copyright © allyn and bacon 2005 1 chapter 5 attitudes and persuasion this multimedia product and...

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20051

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Attitudes and PersuasionAttitudes and Persuasion

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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

The Nature of Attitudes

What is Persuasion?

Goals of Persuasion: Why People Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy

Being Consistent

Seeking Social Approval

The Nature of Attitudes

What is Persuasion?

Goals of Persuasion: Why People Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy

Being Consistent

Seeking Social Approval


The Nature of AttitudesThe Nature of Attitudes

Attitudes spring from several sources:

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Observational learning

Heredity

Name five attitudes:

Attitudes spring from several sources:

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Observational learning

Heredity

Name five attitudes:


Attitude StrengthAttitude Strength

Strong attitudes

Are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes,

Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.

Strong attitudes

Are more likely to remain unchanged as time passes,

Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.



The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change areCommitment –

people are sure they are correct,

Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.


people are sure they are correct,

Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.




People review information in a biased fashion, dismissing evidence that goes against their attitude.

Embeddedness –Restricts change because an attitude is tied to many other ideas of the self that would also have to change


People review information in a biased fashion, dismissing evidence that goes against their attitude.

Embeddedness –Restricts change because an attitude is tied to many other ideas of the self that would also have to change


Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency

The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:

Knowledge

Personal relevance

Attitude accessibility

The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:

Knowledge

Personal relevance

Attitude accessibility


Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency

Theory of planned behavior (page 149)

A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by:

One’s attitude toward specific behavior,

The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and,

One’s perceived control over the behavior.

Theory of planned behavior (page 149)

A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by:

One’s attitude toward specific behavior,

The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and,

One’s perceived control over the behavior.


Attitude(One’s evaluation of the

specific behavior in question)

Subjective Norm(One’s perception that important others will

approve of the behavior)

Perceived Behavioral Control

(One’s perception of how difficult it would be to perform the behavior)

Behavioral Intention

(One’s aim to perform the behavior)

Behavior

Theory of planned behaviorTheory of planned behavior


Example of Planned BehaviorExample of Planned Behavior


What IsPersuasion?

What IsPersuasion?

Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message

Persuasion may or may not lead to changes in behavior, but when it does, the change in behavior is longer lasting and resistant to change

Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message

Persuasion may or may not lead to changes in behavior, but when it does, the change in behavior is longer lasting and resistant to change


Measuring Attitude ChangeMeasuring Attitude Change

Covert opinion measure –one that gauges your opinion without you knowing about it

Example: measuring how close you sit to a handicapped person, as opposed to asking: "Are you prejudiced against handicapped people?"

Covert opinion measure –one that gauges your opinion without you knowing about it

Example: measuring how close you sit to a handicapped person, as opposed to asking: "Are you prejudiced against handicapped people?"



Covert techniques are more accurate than self-report measures only when participants have reason to be less honest about true feelings

(for example, when they want to appear more fair-minded than they actually are).

Covert techniques are more accurate than self-report measures only when participants have reason to be less honest about true feelings

(for example, when they want to appear more fair-minded than they actually are).



Nonreactive measurement – measurement that does not change a subject’s responses while recording them

Covert techniques are more non-reactive than self-reports.

Nonreactive measurement – measurement that does not change a subject’s responses while recording them

Covert techniques are more non-reactive than self-reports.


The After-only DesignThe After-only Design

The after-only design assesses persuasion by measuring attitude only after the persuasion attempt (message).

Page 152

The after-only design assesses persuasion by measuring attitude only after the persuasion attempt (message).

Page 152


Cognitive Responses: Self-Talk Persuades


Cognitive response model –a theory that locates the main cause of persuasion in the self-talk of the persuasion target

Cognitive response model –a theory that locates the main cause of persuasion in the self-talk of the persuasion target




Counterarguments –arguments that challenge and oppose other arguments

Counterarguments –arguments that challenge and oppose other arguments




Inoculation procedure –a technique for increasing individuals' resistance to an argument by first giving them weak, easily defeated versions of it

Inoculation procedure –a technique for increasing individuals' resistance to an argument by first giving them weak, easily defeated versions of it


Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change


Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs— with and without much thought

Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs— with and without much thought




Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:

the motivation

the ability- cognitive

Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:

the motivation

the ability- cognitive




Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it

matter to you?)

Need for cognition – the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought

Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it

matter to you?)

Need for cognition – the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought


Message

High motivation

and ability to think about the message

Low motivationor ability to think about the message

Peripheral processing, focused on surface features such as the

communicator’s attractiveness or the

number of arguments presented.

Central processing, focused on the quality

of the message arguments.

Lasting change that resists fading and

counterattacks

Temporary change that

that is susceptible to

fading and counterattacks

Persuasion Attempt

Audience Factors

Processing Approach

Persuasion Outcome


The Effects ofPersonal Relevance


Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.

Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.

Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.

Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.

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The issue was either highly relevant to them

(They would personally have to take the exams to graduate)

Or of low relevance to them

(Policy would not take effect for 10 years – long after they’d graduated).

The issue was either highly relevant to them

(They would personally have to take the exams to graduate)

Or of low relevance to them

(Policy would not take effect for 10 years – long after they’d graduated).

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The Effects of Personal Relevance

The Effects of Personal Relevance

Arguments were either high quality

e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for graduates of schools with exams”

Or low quality

“Exams would allow students to compare performance with other schools”

Some students heard only 3 arguments.

Others heard 9 arguments.

Arguments were either high quality

e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for graduates of schools with exams”

Or low quality

“Exams would allow students to compare performance with other schools”

Some students heard only 3 arguments.

Others heard 9 arguments.

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Number of Arguments

Att

itud

e T

owar

d E

xam

s

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

HighLow

LowPersonal Relevance

HighPersonal Relevance

Argument Quality

For students with a personal stake, more strong arguments were more convincing

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Number of Arguments

Att

itud

e T

owar

d E

xam

s

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

High Low

HighLow

Argument

Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality

But more weak arguments left them less convinced

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Number of Arguments

Att

itud

e T

owar

d E

xam

s

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

High Low

HighLow

Argument

Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality

Students who wouldn’t be affected didn’t process quality

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The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their

Attitudes and Beliefs

The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their

Attitudes and Beliefs

Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:

hold a more accurate view of the world,

be consistent with themselves, and

gain social approval and acceptance.

Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:

hold a more accurate view of the world,

be consistent with themselves, and

gain social approval and acceptance.


Seeking AccuracySeeking Accuracy


Good ShortcutsGood Shortcuts

When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:

Credibility of communicator page 161

Is the person an expert? Trustworthy?

Others’ responses page 162

Which side do other people seem to be taking?

Ready ideas page 164

What side have I heard frequently or recently?

When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:

Credibility of communicator page 161

Is the person an expert? Trustworthy?

Others’ responses page 162

Which side do other people seem to be taking?

Ready ideas page 164

What side have I heard frequently or recently?


What affects the Desire for Accuracy?

What affects the Desire for Accuracy?

• Issue Involvement

• Mood

• Done Deals

• Unwelcome Information

• Expertise and Complexity

• Issue Involvement

• Mood

• Done Deals

• Unwelcome Information

• Expertise and Complexity


Issue InvolvementIssue Involvement

Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.

People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.

Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.

People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.


MoodMood

A sad mood

Motivates people to acquire accurate attitudes about the situation at hand

Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.

A sad mood

Motivates people to acquire accurate attitudes about the situation at hand

Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.


Done dealsDone deals

Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.

After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.

Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.

After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.


Unwelcome InformationUnwelcome Information

People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.

Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.

People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.

Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.


Defensiveness and DenialDefensiveness and Denial

Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.

Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.


Expertise and ComplexityExpertise and Complexity

People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.

People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.


Being Consistent Being Consistent


Being ConsistentBeing Consistent

Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other

Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other


Balance Theory Fritz Heider

Balance Theory Fritz Heider

We want to:

Agree with people we like

Disagree with people we dislike

Associate good things with good people

Associate bad things with bad people.

We want to:

Agree with people we like

Disagree with people we dislike

Associate good things with good people

Associate bad things with bad people.


Cognitive system out of balance

Uncomfortable tension

Balance Theory Balance Theory

To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.

To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

+ -

+


Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.

Mary is strongly pro-life.

Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.

Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.

Mary is strongly pro-life.

Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

-

+

-


Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.

Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

-+

-


Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.

Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

+

+

+


Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.

Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.


Cognitive Dissonance TheoryLeon Festinger

Cognitive Dissonance TheoryLeon Festinger

Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors


Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory

Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude

Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude



In a study by Festinger and Carlsmith

Students first performed a boring task (turning pegs in holes)

Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.

In a study by Festinger and Carlsmith

Students first performed a boring task (turning pegs in holes)

Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.



When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:

Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable

Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.

When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:

Those receiving $1 payment had come to see it as more enjoyable

Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.



Why? Dissonance theory explains:

$20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student.

$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.

Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.

Why? Dissonance theory explains:

$20 provided adequate justification for misleading another student.

$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.

Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.



Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong.

Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).

Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong.

Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).


an actionor

decision that

conflicts with an

important aspect of the self.

Initiation Amplification Motivation Reduction

is seen as freely chosen

produces negative consequences that were foreseeable

cannot be justified as due to strong

rewards or threats

cannot be withdrawn

unpleasant arousal

change designed to remove the unpleasant

arousal

Dissonance begins with:

More dissonance arises when the action or decision:

Dissonance is experienced as:

Dissonance is reduced through:


ArousalArousal

No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change

Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.

No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change

Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.


ConsequencesConsequences

The more impact your behavior has had on the world, the more you will feel motivated to change your attitudes to fit the behavior.

The more impact your behavior has had on the world, the more you will feel motivated to change your attitudes to fit the behavior.


ConsequencesConsequences

If you are on a committee that recommends a harsh penalty for a fellow student accused of cheating on a math test,

you will maintain your negative opinion of that student more to the extent that the consequence is expulsion from school as opposed to a lowered grade in the math class.

If you are on a committee that recommends a harsh penalty for a fellow student accused of cheating on a math test,

you will maintain your negative opinion of that student more to the extent that the consequence is expulsion from school as opposed to a lowered grade in the math class.


Salience of the InconsistencyWe must be aware of the inconsistency

Salience of the InconsistencyWe must be aware of the inconsistency

Factors that make inconsistency more salient (prominent) will enhance dissonance, and should produce greater change. Examples?(page 173)

Assignment 7

Factors that make inconsistency more salient (prominent) will enhance dissonance, and should produce greater change. Examples?(page 173)

Assignment 7


Consistent with What? Consistent with What?

Different Ads appeal to different self-related motives in different cultures.

Han & Shavitt (1994) asked Americans and Koreans to rate advertisements that suggested either

Personal benefits (“treat yourself”),

Group benefits (“share an experience”).

Different Ads appeal to different self-related motives in different cultures.

Han & Shavitt (1994) asked Americans and Koreans to rate advertisements that suggested either

Personal benefits (“treat yourself”),

Group benefits (“share an experience”).


Americans had a more favorable reaction to ads stressing personal benefits

Americans had a more favorable reaction to ads stressing personal benefits

+20 +20

+10+10

-10-10

-20-20

-30 -30

U.S.U.S.

Rating of Product:Rating of Product: Personal BenefitPersonal Benefit

Group BenefitGroup Benefit

Ad Focus:Ad Focus:

+30 +30

KoreaKoreaKoreans had a more

favorable reaction to ads stressing group benefits

Koreans had a more favorable reaction to ads stressing group benefits

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Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval


Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval

The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.

This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.

The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.

This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.


Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring

High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).

High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).


Gender Gender

Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.

This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.

Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.

This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.


The Expectation of Discussion The Expectation of Discussion

People who expect to discuss a topic tend to hold more moderate opinions.

Opinion shifts designed to create a good impression can become lasting when the process of shifting causes people to think about the topic in a different way.

People who expect to discuss a topic tend to hold more moderate opinions.

Opinion shifts designed to create a good impression can become lasting when the process of shifting causes people to think about the topic in a different way.


Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion

Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion

When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.

When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.

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