copyright © allyn & bacon 2007 chapter 6 learning this multimedia product and its contents are...

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Chapter 6Chapter 6

LearningLearning

This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:

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• ISBN: 0-131-73180-7


LearningLearning

Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes

Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus


Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning)

LearningLearning

Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed


Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which

a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes

associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit

essentially the same response

What Sort of Learning Does What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?Classical Conditioning Explain?


The Essentials of Classical The Essentials of Classical ConditioningConditioning

Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning

Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

•This is passive learning (automatic…learner does NOT have to think).

•First thing you need is a unconditional relationship.

•Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)- something that elicits a natural, reflexive response.

•Unconditional Response (UCR)- response to the UCS.



Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)

Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)



Unconditioned response (UCR)

Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)stimulus (UCS)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response



Unconditioned Unconditioned response (UCR)response (UCR)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)



The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning






Conditioned Conditioned stimulus (CS)stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response





Conditioned Conditioned response (CR)response (CR)


A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus


Classical ConditioningClassical ConditioningPrior to conditioning

Conditioning

After conditioning

Neutral stimulus(tone)

(Orientation to soundbut no response)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder in mouth)

Unconditioned response(salivation)

Neutral stimulusCS (tone)

Unconditioned stimulus(food powder)

+Conditioned response

(salivation)

Conditioned stimulus(tone)

Conditioned response(salivation)


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer

Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay


Acquisition, Extinction, and Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

(1)Acquisition(CS + UCS)

(3)Spontaneous Recovery(CS alone)

Res

t per

iod(2)

Extinction(CS alone)

(Time)

Trials

Str

engt

h of

the

CR

(Wea

k)(S

tron

g)


Classical Conditioning:Classical Conditioning:Generalization and DiscriminationGeneralization and Discrimination

Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS

Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus butnot to stimuli that are similar

Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis


Applications of Classical ConditioningApplications of Classical Conditioning

Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

Classical Conditioning and Classical Conditioning and HumansHumans

•John Watson brought Classical Conditioning to psychology with his Baby Albert experiment.

This type of Classical Conditioning is also known as Aversive Conditioning.


A Challenge to PavlovA Challenge to Pavlov

Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning?

What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history


How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by

Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?

In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior,

such as rewards and punishments, influence the

chance that our behavior will occur again


How Do We LearnHow Do We LearnNew Behaviors byNew Behaviors by

Operant Conditioning?Operant Conditioning?

Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences

Operant Operant ConditioningConditioning

The Learner is NOT passive.

Learning based on consequence!!!

The Law of EffectThe Law of Effect

•Edward Thorndike•Locked cats in a cage•Behavior changes because of its consequences.•Rewards strengthen behavior.•If consequences are unpleasant, the Stimulus-Reward connection will weaken.•Called the whole process instrumental learning.

Click picture to see a better explanation of the Law of Effect.

B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner

•The Mac Daddy of Operant Conditioning.

•Nurture guy through and through.

•Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts.


The Power of ReinforcementThe Power of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcers –Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again

Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior



Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism



Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)


Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced

Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)


How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning?

Contingencies of ReinforcementContingencies of Reinforcement

Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement


Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses

Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval

Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)Variable Interval (VI)



Fixed Ratio (FR)Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)

Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses

e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio Variable Ratio (VR)(VR)


Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial

e.g. slot machine pay-offs



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval Fixed Interval (FI)(FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses

e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval Variable Interval (VI)(VI)

Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial

e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise


The Problem of PunishmentThe Problem of Punishment

Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows

How does this differ from negative reinforcement?


Punishment vs. Negative Punishment vs. Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Loud Noise Press Lever

Press Lever

Loud Noise Removed

Loud Noise Applied

Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement

Punishment

No Noise


The Problem of PunishmentThe Problem of Punishment

Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response

Omission training (negative punishment) –The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response


Four Kinds of ConsequencesFour Kinds of Consequences

Positive orappetitive

Negative or aversive

STIMULUS

-Remove

NegativeReinforcementAspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use

Omission Training

Paying a speeding ticket leads to less speeding

+Present

PositiveReinforcementBonus for working hard leads to more hard work

PunishmentSpanking leads to less

talking back from children


The Use and Abuse of PunishmentThe Use and Abuse of Punishment

Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed

Punishment• Often triggers aggression• May inhibit learning new and better

responses• Is often applied unequally

When does punishment work?


Alternatives to PunishmentAlternatives to Punishment

Extinction

Reinforcing preferred activitiesPremack principle

Prompting and shaping


Operant and Classical Conditioning Operant and Classical Conditioning ComparedCompared

Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior

Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior


How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Explain Learning?Explain Learning?

According to cognitive psychology, some forms of

learning must be explained as changes in mental processes,

rather than as changes in behavior alone


How DoesHow DoesCognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

Explain Learning?Explain Learning?

Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions

Cognitive maps –A mental representation of physical space

Insight LearningInsight Learning

Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees.

Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience.

Click pic to see insight learning.


Observational Learning: Bandura’s Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to BehaviorismChallenge to Behaviorism

Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior

Observational LearningObservational Learning

Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll

We learn through modeling behavior from others.

Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory


Brain Mechanisms and LearningBrain Mechanisms and Learning

Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning


End of Chapter 6End of Chapter 6

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