copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 · 5 sleep disorders sleep apnea sleep apnea – breathing...

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Chapter 5:Chapter 5:ConsciousnessConsciousness

Expanding the Boundaries ofExpanding the Boundaries ofPsychological InquiryPsychological Inquiry

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

C. Brown Unit 5C. Brown Unit 5

Lecture PreviewLecture Preview

Understand different types of sleep and sleep disordersDiscuss theories regarding dreaming and

d l i


dream analysisExplore scientific explanations for

alterations of consciousnessDistinguish different types of drugs which

alter consciousness

Waking Consciousness

____________ An _________

of the tisensations,

thoughts, and feelings that one is attending to at a given moment.

Biology of SleepBiology of Sleep

Consciousness - our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives


_________ rhythm - cyclical changes that occur on a roughly __ basis in many biological processes (e.g., hormone release, body temperature)

Biology of SleepBiology of Sleep

Biological _____ - the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) of the hypothalamus, triggers our sense of


fatigue (via increasing melatonin)

Disruptions:Jet lagNight shifts

EEG Waves During Different Sleep StagesEEG Waves During Different Sleep Stages


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Sleep and Dreams Measuring sleep activity

Measuring Sleep Activity Electrodes measure eye movements

EMG measures tension ________ tension

EEG measures brain ________

A camera may also record body movements.

EEG

Measures gross activity of large numbers of neurons. High-amplitude waves (stage 4) indicateHigh amplitude waves (stage 4) indicate

that more neurons are firing in a ___________ rhythm. Sleep cycle lasts about ___ minutes.

Typical Night’s Sleep Typically ____

episodes of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep per night occur. Later episodes are

longer and farther apart.

Most “deep sleep” (stages 3 & 4) occurs early in the night.

Stages in a Typical Night’s Sleep

Minutesof Stage 4 and REM 20

25

Decreasing Stage 4

Hours of sleep

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80

10

15

5

Increasing REM

Sleeping Like a Baby

Good sleep quality requires adequate amounts of ____ sleep stages. In older adults - sleep tends to beIn older adults sleep tends to be

shallower and more fragmented and the ___________ effect of sleep is ______. This is associated with reduced levels of stage 4 sleep.

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Stage 4 Sleep

Quick transition from stage 1 to stage 4. A stage 4 bout typically lasts for 40 minutes. Characterized by ______ breathing, _____

h t t bl dheart rate, _______ blood pressure. If awakened in stage 4 the subject feels

_____________. Pulse of growth hormone is released in the

first two bouts of stage 4 sleep. May play a role in memory consolidation.

REM Sleep

Also called paradoxical sleep – breathing is more shallow, heart rate and blood pressure are variable, eeg pattern is similar to the

k t t th l t l lawake state, the large postural muscles are __________, increased genital blood flow.

Duration of REM bout increases over successive sleep cycles.

If awakened during REM the subject is NOT disoriented.

PRS

If you want to feel rested following a nap, it is best to time the nap duration so that you awaken in stage ____ sleep.A. 1B. 2C. 3D. 4

Sleep Deprivation

Effects of Sleep Loss fatigue impaired

concentration depressed

________ system greater

vulnerability to accidents

One third of our life…We spend one third of

our life sleeping.

If an individual remains awake for several days they

deteriorate, in terms of immune function, ___________ and

accidents.

Sleep Deprivation

2 700

2,800

4 200

Less sleep,more accidents

More sleep,fewer accidentsAccident

frequency

2,400

2,700

2,600

2,500

Spring time change(hour sleep loss)

3,600

4,200

4000

3,800

Fall time change(hour sleep gained)

Monday before time change Monday after time change

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PRS

The risk of accidents increases when subjects ignore their circadian rhythms.True/False

Disorders of SleepDisorders of Sleep

_______ - difficulty falling and staying asleep


asleepHigher rates in those with depression, pain,

medical conditions

Sleep DisordersInsomnia

Overcoming insomniaDo not nap during the day.Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and cigarettes within five hours of bedtime. Avoid exercise within two hours of bedtime, but get adequate exercise. ____________ your sleep schedule. If awake and anxious, leave bed and return when sleepy.

Sleeping Pills

Sleeping pills are one of the major causes of insomnia. Pills may bePills may be ________. Pills may prevent ________ REM sleep

bouts. Establishing adequate exercise levels

reduces the need for sleeping pills.


Narcolepsy


Cataplexy

Sleep apnea

Sleep DisordersNarcolepsy

_________ Characterized by irresistible and

sudden attacks of sleep during the day. Rates increase with heightened y gstress. Inherited trait.

________ Begin REM too soon. Subject may fall

down before they are ready to sleep. Vivid hallucinations just before falling asleep.

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Sleep DisordersSleep Apnea

Sleep apnea – breathing stops while sleeping (sage 4). Affects 10% of men over 40 years of age and 5% of theover 40 years of age, and 5% of the overall population. Subjects partially reawakens to breathe.


__________ - during Stages 3 and 4, sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep


Most common in children

__________ - usually occurs during non-REM sleep (not dreaming)May include complex behaviors (e.g., climbing out

windows, driving)Most common in children

Other Sleep Disorders Sleep walking – a potentially fatal disorder.

Occurs in stage 3 or 4. It ____ in families, and children ______________.

Sleep talking – may occur in REM, stage 1 p g y , gor slow wave sleep.

Night terrors – Calm the subject and put them back to sleep. Usually occurs within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep.

REM Rebound

If deprived of REM - subjects show increased fantasy bouts while awake, increased anxiety, irritability, and have difficulty concentrating.

If permitted to sleep subjects into REM If permitted to sleep subjects _____ into REM sleep and experience longer REM bouts.

Subjects report vivid dreams when REM deprived.

Schizophrenics show fewer REM episodes than normals, and no REM rebound effect.

Establish and Defend Your Sleep Cycle

Learning disorders are associated with _________ sleep patterns.

Behavioral disorders are associated with irregular sleep patterns.

Memory disorders may be associated with irregular sleep patterns (high rates of protein synthesis during REM sleep, and pulses of growth hormone are associated with slow wave sleep).

Sleep and Dreams

Psychologists used to believe that dreaming occurred ___________.

Now they believe that REM sleep and dreaming are biologically adaptive.

In fact, there is evidence that they are important for brain maturation.

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Theory and Psychology of Theory and Psychology of DreamsDreams

Freud’s wish fulfillment and dream protection theory - dreams transform our sexual and aggressive instincts into symbols that represent wish fulfillment and require interpretation


Evidence against this:most dreams have negative content (not wish

fulfillment)sexual dreams are raremany are straightforward details of everyday

activities (not disguised)

Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

Freud believed that dreams expressed wishes, often disguised.

___________ Content___________ Conscious dream content that is

remembered after awakening

___________ Content Unconscious, censored meaning of a

dream.

Theory and Psychology of Theory and Psychology of DreamsDreams

Activation-synthesis theory - dreams reflect brain activation originating in the pons, followed by efforts of the


followed by efforts of the forebrain to weave these inputs into a story

However, damage to the forebrain can eliminate dreaming, even when the pons is intact

Dreams are fairly consistent over time (not random)

What do we dream about?1. Negative Emotional Content: Eight out of 10

dreams have negative emotional content.

2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected or struck with misfortunerejected or struck with misfortune.

3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.

4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men and women equally, men dream men more than women.

Cultural Influences on Dream Content

Dreams reflect a culture’s beliefs, values, and concerns.

Cross-cultural similarities are:

Aggression is more common than is Aggression is more common than is kindness

Gender differences in content

Cross-cultural differences reflect different cultural emphases (e.g., Japanese dreams versus U.S. American dreams).

So, what can we really say So, what can we really say about dreaming?about dreaming?

1. Dreams are often concerned with everyday preoccupations, and they recur

2. Acetylcholine turns on REM sleep


3. The forebrain plays an important role in dreaming

• And why do we dream? Although we still don’t know, there are many theories concerning the establishment of memories

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PRS

Most dreams occur during REM sleep. True/False

Sleep Across the Lifespan

Sleep & Aging

Infants sleep ___ hours a day, about _______ of this is in REM sleep. 5 year olds sleep about 11 hours a day5 year olds sleep about 11 hours a day,

and the total hours of REM sleep matched that of adults. 60 year olds sleep about 6 hours a day.

Other Alterations of Other Alterations of Consciousness Consciousness

Out-of-body experience (OBE) - sense of consciousness leaving one’s bodyNo scientific evidence to supportMay be related to ability to fantasize and to become


y yextraordinarily absorbed in experiences

Near-death experience (NDE) - OBE reported by people who have nearly died or thought they were going to dieNDE-like experiences can be triggered by stimulating

the temporal lobes, lack of oxygen to the brain, and psychedelic and anesthetic drugs

Other Alterations of Other Alterations of Consciousness Consciousness

Déjà vu - feeling of reliving an experience that is newTheories:Small seizures in right temporal lobeDual processing theory – slightly out-of-sync arrival of

sensory info from separate pathways


sensory info from separate pathwaysPrior unconscious processing of the informationThe present experience resembles an earlier experience

Meditation - variety of practices that train attention and awarenessWide range of positive effects (increased empathy, alertness,

blood flow, immune function, etc)Correlation vs. causation? Does meditation change brain activity

or do people with certain brain signaling patterns seek out meditation?

Hypnosis

Hypnosis a social interaction

in which one person (the hypnotist)(the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Hypnos: Greek god of sleep

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MesmerismCredit for hypnosis

popularity goes to Franz Anton Mesmer, a physician, who k l h h h dmistakenly thought had

discovered “animal magnetism.” Some of his patients experienced

trancelike state, and felt better on waking up.

http://ww

w.general-anaesthesia.com

Franz Mesmer (1734 ‐ 1815)

Hypnosis

Practiced by many well known scientists: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Binet, Ivan Pavlov. The art of hypnotic application is

understood much better than its ________________.

provides people with suggestions for changing their perceptions, feelings, and behaviors

Misconceptions:


p1) Produces a trance state in which “amazing” things happen2) Hypnotic phenomena are unique3) Hypnosis is a sleeplike state4) Hypnotized people are unaware of their surroundings5) Hypnotized people forget what happened during hypnosis6) Hypnosis improves memory7) Hypnosis can induce past life and age regression

HypnosisStrength, stamina,

perceptual and memory abilities are similarly affected in h ti d dhypnotized and unhypnotized

people. Unhypnotized

persons can also do this

Myths & Realities

Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.

Can anyone experience hypnosis? Yes, to some extent.

Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events?

No.

Myths & Realities

Can hypnosis be therapeutic?Yes. Self-suggestion

can heal too.

Can hypnosis force people to act against their will?

No, subjects are aware of what they are doing

Can hypnosis alleviate pain? Yes. Lamaze can do that too.

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Hypnosis in Clinical Practice: Hypnosis in Clinical Practice: Smoking CessationSmoking Cessation

Some advertisements for the effectiveness of hypnosis in treating smoking are misleading and exaggerated. Still,


gg ,hypnosis can sometimes be combined with well-established treatments as a cost-effective means of helping some people quit smoking.

Theories of HypnosisTheories of Hypnosis

Sociocognitive Theory - approach to explaining hypnosis based on people’s beliefs and expectations


________________ model - approach to explaining hypnosis based on separation of the parts of the personality responsible for planning from the part that controls memories (dissociation from consciousness)Hidden observer vs. flexible observer

Hypnosis and the Suggestible Eyewitness

Participants saw a videotape of a staged bank robbery.

Half were then hypnotized.

Interviewer mentioned robber wore a mask.

There was ___ mask.

In highly hypnotizable subjects, 63% reported a false memory that the robber wore a mask.

Is Hypnosis an “Altered” State?The Hidden Observer

Subjects held a hand in ice water and reported pain.

Hypnotized Hypnotized subjects reported lower pain.

Some hypnotized subjects reported a “hidden observer”that was aware of the pain.

PRS

The art of inducing hypnosis is understood better than its scientific explanation. True/ False

Hypnotic Induction

Progressive relaxation - Please close you eyes Allow your self to relax to the best ofAllow your self to relax to the best of

your ability Allow your mind to relax as you allow

your body to relax Soon you will learn that all extraneous

noises will not distract you

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Hypnotic Induction

Do not actively assist or resist any suggestion I may give you

You will respond to my suggestions only if they are appropriate for youthey are appropriate for you

Allow yourself to focus on your fingers and forearms

By your ability to concentrate you will soon become aware of a very pleasant and relaxing sensation – allow this sensation to spread

Hypnotic Induction

You will soon feel a tingle, a feeling of lightness, numbness, or heaviness This is perfectly normalp y Allow this sensation to spread over your

fingers, your hands and your forearms By practicing your powers of

concentration you may permit this feeling to spread

Hypnotic Induction

Think of how your arm would feel if you were to raise it ever so slightly – study the muscles that you would use to raise your arm – now l t th t t ilet that tension go

Note how much more relaxed you are now You are developing mastery over a powerful

new skill - neuromuscular relaxation You are becoming exceptionally relaxed

Hypnosis

Not so much an altered state of consciousness as an alteration in control systems Requires the formation of the ‘hypnotic

contract’… an agreement to cooperate, to let happen what will happen A cooperative subject is able to learn

hypnotic behavior

Hypnosis

Neuromuscular relaxation helps promote the shift of executive functions to the therapist

Disruption of memorial processes – “think only of my voice”

The subject’s initiative and planning are suppressed

The hypnotized subject does not independently undertake new lines of thought or action

PRS

Most highly skilled hypnotists can trick subjects into doing things against their will. True/False

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Consciousness-Altering Drugs

Psychoactive Drug A chemical substance that alters perceptions,

thoughts, behavior and mood.

Physical Dependence An addiction in which a drug is needed to

prevent withdrawal.

Psychological Dependence An addiction is which a drug is needed to

maintain a sense of ____________.

Dependence and Addiction

Tolerance diminishing effect

with regular use

Bigeffect

Drugeffect

Response tofirst exposure

with regular use

Withdrawal discomfort and

distress that follow discontinued use

Small Large

Drug dose

Littleeffect

After repeatedexposure, moredrug is neededto produce same effect

Drugs and Drugs and ConsciousnessConsciousness

Depressants - decrease nervous system activityAlcohol - most widely

used and abused drug


used and abused drugEffects vary from

stimulation (low doses) to sedation (high doses)

User expectancies influence mood and social behaviors

Depressants: AlcoholDepressants: Alcohol

Tolerance - reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated use, requires greater quantities to achieve the same effect

Delirium tremens (DTs) - disorientation


Delirium tremens (DTs) disorientation, confusion, visual hallucinations, memory problems resulting from alcohol withdrawal, may be fatal without proper medical care

Alcohol hallucinosis - auditory hallucinations, sometimes with paranoid beliefs, resulting from alcohol withdrawal

Alcohol

Affects motor skills, judgment, and memory… increases aggressiveness reduces self awareness by ___________ brain areas that

such behaviors_____________

Facilitates the release of _______ Abuse may lead to ________ impairments Withdrawal – sweating, nausea,

sleeplessness, and sometimes hallucinations and seizures

Depressants: Depressants: SedativeSedative--HypnoticsHypnotics

Prescribed for insomnia, anxiety


Facilitate the release of GABA.

Tend to be very addictive, and withdrawal is similar to that for alcohol

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Opiate Narcotic DrugsOpiate Narcotic Drugs

Opiates: (morphine and heroin) depress neural activity,

il l i i d i


temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. Are highly addictive.

Sedatives (Depressants) Mimic ____________

Withdrawal –heightened anxiety and sensitivity to painand sensitivity to pain, appetite loss, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating and gagging

Drugs and Drugs and ConsciousnessConsciousness


Stimulants - Increase heart rate, respiration, blood pressure

Stimulants

1. Caffeine

2. Nicotine

3. Cocaine

4. Ecstasy

5. Amphetamines

6. Methamphetamines

Stimulants: Caffeine

Caffeine –mild stimulant affecting _________ pathways.

Mixed Stimulant-Depressant Nicotine

Nicotine – stimulates the CNS, but subjects report a feeling of

l tirelaxation. Increases heat rate,

blood pressure, and acetlycholine pathways. Very addictive

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Cocaine

Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Crack a form of cocaine can be smoked. Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected.

Types of Psychoactive Drugs Amphetamines drugs that stimulate neural

activity, causing ___________ body functions and associated energy and mood changesenergy and mood changes Acts on the _________ pathway

MethamphetamineLeads to obvious physical

changes. Photo on left at age 36, photo on right at age ___.

Cooperative LearningMeet with your group and discuss the following

question:

Crystal meth is a highly addictive stimulant but


Crystal meth is a highly addictive stimulant, but a similar drug is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Why don’t ADHD patients become addicted?

60 seconds!

Psychedelic Drugs:Psychedelic Drugs:HallucinogenicsHallucinogenics

Produce alterations in __________, ______, and thought

Marijuana - activates cannabinoid receptors


j pAmotivational syndrome - correlation or causation?Gateway drug? Rival hypothesis?

LSD - changes in sensation and perception, paranoia, panicMystical experiences - sense of unity with worldPanic, paranoia, confusion, flashbacks

Marijuana –Distortion of Experience

Marijuana – (THC) mild effects, gives the illusion that time is slowing down, and may intensify some sensory experiences. THC binds with receptor sites in the forebrain and

hippocampus. Medically it has been used to suppress tremors, reduce _______, treat glaucoma and reduce pain. It dissolves in body fat, and is released again when the fat is metabolized. Abuse may produce learning and memory impairments.

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Hallucinogens Different hallucinogens (LSD, PCP, mescaline, etc.) probably effect different neurotransmitter pathways.

LSD – irregular pattern of effect on the serotonin pathway – the unpredictable effect may produce the hallucination.hallucination.

MDMA “Ecstasy” – both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. It also has an irregular effect on _________ pathways, but is a neurotoxin that eventually ________ serotonin pathways. Subjects loose an interest in the drug. Causes brain damage.

Anabolic Steroids

More than a half million 8th and 10th grade students are now using steroids, and increasing numbers of high school seniors don’t believe steroids are risky. Some people are taking dietary

supplements that act as steroid precursors without any knowledge of the dangers associated with their abuse.

Side Effects

High blood cholesterol levels - cardiovascular disease Severe acne Thinning of hair and baldness Fluid retention Hi h bl d High blood pressure Liver disorders (liver damage and jaundice) Steroids can affect fetal development during pregnancy Risk of contracting HIV and other blood-borne diseases

from sharing infected needles Sexual & reproductive disorders Psychological ___________

PRS

Only drugs that are stimulants are addictive. True/False

Trends in Drug Use

80%

70

60

High schoolseniors

reporting Al h l

1975 ‘77 ‘79 ‘81 ‘83 ‘85 ‘87 ‘89 ‘91 ‘93 ‘95 ‘97 ‘99Year

50

40

30

20

10

0

reportingdrug use

Alcohol

Marijuana/hashish

Cocaine

Cooperative Group Challenge

1. lucid dreaming2. insomnia3. circadian rhythm4. consciousness5. LSD6. cocaine7. dissociation 8. narcolepsy

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Q1

1. People who have _____ fall asleep suddenly.

Q2

2. The most powerful natural stimulant is _____.

Q3

3. Hilgard’s _____ theory explained hypnosis based on the separation of memorial processes from planning processes.

Q4

4. Changes in our biological processes that occur in a 24-hour period are called _____.

Q5

5. The most common sleep disorder is _____.

Q6

6. If you realize that you are having a dream while it is happening you are experiencing a ______.

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Q7

7. Hoffman created the hallucinogenic drug _____ from chemicals found in a fungus.

Q8

8. Our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives is called _____.

copyright © allyn & bacon 2008 · 5 sleep disorders sleep apnea sleep apnea – breathing...

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