copyright © allyn & bacon 20071 chapter 11 motivation this multimedia product and its contents...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 1

Chapter 11

Motivation

This Multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20072

The Meaning and Patterns of Motivation Motivation deals with the explanation of why

people do the things they do. The motivational patterns are evident in

human behavior: Direction of decisions. Persistence. Intensity.


The Extrinsic-Intrinsic Debate There are two major approaches to motivation:

Extrinsic views (behaviorist approach)—people are motivated by external rewards and punishments; this is also called the carrot and stick approach.

Intrinsic views (cognitive or humanist approach)—people are motivated by internal capacities, such as aspirations, perceptions, attitudes, or thoughts that can be motivating or demotivating.


Individual and Group Motivation When individuals act in an organization, they act as

members of a group. Groups are dynamic social systems that establish

interdependent relationships between and among people.

These dynamics give rise to basic assumptions and values that are the essence of group climate and culture (see Chapter 6).

Group norms have the power to motivate or demotivate people.


The Western Electric Studies Revisited These studies are also called the Hawthorne

Studies (from the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric).

The term Hawthorne effect comes from these studies.

Hawthorne effect is defined as a direct relationship between behavior and psychological phenomena caused by unusual conditions in which people may be placed.


The Relay Inspection Group Studies The experimental group was consulted on changes in

the work environment. Output rose even though working conditions returned

to earlier circumstances. Findings included:

The workers were involved in the new form of supervision in which their opinions mattered.

The group had been transformed by this experience and developed a distinctive esprit.

They were empowered through participative decision making.


Impact of the Studies Many misread the results of these studies when

applying them to organizations. The Hawthorne effect does not simply mean that if you pay attention to someone and change conditions, their motivation will improve.

The Hawthorne experiments resulted in motivated employees through participative leadership in which people were part of a team that made important decisions for the organization.


Individual Differences Leaders must understand and accept diversity

between and among people in a non-judgmental way. This means that leaders create environments that: Foster and enhance growth and development of

participants in terms of their own perceptions, needs, aspirations, etc.

Accept the fact that not only do individuals differ, but that this diversity can be a source of great strength to the organization.


Human Intelligence Howard Gardner explained that there are several

kinds of intelligence that are independent of one another (see Chapter 2).

William James and Sigmund Freud met in the US in 1909 and agreed on the importance of the individual, his/her personality, growth and fate.

Carl Jung, as student of Freud broke with Freud to suggest that motivation varied among people. His work laid the foundations for the concept of personality types.


Four Basic Dimensions of Human Personality Carl Jung indicated that three dimension

existed: Introversion-extroversion. Sensation-intuition. Thinking-feeling.

Myers and Briggs added: Perceiving-judging.

Myers and Briggs developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator instrument (MBTI).


Introversion-Extraversion About 75% of the population is thought to

have extraverted attitudes. Westerns culture tends to sanction the outgoing,

sociable and gregarious. Many non-Western cultures are more supportive of

those who turn their energy inward. Individuals are not either-or in terms of being

introverts or extraverts. This is a dimension in which individuals are on a continuum, mostly one, but may have qualities of the other.


Intuition-Sensation Individuals are either one or the other. Individuals who use sensation must gather

information from their senses. Whereas, people who are intuition perceive the world

through the unconscious. These two different types may have trouble

empathizing with one another. The sensing person is detail-oriented. The intuitive person will not worry about the facts so

much, and be impatient with others who do.


Cognitive Views of Motivation John Atkinson views motivation as driven by two characteristics:

The desire to achieve success (n Achievement or n Ach). The desire to avoid failure.

In some circumstances, low n Ach individuals may become highly competitive, i.e., those who seek to avoid failure can be highly motivated.

Ferdinand Hoppe’s work with Kurt Lewin focused on self confidence.


Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued)

David McClelland (The Achieving Society) took these ideas a step further indicating that high n Ach people contribute to economic growth.

He believed high n Ach can be taught in home and school through attitudes, skills, and habits.

He expanded Max Weber’s ideas from The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.


Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued)

Matina Horner’s work demonstrated that women were different than men in motivation, and she added a third form of motivation: fear of success.

She believed this to be based on fear of losing the social/cultural norm of femininity.

This is not just a female issue, as men are also motivated by fear of success, e.g., bright students may not want to appear to be successful by being singled out as a high achiever.


The Humanistic Perspective Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Basic Physiological Needs: food, water, shelter. Security and Safety: physical and financial. Social Affiliation: love, belonging, acceptance. Esteem: self-esteem and recognition. Self-actualization: self-fulfillment.

Prepotency: one cannot be motivated by a higher need until the lower needs are met.

See Figure 11.2.


Application to Work Motivation Lyman Porter adapted Maslow’s theory to the

workplace. He added Autonomy, or the need for

individuals to be involved in making decisions that affect him or her.

Porter and others were interested in how individuals in jobs experienced either: Need satisfaction. Need deficiency.


Application to Work Motivation (continued)

Thomas Sergiovanni led studies that found teachers, as a group, had satisfied lower-order needs. They were ready to respond to higher-order needs.

Younger teachers were most concerned with esteem. Older teachers’ levels of aspiration dropped since

they become resigned to things as they are. Application of these finding would indicate that job

security, salary, or benefits have little likelihood of motivating teachers, but fulfilling higher-order needs would be motivating.


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation Motivational Factors: these can lead to satisfaction.

On a continuum from satisfaction to no satisfaction (but not necessarily dissatisfied).

Maintenance Factors: these are required to be satisfied before motivational factors can work, and lack of which can lead to job dissatisfaction. On a continuum from no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction

(but not necessarily satisfied).

See Figure 11.3.


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued) Maintenance Factors (dissatisfiers; originally

called hygiene factors): e.g.: work environment (climate), supervision,

salary, job security, attitudes of administration and policies.

Motivators (satisfiers): e.g.: achievement, advancement, work itself,

growth, responsibility, recognition. See Figure 11.4.


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued) Herzberg suggested three ways to practice his theory:

Enrich the job: redesign work to tap potential, making job interesting, challenging, and rewarding.

Increase autonomy: more participation in decision making about the work.

Expand personnel administration: administration should be concerned about motivational factors, not maintenance factors.

Research in school settings has generally supported Herzberg’s motivation-maintenance theory.

copyright © allyn & bacon 20071 chapter 11 motivation this multimedia product and its contents...

Documents

copyright allyn bacon

group motivation

hawthorne studies

copyright law

relay inspection group

experimental group

group norms

western electric studies