copyright © 2010 pearson education, inc. skeletal cartilages contain _____ blood vessels or nerves...

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Skeletal Cartilages

• Contain _____ blood vessels or nerves

• Dense connective tissue girdle of perichondrium contains blood vessels for nutrient delivery to cartilage


Skeletal Cartilages

1. _________ cartilages

• Provide support, flexibility, and resilience

• Most abundant type

2. ___________ cartilages

• Similar to hyaline cartilages, but contain elastic fibers

3. _______________

• Collagen fibers—have great tensile strength

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.1

Axial skeleton

Appendicular skeleton

Hyaline cartilages

Elastic cartilages

Fibrocartilages

Cartilages

Bones of skeleton

EpiglottisLarynx

TracheaCricoidcartilage Lung

Respiratory tube cartilagesin neck and thorax

ThyroidcartilageCartilage in

external earCartilages innose

ArticularCartilageof a joint

Costalcartilage

Cartilage inIntervertebraldisc

Pubicsymphysis

Articular cartilageof a joint

Meniscus (padlikecartilage inknee joint)


Growth of Cartilage

• ______________

• Cells secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage

• _________________

• Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within

• Calcification of cartilage occurs during

• Normal _____ growth

• Old age


Bones of the Skeleton

• Two main groups, by location

• ____ skeleton (brown)

• _______________ skeleton (yellow)


Cartilage inexternal ear

Cartilages innose

ArticularCartilageof a joint

Costalcartilage

Cartilage inIntervertebraldisc

Pubicsymphysis

Articular cartilageof a joint

Meniscus (padlikecartilage inknee joint)


Classification of Bones by Shape

• ____ bones

• Longer than they are wide

• ________ bones

• Cube-shaped bones (in wrist and ankle)

• Sesamoid bones (within tendons, e.g., patella)


Classification of Bones by Shape

• _____ bones

• Thin, flat, slightly curved

• Irregular bones

• Complicated shapes


Functions of Bones

• ____________

• For the body and soft organs

• ___________

• For brain, spinal cord, and vital organs

• _____________

• Levers for muscle action


Functions of Bones

• ____________

• Minerals (calcium and phosphorus) and growth factors

• Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) in marrow cavities

• Triglyceride (energy) storage in bone cavities


Bone Markings

• Bulges, depressions, and holes serve as

• Sites of attachment for muscles, ligaments, and tendons

• Joint surfaces

• Conduits for blood vessels and nerves


Bone Markings: Projections

• Sites of muscle and ligament attachment

• _________—rounded projection

• Crest—narrow, prominent ridge

• Trochanter—large, blunt, irregular surface

• Line—narrow ridge of bone

• _________—small rounded projection

• Epicondyle—raised area above a condyle

• Spine—sharp, slender projection

• _________—any bony prominence


Bone Markings: Projections

• Projections that help to form joints

• Head

• Bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

• _______

• Smooth, nearly flat articular surface

• Condyle

• Rounded articular projection

• Ramus

• Armlike bar


Bone Markings: Depressions and Openings

• _________

• Canal-like passageway

• Sinus

• Cavity within a bone

• Fossa

• Shallow, basinlike depression

• Groove

• Furrow

• ________

• Narrow, slitlike opening

• Foramen

• Round or oval opening through a bone


Bone Textures

• Compact bone

• Dense outer layer

• Spongy (___________) bone

• Honeycomb of trabeculae


Structure of a Long Bone

• Diaphysis (______)

• Compact bone collar surrounds medullary (marrow) cavity

• Medullary cavity in adults contains fat (yellow marrow)


Structure of a Long Bone

• _____________

• Expanded ends

• Spongy bone interior

• Epiphyseal line (remnant of growth plate)

• Articular (__________) cartilage on joint surfaces

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.3a-b

Proximalepiphysis

(b)

(a)

Epiphysealline

Articularcartilage

Periosteum

Spongy bone

Compact bone

Medullarycavity (linedby endosteum)

Compact bone

Diaphysis

Distalepiphysis


Membranes of Bone

• ____________

• Outer fibrous layer

• Inner osteogenic layer

• Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)

• Osteoclasts (bone-destroying cells)

• Osteogenic cells (stem cells)

• Nerve fibers, nutrient blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels enter the bone via nutrient foramina

• Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers


Membranes of Bone

• ___________

• Delicate membrane on internal surfaces of bone

• Also contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.3c

(c)

Yellowbone marrow

Endosteum

Compact bone

Periosteum

Perforating(Sharpey’s) fibers

Nutrientarteries


Structure of Short, Irregular, and Flat Bones

• Periosteum-covered compact bone on the outside

• Endosteum-covered spongy bone within

• Spongy bone called diploë in flat bones

• Bone marrow between the trabeculae


Compactbone

Trabeculae

Spongy bone(diploë)


Location of Hematopoietic Tissue (Red Marrow)

• Red marrow cavities of adults

• Trabecular cavities of the heads of the femur and humerus

• Trabecular cavities of the diploë of flat bones

• Red marrow of newborn infants

• Medullary cavities and all spaces in spongy bone


Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Cells of bones

• __________ (osteoprogenitor) cells

• Stem cells in periosteum and endosteum that give rise to osteoblasts

• ____________

• Bone-forming cells

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.4a-b

(a) Osteogenic cell (b) Osteoblast

Stem cell Matrix-synthesizingcell responsiblefor bone growth


Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

• Cells of bone

• Osteocytes

• Mature bone cells

• _____________

• Cells that break down (resorb) bone matrix

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.4c-d

(c) Osteocyte

Mature bone cellthat maintains the

bone matrix

(d) Osteoclast

Bone-resorbing cell


Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone

• ___________ system, or osteon—structural unit

• Lamellae

• Weight-bearing

• Column-like matrix tubes

• Central (Haversian) canal

• Contains blood vessels and nerves


Structuresin thecentralcanal

Artery withcapillaries

VeinNerve fiber

Lamellae

Collagenfibersrun indifferentdirections

Twistingforce


Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Compact Bone

• Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals

• At right angles to the central canal

• Connects blood vessels and nerves of the periosteum and central canal

• __________ —small cavities that contain osteocytes

• ___________ —hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.7a-c

Endosteum lining bony canalsand covering trabeculae

Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal

Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers

Periosteal blood vesselPeriosteum

Lacuna (withosteocyte)

(a)

(b) (c)

Lacunae

Lamellae

NerveVeinArtery

Canaliculi

Osteocytein a lacuna

Circumferentiallamellae

Osteon(Haversian system)

Central(Haversian) canal

Centralcanal

Interstitial lamellae

Lamellae

Compactbone

Spongy bone


Microscopic Anatomy of Bone: Spongy Bone

• ___________

• Align along lines of stress

• No _____________

• Contain irregularly arranged lamellae, osteocytes, and canaliculi

• Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.3b

(b)

Lacunae

Lamellae

Nerve

Vein

Artery

Canaliculus

Osteocytein a lacuna

Centralcanal


Chemical Composition of Bone: Organic

• Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

• Osteoid—organic bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts

• Ground substance (proteoglycans, glycoproteins)

• Collagen fibers

• Provide tensile strength and flexibility


Chemical Composition of Bone: Inorganic

• Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)

• 65% of bone by mass

• Mainly calcium phosphate crystals

• Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression


Bone Development

• Osteogenesis (ossification)—bone tissue formation

• Stages

• Bone formation—begins in the 2nd month of development

• Postnatal bone growth—until early adulthood

• Bone remodeling and repair—lifelong


Two Types of Ossification

1. _________________ ossification

• Membrane bone develops from fibrous membrane

• Forms flat bones, e.g. clavicles and cranial bones

2. _______________ ossification

• Cartilage (endochondral) bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

• Forms most of the rest of the skeleton

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.8, (1 of 4)

Mesenchymalcell

CollagenfiberOssificationcenter

Osteoid

Osteoblast

Ossification centers appear in the fibrousconnective tissue membrane.• Selected centrally located mesenchymal cells cluster

and differentiate into osteoblasts, forming anossification center.

1


Osteoid

Osteocyte

Newly calcifiedbone matrix

Osteoblast

Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within thefibrous membrane and calcifies.• Osteoblasts begin to secrete osteoid, which is calcified

within a few days.• Trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes.

2


Mesenchymecondensingto form theperiosteum

Blood vessel

Trabeculae ofwoven bone

Woven bone and periosteum form.• Accumulating osteoid is laid down between embryonic

blood vessels in a random manner. The result is a network(instead of lamellae) of trabeculae called woven bone.

• Vascularized mesenchyme condenses on the external faceof the woven bone and becomes the periosteum.

3


FibrousperiosteumOsteoblast

Plate ofcompact bone

Diploë (spongybone) cavitiescontain redmarrow

Lamellar bone replaces woven bone, just deep tothe periosteum. Red marrow appears.• Trabeculae just deep to the periosteum thicken, and are later

replaced with mature lamellar bone, forming compact boneplates.

• Spongy bone (diploë), consisting of distinct trabeculae, per-sists internally and its vascular tissue becomes red marrow.

4


Endochondral Ossification

• Uses hyaline cartilage models

• Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification


Bone collarforms aroundhyaline cartilagemodel.

Cartilage in thecenter of thediaphysis calcifiesand then developscavities.

The periostealbud inavades theinternal cavitiesand spongy bonebegins to form.

The diaphysis elongatesand a medullary cavityforms as ossificationcontinues. Secondaryossification centers appearin the epiphyses inpreparation for stage 5.

The epiphysesossify. Whencompleted, hyalinecartilage remains onlyin the epiphysealplates and articularcartilages.

Hyalinecartilage

Area ofdeterioratingcartilage matrix

Epiphysealblood vessel

Spongyboneformation

Epiphysealplatecartilage

Secondaryossificationcenter

Bloodvessel ofperiostealbud

Medullarycavity

Articularcartilage

Childhood toadolescence

BirthWeek 9 Month 3

Spongybone

BonecollarPrimaryossificationcenter

1 2 3 4 5

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 6.9, step 1

Bone collar forms aroundhyaline cartilage model.1

Hyaline cartilage

Week 9

Bone collar

Primaryossificationcenter


Cartilage in the centerof the diaphysis calcifiesand then develops cavities.

2

Area of deterioratingcartilage matrix


The periosteal bud inavadesthe internal cavities andspongy bone begins to form.

3

Spongyboneformation


Month 3


The diaphysis elongates and a medullary cavity formsas ossification continues. Secondary ossification centersappear in the epiphyses in preparation for stage 5.

4

Epiphysealblood vessel Secondary

ossificationcenter

Medullarycavity

Birth


The epiphyses ossify. When completed, hyaline cartilageremains only in the epiphyseal plates and articular cartilages.5

Epiphyseal platecartilage

Articular cartilage

Childhood to adolescence

Spongy bone


Bone collarforms aroundhyaline cartilagemodel.

Cartilage in thecenter of thediaphysis calcifiesand then developscavities.

The periostealbud inavades theinternal cavitiesand spongy bonebegins to form.

The diaphysis elongatesand a medullary cavityforms as ossificationcontinues. Secondaryossification centers appearin the epiphyses inpreparation for stage 5.

The epiphysesossify. Whencompleted, hyalinecartilage remains onlyin the epiphysealplates and articularcartilages.

Hyalinecartilage

Area ofdeterioratingcartilage matrix

Epiphysealblood vessel

Spongyboneformation

Epiphysealplatecartilage

Secondaryossificationcenter


Medullarycavity

Articularcartilage

Childhood toadolescence

BirthWeek 9 Month 3

Spongybone

BonecollarPrimaryossificationcenter

1 2 3 4 5


Postnatal Bone Growth

• Interstitial growth:

• _____________ of long bones

• Appositional growth:

• __________ and ______________ of all bones by osteoblasts and osteoclasts on bone surfaces


Growth in Length of Long Bones

• Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones:

• ____________ (growth)

• Hypertrophic

• _____________

• Ossification (osteogenic)


Calcified cartilagespicule

Osseous tissue(bone) coveringcartilage spicules

Resting zone

Osteoblast depositingbone matrix

Proliferation zoneCartilage cells undergo mitosis.

Hypertrophic zoneOlder cartilage cells enlarge.

Ossification zoneNew bone formation is occurring.

Calcification zoneMatrix becomes calcified; cartilage cells die; matrix begins deteriorating.

1

2

3

4


Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth

• Growth hormone stimulates epiphyseal plate activity

• Thyroid hormone modulates activity of growth hormone

• Testosterone and estrogens (at puberty)

• Promote adolescent growth spurts

• End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure


Bone growth Bone remodeling

Articular cartilage

Epiphyseal plate

Cartilagegrows here.

Cartilageis replacedby bone here.

Cartilagegrows here.

Bone isresorbed here.

Bone isresorbed here.

Bone is addedby appositionalgrowth here. Cartilage

is replacedby bone here.


Bone Deposit

• Occurs where bone is injured or added strength is needed

• Requires a diet rich in protein; vitamins C, D, and A; calcium; phosphorus; magnesium; and manganese


Bone Deposit

• Sites of new matrix deposit are revealedby the

• Osteoid seam

• Unmineralized band of matrix

• Calcification front

• The abrupt transition zone between the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone


Bone Resorption

• Osteoclasts secrete

• Lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix)

• Acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms)

• Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood


Control of Remodeling

•What controls continual remodeling of bone?

• Hormonal mechanisms that maintain calcium homeostasis in the blood

• Mechanical and gravitational forces


Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

• Calcium is necessary for

• _____________ of nerve impulses

• Muscle contraction

• Blood ______________

• Secretion by glands and nerve cells

• Cell division



• Primarily controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Blood Ca2+ levels

Parathyroid glands release PTH

PTH ____________ osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+

Blood Ca2+ levels


Osteoclastsdegrade bonematrix and release Ca2+

into blood.

Parathyroidglands

Thyroidgland

Parathyroidglands releaseparathyroidhormone (PTH).

StimulusFalling bloodCa2+ levels

PTH

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 mlBALANCEBALANCE



• May be affected to a lesser extent by calcitonin

Blood Ca2+ levels

Parafollicular cells of thyroid release calcitonin

Osteoblasts deposit calcium salts

Blood Ca2+ levels

• Leptin has also been shown to influence bone density by inhibiting osteoblasts


Response to Mechanical Stress

• Wolff’s law: A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it

• Observations supporting Wolff’s law:

• Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger

• Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle

• Trabeculae form along lines of stress

• Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach


Load here (body weight)

Head offemur

Compressionhere

Point ofno stress

Tensionhere


Classification of Bone Fractures

• Bone fractures may be classified by four “either/or” classifications:

1. Position of bone ends after fracture:

• __________—ends retain normal position

• Displaced—ends out of normal alignment

2. Completeness of the break

• ________—broken all the way through

• _____________—not broken all the way through


Classification of Bone Fractures

3. _____________ of the break to the long axis of the bone:

• Linear—parallel to long axis of the bone

• Transverse—perpendicular to long axis of the bone

4. Whether or not the bone ends penetrate the skin:

• Compound (open)—bone ends penetrate the skin

• Simple (closed)—bone ends do not penetrate the skin


Common Types of Fractures

• All __________ can be described in terms of

• Location

• External appearance

• Nature of the break


Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

1. __________ forms

• Torn blood vessels hemorrhage

• Clot (hematoma) forms

• Site becomes swollen, painful, and inflamed


A hematoma forms.1

Hematoma



2. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms

• Phagocytic cells clear debris

• __________ begin forming spongy bone within 1 week

• Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers to connect bone ends

• Mass of repair tissue now called fibrocartilaginous callus


Fibrocartilaginouscallus forms.2

Externalcallus

Newbloodvessels

Spongybonetrabecula

Internalcallus(fibroustissue andcartilage)



3. Bony ______ formation

• New trabeculae form a bony (hard) callus

• Bony callus formation continues until firm union is formed in ~2 months


Bony callus forms.3

Bonycallus ofspongybone



4. Bone remodeling

• In response to mechanical stressors over several months

• Final structure resembles original


Bone remodelingoccurs.4

Healedfracture


Hematoma Externalcallus

Bonycallus ofspongyboneHealedfracture

Newbloodvessels

Spongybonetrabecula

Internalcallus(fibroustissue andcartilage)

A hematoma forms. Fibrocartilaginouscallus forms.

Bony callus forms. Boneremodelingoccurs.

1 2 3 4


Homeostatic Imbalances

• ______________ and __________

• Calcium salts not deposited

• Rickets (childhood disease) causes bowed legs and other bone deformities

• Cause: vitamin D deficiency or insufficient dietary calcium


Homeostatic Imbalances

• Osteoporosis

• Loss of ____ ____—bone resorption outpaces deposit

• Spongy bone of spine and neck of femur become most susceptible to fracture

• Risk factors

• Lack of estrogen, calcium or vitamin D; petite body form; immobility; low levels of TSH; diabetes mellitus


Osteoporosis: Treatment and Prevention

• Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements

• Weight-bearing ________ throughout life

• _______ (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss

• Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density


Paget’s Disease

• Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull

• Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization

• Unknown cause (possibly viral)

• Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates


Developmental Aspects of Bones

• Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so fetal age easily determined from X rays or sonograms

• At birth, most long bones are well ossified (except epiphyses)


Parietal bone

Radius

Ulna

Humerus

Femur

Occipital bone

ClavicleScapula

Ribs

Vertebra

Ilium

Tibia

Frontal boneof skull

Mandible


Developmental Aspects of Bones

• Nearly all bones completely ________ by age 25

• Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade

• Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors

• In old age, bone resorption predominates

copyright © 2010 pearson education, inc. skeletal cartilages contain _____ blood vessels or nerves...

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