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Copyright © 2008 Allyn & BaconCopyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon

Chapter 5Chapter 5LearningLearning

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Chapter 5 OverviewChapter 5 Overview

Classical conditioningClassical conditioning– Learning through association of Learning through association of

stimulistimuli Operant conditioningOperant conditioning

– Learning through consequencesLearning through consequences Cognitive learningCognitive learning

– Learning through mental processesLearning through mental processes


LearningLearning

A relatively permanent change in A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation maturation


Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

A type of learning through which A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate an organism learns to associate one stimulus with anotherone stimulus with another– A A stimulusstimulus is any event or object in is any event or object in

the environment to which an the environment to which an organism respondsorganism responds


What type of learning did What type of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) discovered discovered classical classical conditioningconditioning– Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US)– Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR)– Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)


What kind of learning did What kind of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus (US)(US)– Elicits an unconditioned Elicits an unconditioned

response without learningresponse without learning e.g., food, loud noise, light in e.g., food, loud noise, light in

eye, puff of air in eyeeye, puff of air in eye

Unconditioned response Unconditioned response (UR)(UR)– Response elicited by an Response elicited by an

unconditioned stimulus without unconditioned stimulus without learninglearning

e.g.,e.g., salivation,salivation, startle, startle, contraction of pupil, eyeblinkcontraction of pupil, eyeblink


What kind of learning did What kind of learning did Pavlov discover, and how is it Pavlov discover, and how is it accomplished?accomplished?

Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)– Neutral stimulus that, after Neutral stimulus that, after

repeated pairing with US, repeated pairing with US, becomes associated with it and becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned responseelicits a conditioned response

e.g., a tonee.g., a tone Conditioned response (CR)Conditioned response (CR)

– Learned response thatLearned response that comes to comes to be elicited by a conditioned be elicited by a conditioned stimulusstimulus

e.g., salivation in response to a e.g., salivation in response to a tonetone

Higher order conditioningHigher order conditioning– Occurs when conditioned stimuli Occurs when conditioned stimuli

are linked to form a series of are linked to form a series of signalssignals


What kinds of changes in What kinds of changes in stimuli and learning conditions stimuli and learning conditions

lead tolead to changes in conditioned changes in conditioned responses?responses?

ExtinctionExtinction– Weakening and eventual Weakening and eventual

disappearance of the CR as disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated a result of repeated presentation of the CS presentation of the CS without the USwithout the US

Spontaneous recoverySpontaneous recovery– Reappearance of an Reappearance of an

extinguished CR when extinguished CR when organism is exposed to the organism is exposed to the CS following a rest periodCS following a rest period


What kinds of changes in What kinds of changes in stimuli and learning conditions stimuli and learning conditions lead to changes in conditioned lead to changes in conditioned responses?responses? GeneralizationGeneralization

– Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that Tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CSis similar to the original CS

DiscriminationDiscrimination– Learned ability to distinguish between Learned ability to distinguish between

similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimulito the original CS but not to similar stimuli


How did Watson demonstrate How did Watson demonstrate that fear could be classically that fear could be classically conditioned?conditioned? Watson and Rayner Watson and Rayner

(1920) “Little Albert” (1920) “Little Albert” studystudy

Conditioned fears Conditioned fears “persist and modify “persist and modify personality throughout personality throughout life”life”

Mary Cover Jones Mary Cover Jones (1924) later used (1924) later used classical conditioning classical conditioning to remove fears in to remove fears in another boyanother boy


According to Rescorla, what is According to Rescorla, what is the critical element in classical the critical element in classical conditioning?conditioning?

Pavlov and WatsonPavlov and Watson– Believed that the critical element of Believed that the critical element of

classical conditioning is repeated classical conditioning is repeated pairing of the CS and USpairing of the CS and US

Robert RescorlaRobert Rescorla– Showed that the critical element is Showed that the critical element is

whether the CS provides information whether the CS provides information that enables the organism to reliably that enables the organism to reliably predict the occurrence of the USpredict the occurrence of the US


How do biological How do biological predispositions affect classical predispositions affect classical conditioning?conditioning?

Biological predispositionsBiological predispositions affect affect classical conditioningclassical conditioning– Organisms are biologically predisposed to Organisms are biologically predisposed to

rapidly acquire classically conditioned rapidly acquire classically conditioned associations that enhance chances for associations that enhance chances for survivalsurvival


Garcia and Koelling study Garcia and Koelling study (1966)(1966)

Rats learned to associate nausea with Rats learned to associate nausea with flavored water, and electric shock with flavored water, and electric shock with noise and lightsnoise and lights

But did not learn to associate nausea But did not learn to associate nausea with noise and lights, or electric shock with noise and lights, or electric shock with flavored waterwith flavored water

Results demonstrated that animals are Results demonstrated that animals are biologically predisposed to make biologically predisposed to make certain associations but not otherscertain associations but not others


What types of everyday What types of everyday responses can be subject to responses can be subject to classical conditioning?classical conditioning?

Why diet soda can make people Why diet soda can make people hungryhungry– Sweet taste of soda becomes a CS that Sweet taste of soda becomes a CS that

elicits insulin increase, leading to feelings elicits insulin increase, leading to feelings of hungerof hunger

AdvertisingAdvertising– An attractive celebrity (US) is associated An attractive celebrity (US) is associated

with a product (CS)with a product (CS)– After repeated pairings, the product elicits After repeated pairings, the product elicits

excitement (CR)excitement (CR)


Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

A type of learning in which the A type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are consequences of behavior are manipulated so as to increase or manipulated so as to increase or decrease the frequency of an decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an existing response or to shape an entirely new responseentirely new response


What did Thorndike and What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the Skinner discover about the effects of consequences on effects of consequences on behavior?behavior? Edward Thorndike formulated the Edward Thorndike formulated the law law

of effectof effect– The consequence, or effect, of a response The consequence, or effect, of a response

determines whether the tendency to determines whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future is respond in the same way in the future is strengthened or weakenedstrengthened or weakened

i.e., organisms tend to repeat behaviors that i.e., organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequencesbring about pleasant consequences

The law of effect formed the basis for The law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner’s work on B. F. Skinner’s work on operant operant conditioningconditioning


What are the effects of positive What are the effects of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement and negative reinforcement?reinforcement? Anything that follows a response and Anything that follows a response and

strengthens it or increases the strengthens it or increases the probability that it will be repeatedprobability that it will be repeated

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement– A pleasant or desirable consequence that A pleasant or desirable consequence that

increases the probability that a response increases the probability that a response will be repeatedwill be repeated

Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement– Termination of an unpleasant condition Termination of an unpleasant condition

after a response, which increases the after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be probability that the response will be repeatedrepeated


What are the effects of positive What are the effects of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement and negative reinforcement?reinforcement?

Primary reinforcerPrimary reinforcer– A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical

need and does not depend on learningneed and does not depend on learning Secondary reinforcerSecondary reinforcer

– A reinforcer that is acquired or learned A reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcersthrough association with other reinforcers


What are the four types of What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, and which type is most and which type is most effective?effective? Fixed-ratio (FR)Fixed-ratio (FR)

– Reinforcer given after a fixed number of correct, Reinforcer given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responsesnonreinforced responses

Variable-ratio (VR)Variable-ratio (VR)– Reinforcer is given after a varying number of Reinforcer is given after a varying number of

nonreinforced responsesnonreinforced responses Fixed-interval (FI)Fixed-interval (FI)

– Reinforcer is given after first correct response Reinforcer is given after first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsedafter a specific period of time has elapsed

Variable-interval (VI)Variable-interval (VI)– Reinforcer is given after first correct response Reinforcer is given after first correct response

following a varying period of timefollowing a varying period of time


What are the four types of What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement, schedules of reinforcement, and which type is most and which type is most effective?effective?

Ratio schedules Ratio schedules yield higher yield higher response rates than response rates than interval schedulesinterval schedules– Fixed ratioFixed ratio schedule schedule

has highest response has highest response raterate

Variable schedules Variable schedules are most resistant to are most resistant to extinctionextinction


What are the goals of shaping, What are the goals of shaping, extinction, generalization, and extinction, generalization, and discriminative stimuli in the discriminative stimuli in the operant conditioning process?operant conditioning process?

ShapingShaping– Gradually molding a desired behavior Gradually molding a desired behavior

(response) by reinforcing any movement (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired responsein the direction of the desired response

– Eventually, responses are guided toward Eventually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal by rewarding the ultimate goal by rewarding successive approximationssuccessive approximations

A series of gradual steps, each of which is more A series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired responsesimilar to the final desired response


What are the roles of shaping, What are the roles of shaping, extinction, generalization, and extinction, generalization, and discriminative stimuli in the discriminative stimuli in the operant conditioning process?operant conditioning process?

ExtinctionExtinction– Weakening and eventual disappearance of Weakening and eventual disappearance of

a conditioned response as a result of a conditioned response as a result of withholding reinforcementwithholding reinforcement

GeneralizationGeneralization– Tendency to make a learned response to a Tendency to make a learned response to a

stimulus similar to that for which the stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforcedresponse was originally reinforced

Discriminative stimulusDiscriminative stimulus– Stimulus that signals whether a response Stimulus that signals whether a response

or behavior is likely to be rewarded, or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punishedignored, or punished


How does punishment affect How does punishment affect behavior?behavior?

PunishmentPunishment is the removal of a is the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a responselowering the probability of a response– Positive punishmentPositive punishment

Decrease in behavior that results from an added Decrease in behavior that results from an added consequenceconsequence

– Negative punishmentNegative punishment Decrease in behavior that results from a Decrease in behavior that results from a

removed consequenceremoved consequence


The disadvantages of The disadvantages of punishmentpunishment

It does not extinguish undesirable It does not extinguish undesirable behavior, rather, it suppresses the behavior, rather, it suppresses the behavior when the punishing agent is behavior when the punishing agent is presentpresent

It indicates that a behavior is It indicates that a behavior is unacceptable but does not help people unacceptable but does not help people develop more appropriate behaviordevelop more appropriate behavior

The person who is punished often The person who is punished often becomes fearful and feels angry becomes fearful and feels angry toward the punishertoward the punisher

It frequently leads to aggressionIt frequently leads to aggression


Alternatives to punishmentAlternatives to punishment

Removing the rewarding Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior consequences of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish itmay be the best way to extinguish it– Not giving in to a child’s demands during a Not giving in to a child’s demands during a

tantrumtantrum– Ignoring misbehavior that is performed Ignoring misbehavior that is performed

merely to get attention and giving merely to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate behaviorsattention to more appropriate behaviors

Using positive reinforcement can make Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewardinggood behavior more rewarding


Making punishment more Making punishment more effectiveeffective

Punishment is most effective when Punishment is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possiblesoon afterward as possible

Punishment should be of the minimum Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the severity necessary to suppress the problem behaviorproblem behavior

To be effective, punishment must be To be effective, punishment must be applied consistentlyapplied consistently


When is avoidance learning When is avoidance learning desirable, and when is it desirable, and when is it maladaptive?maladaptive?

Escape learningEscape learning– Learning to performing a behavior because it Learning to performing a behavior because it

prevents or terminates an aversive eventprevents or terminates an aversive event Avoidance learningAvoidance learning

– Learning to avoid events or conditions associated Learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequencewith aversive consequence

– Can be adaptiveCan be adaptive Avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has been Avoiding riding in a car with a driver who has been

drinkingdrinking– But much avoidance learning is maladaptiveBut much avoidance learning is maladaptive

Avoiding situations because of phobiasAvoiding situations because of phobias


What are some applications of What are some applications of operant conditioning?operant conditioning?

BiofeedbackBiofeedback– The use of sensitive equipment to give The use of sensitive equipment to give

people precise feedback about internal people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can physiological processes so that they can learn to exercise control over themlearn to exercise control over them

Has been used to control migraine headaches, Has been used to control migraine headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety, gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety, epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions, neuromuscular epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions, neuromuscular disorders, etc.disorders, etc.


What are some applications of What are some applications of operant conditioning?operant conditioning?

Behavior modificationBehavior modification – Changing behavior based on the learning Changing behavior based on the learning

principles of classical conditioning, operant principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learningconditioning, or observational learning

– Has been used to change self-injurious Has been used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with autismbehavior in children and adults with autism

Token economyToken economy– A program that motivates socially desirable A program that motivates socially desirable

behavior by reinforcing it with tokensbehavior by reinforcing it with tokens


Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning

Cognitive processes Cognitive processes are mental are mental processes such as thinking, knowing, processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representationsforming mental representations– Behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner Behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner

believed that learning could be explained believed that learning could be explained without reference to internal mental without reference to internal mental processesprocesses

– Today, however, most psychologists stress Today, however, most psychologists stress the role of mental processes by the role of mental processes by broadening the study of learning to broadening the study of learning to include include cognitive processescognitive processes


What is insight, and how does What is insight, and how does it affect learning?it affect learning?

InsightInsight– Sudden realization of the relationship Sudden realization of the relationship

between elements in a problem, which between elements in a problem, which makes the solution apparentmakes the solution apparent

KKööhler studies with chimpanzeeshler studies with chimpanzees– Chimpanzees who had given up attempts Chimpanzees who had given up attempts

to get bananas suddenly returned with a to get bananas suddenly returned with a solution solution

– Their behavior seemed to be based on Their behavior seemed to be based on insight, not trial-and-error learninginsight, not trial-and-error learning


What did Tolman discover What did Tolman discover about the necessity of about the necessity of reinforcement?reinforcement?

Latent learningLatent learning– Learning that occurs without apparent Learning that occurs without apparent

reinforcement and is not demonstrated reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do sountil the organism is motivated to do so

Cognitive mapCognitive map– A mental representation of a spatial A mental representation of a spatial

arrangement such as a mazearrangement such as a maze


What did Tolman learn about What did Tolman learn about

the necessity of reinforcement?the necessity of reinforcement? Rats rewarded for Rats rewarded for

running a maze after 11 running a maze after 11 days of nonreinforcement days of nonreinforcement showed marked showed marked improvement the next improvement the next day and outperformed day and outperformed rats that were rewarded rats that were rewarded dailydaily

These rats had learned These rats had learned the maze without the maze without reinforcementreinforcement– They formed a They formed a cognitive cognitive

mapmap, but did not use it , but did not use it until they were reinforceduntil they were reinforced


What do we learn by observing What do we learn by observing others?others?

Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are acquired through acquired through observational observational learninglearning– Learning by observing the behavior of Learning by observing the behavior of

others and the consequences of that others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitationbehavior; learning by imitation

Model Model is the individual who demonstrates a is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitatedbehavior or whose behavior is imitated


What do we learn by observing What do we learn by observing others?others?

Modeling effectModeling effect– Learning a new behavior from a model through the Learning a new behavior from a model through the

acquisition of new responsesacquisition of new responses Facilitation effectFacilitation effect

– Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a Exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situationmodel in an unfamiliar situation

Inhibitory effectInhibitory effect– Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished Suppressing a behavior because a model is punished

for displaying the behaviorfor displaying the behavior Disinhibitory effectDisinhibitory effect

– Displaying a previously suppressed behavior Displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving because a model does so without receiving punishmentpunishment


What does research suggest What does research suggest about the effects of violence on about the effects of violence on television and in electronic television and in electronic games on viewers’ and players’ games on viewers’ and players’ behavior?behavior? Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studiesBandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies

– Children imitate aggressive behavior of an Children imitate aggressive behavior of an adult model seen on filmadult model seen on film

Recent researchRecent research– Individuals who watch the most violence Individuals who watch the most violence

as children are more likely to engage in as children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as adultsacts of violence as adults

Children also imitate prosocial Children also imitate prosocial behaviorbehavior– As seen on shows such as As seen on shows such as Sesame StreetSesame Street


What does research suggest What does research suggest about the effects of violence on about the effects of violence on television and in electronic television and in electronic games on viewers’ and players’ games on viewers’ and players’ behavior?behavior? Recent research suggest that playing Recent research suggest that playing

violent video games increases feelings violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent imagesviolent images

But, like television, video games can But, like television, video games can also teach positive messages and skillsalso teach positive messages and skills– Can teach teenagers to drive more safelyCan teach teenagers to drive more safely– Can enhance spatial cognitive skillsCan enhance spatial cognitive skills

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