displays

of ritualized mourning (Trobriand Islands) to no outside display of crying or grief (Bali, Indonesia)

Page 59: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Personality in Adulthood

Parenthood

• Role of mother and father shaped by culture

• Responsibility for childcare

Middle age

• Mid-life crisis and menopause: a Western obsession?

Old age

• Nonindustrial cultures respect the elderly more

Page 60: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Group Personality Trying to determine the personality or

“typical characteristics” of a large group, often a nation Tries to determine the “average” personality

of a member of a particular society “National character” studies

Popular in anthropology during the 1930’s and 1940’s

Tries to discover personality traits shared by the majority of the people of modern nation states

Problems?

Page 61: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Group Personality Problems?

Who is average? Individual variations – not everyone will behave this

way There are a range of behaviors within each culture Yanomamo value fierceness and aggressiveness, but…

Will there by shy, non-aggressive Yanomamo individuals? Yes! Stereotyping What about microcultures?

Differences in the way men and women act Class differences – French farmer may have less in common

with a French lawyer than he does with a German farmer Ethnic differences within a nation

Sample size representative of a large group Subjective

Japanese society in 1940’s – national character was believed to be militaristic – reflection of wartime hostility rather than scientific objectivity

Page 62: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Group Personality Modal personality of a group

The body of personality traits that occur with the highest frequency in a culturally bounded population

Is a statistical concept rather than the personality of an average person in a particular society1. So instead of typifying and generalizing the

average American as materialistic, recognize the variation that exists from non-materialistic to materialistic

2. Collect a variety of data3. Maybe can make a statement that based on this

data we find that 70% of the Americans sampled are materialistic, 30% are non-materialistic

Page 63: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Group Personality Core values of a group

The values promoted by a particular culture e.g. North Americans – value rugged

individualism Fits well with our mode of production and family life

e.g. China – value kin ties, cooperation, and mutual dependence

Allows for the fact that not all personalities will conform to cultural ideals

Page 64: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

The BIG Questions Revisited

How are modes of reproduction related to modes of production?

How does culture shape fertility in different contexts?

How does culture shape personality and human development over the life cycle?