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08827088 Consumer Psychology - MK342 Steven Quinn Critically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our Self Concept. May 19th 201 2

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Page 1: Consumer Psychology Final One

08827088

Consumer Psychology - MK342Steven QuinnCritically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our Self Concept.

2012May 19th

Page 2: Consumer Psychology Final One

Consumer Psychology - MK342

PREFACE 3

ABSTRACT 4

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION 5

CONSUMER NEEDS, MOTIVATION AND DECISIONS 6

TYPES OF NEEDS 9

THE SELF-CONCEPT 10

PERSONALITY 12

BRANDS 15

ETHICAL CONSUMERS 17

SOCIAL IDENTITY 18

EMOTIONAL DESIGN 19

CONCLUSION 23

BIBLIOGRAPHY 23

Steven Quinn – 08827088 - 18/05/2012MK342 - Consumer Psychology

Critically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our

Self Concept.

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Preface

The mathematician and philosopher René Descartes wrote in his

philosophical and autobiographical treatise ‘Discourse on Method’ (1637), ‘je

pense donc je suis’, meaning I think, therefore I am. This statement arose out

of the ‘inextricable darkness’ of the problems that he raised through his

scepticism of the nature of reality. Descartes acknowledges that his senses

deceive him, ‘I must exist if I can think’ is to Descartes logically

unchallengable and so his formulation, ‘ je pense donc je suis’, is how he

resolves the problem of scepticism, saving his ‘self’ there by with this

affirmation of his own existence. Subsequently he asks’ what is this self?

Simon Blackburn, professor of philosophy at Cambridge University, argues

that Descartes was “forced to recognize that knowledge of his self is not

based on knowledge of his embodied existence” (Blackwell, 1999). On the

contrary, Descartes writes, “At last I have discovered it – thought; this alone is

inseparable from me. I am, I exist – that is certain” (Blackwell, 1999).

Fundamentally consciousness is existence and one must infer that conscious

thought gives rise to the concept of one’s self. In consumer society, however,

the vast majority of people are not questioning the nature of reality in relation

to the self but the nature of the products they buy in relation to their individual

self-concepts. It would therefore not be inappropriate to suggest that perhaps

today the affirmation should be reformulated as, ‘I buy therefore I am’.

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Abstract

The objective of this essay is to critically evaluate the ways in which human

need to create and maintain their self-concept influences the choices that they

make as a consumer. It will describe the make up of the self-image and

evaluate needs and motives that influence the decisions consumers make.

Comments will be made on the ways in which we are psychologically

susceptible to advertising and brands through inherent symbols. All of this will

be evaluated using different theories and relevant examples will be used to

provide understanding. In some respects marketers exploit our psychological

needs in order to sell us consumer goods. Through advertising they persuade

consumers that choosing a certain product is the best way to satisfy their

needs. Nevertheless, ultimately make decisions ourselves in purchasing

products that in one way or another reinforce our self-concept. We project our

identity through the products we buy. Our self-concept and our culture are

intrinsically linked and this is partly why not all cultures are the same. Western

culture is defined by individuality but many eastern cultures obtain their sense

of identity through collective identity, a sense of being part of a wider

community. Some tribes in Africa even create their sense of identity through

collectively playing certain rhythms on hand drums. In order to illustrate how

our consumer society and our consumer choices have come to be

manipulated. I will begin with a brief historical contextual introduction.

Historical Introduction

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In post war America a number of people began to use Freud’s ideas

concerning human personality to influence and manipulate the masses in their

political and consumer choices and opinions. Edward Bernays, the man who

designed the advertising campaign that persuaded the public of the United

States that they should be concerned with the war in Europe between 1914

and 1918, sold the Freudian theories both to the American public and to

corporate America. Bernays was responsible for establishing what we now

call Public Relations, formerly known as propaganda, and he transformed the

way in which products were advertised, sold and consumed. He showed

American companies how mass-produced goods could be linked to people’s

emotional, irrational desires and satisfy their inner selfish desires, making

them happy and thus docile. It was the beginning of the all-consuming self

that has come to dominate modern western culture. For the first time products

could become powerful emotional symbols of how you wanted to be seen by

others.

A classic example of Bernays’ manipulation of consumer choices through the

psychological need to project our identity was his contribution in breaking the

taboo of women smoking. Previously unacceptable, he made it socially

acceptable for women to smoke. He did this by portraying cigarettes for

women as a symbol of emancipation and equality with men. Bernays

contacted psychoanalyst A.A.Brill who described the cigarette as a phallic

symbol. The woman who smoked demonstrated a self-concept with positive

attributes of strength and independency, like her male counterpart. Bernays

did this not for women’s so called ‘emancipation’ but for corporate profit. He

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paid a group of women to smoke Lucky Strikes whilst marching the streets at

the Easter Sunday parade of 1929. The campaign was labeled with the

slogan ‘Torches of freedom’; anyone who opposed this would theoretically be

opposing freedom, and what would that say about your values (self-concept),

if you opposed freedom? (The Century of the Self, 2002).

Consumer Needs, Motivation and Decisions

In order to understand consumer choices we need to understand the human

needs that under pin them. Purchases derive ultimately from a need, want or

desire and there are cognitive processes that influence the decision. Needs

drive motivation, which in turn drives a person to make a decision.

Fundamentally, “motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer

wishes to satisfy” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard,

Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For example, if a person is hungry he has a need to

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eat, therefore that individual will become motivated and exercise goal-

orientated behavior, the goal in this case being to obtain food. Obtaining the

food then relieves the person’s hunger and thus the need is fulfilled. “Once a

need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to

attempt to reduce or eliminate the need” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy,

Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of the hungry person,

a hamburger for example could relieve this tension, provided that that

individual was not a vegetarian, as such a person would require different food

to satisfy the same basic need. There are different ways to satisfy the same

needs and the consumer’s choice on which means to use to fulfill these needs

are influenced by life experiences, culture, religion, ethnic or national

background, all of which are means by which people define and maintain their

self-concept. Therefore a person’s self-concept directs the choice they make

when fulfilling a need, even one as basic as eating food. For example many

Buddhists do not eat meat, due to values that they hold on animal cruelty, and

thus people of this culture or religion would be influenced in their decision-

making when it comes to buying food, hence they would not buy a hamburger

but instead make the decision to buy a vegetarian meal. This is also an

example of ethical consumption.

“The need for tension reduction has been proposed as a basic mechanism

governing human behavior” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren

Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). The aim therefore in marketing must be

to satisfy the needs of consumers through offering “products and services that

will provide the desired benefits and permit the consumer to reduce this

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tension” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K.

Hogg, 2010) and return to the balanced state of homeostasis. The driving

force of biological needs that create tension and motivate people to make

choices is the focus of drive theory. This theory however does “not explain

some facets of human behavior that run counter to its predictions” (Michael

Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For

example if you are going out for dinner you may decide to put off lunch or

simply snack even though the tension of hunger persists. This is a cognitive

decision making process that perhaps bypasses to some extent the biological

need to eat, at least for a while. This is where expectancy theory, which

explains motivation through cognitive factors instead of solely through

biological ones, can be used to understand the influences and motivations

behind consumer choices. “Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is

largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes – positive

incentives – rather than pushed from within” (Michael Soloman, Gary

Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of

resisting eating before dinner for example, this can be explained through the

cognitive process of expecting dinner to be far more gratifying if you wait and

endure the tension of hunger for longer, making the consequences of

enduring hunger, at least in this situation, more positive. Expectancy theory

then, can therefore give an insight into the cognitive decision making

processes that drive motivations that are not biologically driven but

psychologically driven. The term driven here is used more loosely than in

drive theory to refer to both the physical and cognitive driving factors.

Motivations are goal-orientated, have direction, strength and often there can

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be a number pathways to reaching a goal. If motivation, which comes from a

need, drives a person towards a decision then to understand how consumer

choices are influenced by a psychological need to create and maintain the

self-concept one must analyse psychogenic needs.

Types of Needs

Human needs can be understood by considering two types, biogenic needs

and psychogenic needs. Biogenic needs are innate physiological needs that

are considered primary needs, as they are necessary to maintain biological

life. These are needs such as food, water, air, clothing (in the case of

humans), shelter and sex. Psychogenic needs however are acquired needs

that we “learn in response to our culture or environment. These may include

needs for self-esteem, prestige, affection, power and learning” (Leon

Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008) and are considered

secondary needs. Therefore as one’s self-concept derives from culture and

environment, creating and maintaining the self-concept is the fulfillment of

psychogenic needs. For example, a male English consumer will develop

different psychogenic needs to a male Scandinavian consumer. The English

consumer will be influenced by culture to products that present individuality

whereas a Scandinavian will choose products that connect him with his social

group. However, distinguishing needs from wants in this context is difficult.

For example, if the need to purchase a product originates from a biogenic

need the decision is still influenced by psychogenic needs. If a consumer buys

a house the biogenic need is shelter, but if the consumer chooses to buy a big

house to impress friends and relatives the purchase was influenced by

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psychogenic needs to enhance self-image. Did the consumer need a big

house or want it? From a biogenic perspective the size of the house was not

of importance, but it could be argued that as we have a psychological need to

maintain our concept of self then spending on products that appear to be

wants could actually be needs, psychological needs. However, the distinction

is hazy at best, everyone needs to have a sense of identity, but the degree to

which a product purchase is needed to provided identity is questionable.

The Self-Concept

The self-concept is a term that refers to the values or beliefs that people hold

about their personal attributes and how these qualities are evaluated. These

beliefs can be positive or negative whilst some values and attributes are held

in higher regard than others. “Each individual has an image of himself or

herself as a certain kind of person, with certain traits, skills, habits,

possessions, relationships and ways of behaving” (Michael Soloman, Gary

Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). Individuals will

therefore be influenced to buy the products that fit their self-image. For

example a person who considers his or her image to be that of a skateboarder

will buy products and brands relating to skateboarding or possibly, to extreme

sports. This means that products and their related brands can have a

symbolic value for individuals as “consumers attempt to preserve or enhance

their self images by selecting products and brands with ‘images’ or

‘personalities’ that they believe are congruent with their own self-images and

avoiding products that are not” (Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard

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Hansen, 2008). Many women believe that the “brands they select reflect their

personalities” (’Sex appeal’, brandweek, 20 April 1998, 26).

Self-image is about how an individual sees himself or herself and how others

see them. Consumer behaviour literature identifies and divides this into four

main kinds of self-image, actual self-image (how you see yourself), ideal

self-image (how you would like to see yourself), social self-image (how

others see you), and ideal social self-image (how you want others to see

you). All of these types of self-images influence consumer choices when it

comes to purchasing a product. For example, the actual self may influence

when it comes to purchasing household products, but for socially enhancing

products such as clothing it is the social self that influences what clothes they

will buy as people will see what you are wearing but not necessarily see your

house.

Self-esteem refers to the positivity of a person’s self-concept and how high it

is, and this is often related to acceptability by others. People with low self-

esteem, for example, will tend to avoid being embarrassed, experiencing or

risking failure or rejection. For example, it was found that consumers with low

self esteem preferred portion sizes when snacking because they ‘felt they

lacked self control’ (Emily Yoffe, ‘You are what you buy’, Newsweek (4 June

1990) and so they would be influenced by this lack of self esteem and

purchase the relevant snack size items.

On the other hand people with high self-esteem exude a lot of confidence and

“self esteem advertising attempts to change product attitudes by stimulating

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positive feelings about the self” (Jeffry F, Durgee, ‘Self-esteem advertising’,

journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21).

Each person assesses himself or herself comparatively throughout his or her

life. This self-assessment/comparison often leads to dissatisfaction or a

distorted view of one’s self, especially when it comes to appearance

attributes. It is estimated that “72 per cent of men and 85 per cent of women

are unhappy with at least one aspect of their appearance” (Lisa M.Keefe 200).

Self-image and possessions affect how highly someone values himself or

herself as a person. There is a perception that consumer insecurity is a

widespread phenomenon and so marketing and advertising companies exploit

people’s low self-esteem to facilitate the sale of products.

Personality

A person’s self-image, or the way in which someone perceives himself or

herself, is closely linked with that person’s personality. Personality plays a big

role in the choices people makes. A product that suits one personality might

not suit another. There are three main theories that play a prominent role in

the study of the relationship between consumer behavior and personality.

These are ‘Freudian theory’, ‘neo-Freudian theory’ and ‘trait theory’.

Freud’s theories were highly controversial, describing the self as a “system of

competing forces riddled with conflict” (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy,

Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010).

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In Freudian theory there are three main forces id: super ego and ego. The id

is entirely orientated towards immediate self-gratification, it is the party animal

side of the mind operating to maximise pleasure and avoid pain. It is selfish,

irrational and illogical. The superego equates to conscience and to it “that the

individual satisfies needs in a socially acceptable fashion” (Leon Shiffman,

Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008). It counters the id and conforms to

social norms. The ego sits between the two to balance them. It is as if

everyone has a devil and an angel in their minds, almost Dr. Jekyll and Mr.

Hyde with a third entity attempting to balance the whole system. According to

Freudian theory “human drives are largely unconscious… consumers are

primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy”. If it was true

that there was this balancing act going on in people’s minds then perhaps,

from a Freudian perspective, it could be argued that a person could potentially

be tempted into buying into a product or service by the need to gratify the id

but also that choice would be made on grounds social acceptability because

of the superego.

Neo-Freudian theorists believe that “social relationships are fundamental to

the formation and development of personality”. Neo-Freudian Harry Stack

Sullivan emphasised that “people attempt to establish significant and

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rewarding relationships with others”. Horney established three classifications

of personality, complaint (individuals who move towards others), aggressive

(individuals who move against others) and detached (individuals who move

away from others). For example a complaint person would be influenced to

buy a product that reinforces the feeling of being part of a social group.

Brands

Brands are designed to have a personality. This is possible because

consumers personify brands by giving them human like traits or

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characteristics. For example, consumers tend to see Volvo as “representing

safety, Nike as the athlete in all of us and BMW as performance driven (Martin

1998). A brands personality can either be functional (Volvo provides safety) or

symbolic (Nike the athlete in all of us)” (Bhat and Reddy 1998). People can

relate to the personality of a brand and so they choose to buy products

associated with that brand as it reflects some element of themselves that they

wish to project. The fact that a brand has a personality has profound

psychological implications since in some respects people connect to brands in

the same the way that they connect to another person. “Consumers use

emotions and experiences evoked by brands to render an evaluative

judgment” (Brakus, Schmitt, & Zarantonello, 2009). This is the same process

that humans use to evaluate each other.

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Ethical Consumers

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Evidence of ethical purchasing appears in every society. The phrase “Ethical

Consumer” is used in the broadest sense and such consumers may have

religious, spiritual, political, environmental, social or other motives for

choosing one product over another. But there is one thing they all have in

common and that is that they are all concerned with “the effects their

purchasing choice has not only on themselves but also on the external world

around them” (SAGE Publications, 2005). Therefore, the values they hold as

part of their self-concept have an impact on the decisions that they make

when purchasing consumer goods. For example, an ethical consumer will

boycott a company such as Primark, where the production of that company’s

clothing range has been linked in the media to child labour. This is because

there are moral and ethical issues surrounding the conditions the employees

have been working under and the low wages they receive. The ethical

consumer does not wish to support such a company, as this would be

contrary to their values. On the other hand many consumers choose to shop

in the Bodyshop because the perception is that the company only sells

products that are environmentally friendly. This type of consumption has been

described as ‘ethical purchase behaviour’ or ‘ethical consumption’ (Smith

1990b). However, they do still consider price and quality and obviously would

not choose to spend large amounts of money or buy bad quality products just

to be ethical. It simply means that they add extra ethical criteria to their

decision making process.

Social Identity

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Social Identity Theory is "the individual's knowledge that he/she belongs to

certain social groups, together with some emotional and value significance to

him or her of group membership" (Tajfel, 1972:31a). This theory analyses the

ways individuals classify themselves and others into groups. Psychologically

this is the classic ‘us and them’ duality (either one of us or one of them). This

also gives the individual a sense of belonging and consequently many

products are designed to promote a feeling of social identity; the symbols they

contain give a feeling of inclusion for each member of the group. One

example of a product like this is a football shirt. The badge of the club is the

symbol by which all members unite and pledge loyalty to the club and to the

group.

(Henri Tajfel 1986 (b) proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into

groups and categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency

to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate firstly the

differences between groups and simultaneously the similarities of the people

within groups of similar interests. Brands will often exploit these stereotypes

and use them to promote the importance of being part of the group and by

exaggerating them further consumers feel the need to buy into the brand in

order to make themselves feel a more integral part of their chosen social

group.

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Emotional DesignUntil relatively recently emotion was an ill-explored part of human

psychology and some people dismissed it as merely remnant from our

animalistic past. Freudian theory considered emotions to be a problem that

had to be repressed and controlled, to be overcome by logical, rational

thought. However modern assessments have turned this view on its head.

Science has found more evolutionarily advanced organisms to be more

emotional than primitive ones. Emotions play a vital role in our everyday

lives helping us to assess situations rapidly so that the reflective level can

pass judgment on them and influence decisions. This is especially true when

it comes to human beings, decisions in purchasing consumer products.

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Designer Donald Norman illustrates in his book the three different levels

of mental processing: ‘visceral, behavioural and reflective’. The three

levels in part reflect the biological origins of the brain and the system is

tightly coupled to an organisms muscles. Each level plays a particular

role in the functioning of people and these are the three levels by which

we psychologically interpret, interact or connect with the products we

buy. Each level requires a different style of design and some products

are designed so that they are weighted more to one level of perception

depending on its purpose. A product can, however, be interpreted at all

three levels. The ways in which we interpret a product are integral to the

decision we make as to whether or not we will purchase it. In his book

Norman suggests ways in which designers can design these aspects

appropriately into products so that the design fits the purpose of the

product and this will influence the consumer’s decision. By getting the

design of these aspects right or wrong, the designer will influence a

consumer to either love or hate the product. Ultimately if a product is to

be successful then the design and/or manufacture must be relevant to

what the consumer feels about himself or herself. The visceral level of

interpretation it the most basic, it is to do with the way we interpret a

product’s appearances. This level is fast, making rapid judgments of what

is good or bad, safe or dangerous, it sends appropriate signals to the

muscles (the motor system) and alerts the rest of brain. This is the start

of affective processing, it is biologically determined but it can be inhibited

or enhanced through control signals from the two levels above.

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Animals such as lizards operate primarily at the visceral level where

their world is a fixed routine responding, at the most basic level, to their

environment through signals sent to the muscles at this level. Dogs and

other mammals, however, have a higher level of cognition, the

behavioural level, where they can analyse a situation and adapt their

behaviour accordingly. In humans this is the site of most behaviour.

This level is very valuable as it is where well-learned routine operations

can be done seemingly without thought. For example a pianist can let

his or her fingers play the notes that have been learned and still reflect

upon the next phrase of a piece or the overall structure of the song.

Another example would be when a person performs any task that they

have learned whilst holding a meaningful conversation at the same

time. This is because the behavioural level is not conscious and

therefore we can utilise the reflective level whilst doing something at the

behavioural level. In terms of the power a product has to be desired at

the behavioural level it must be pleasurable, easy and effective to use

so that the task desired could be performed with ease. To be desirable

at this level the product must be self-explanatory, anthropometric and

purely functional, and here form follows function indefinitely. For

example, aeroplanes would not be purchased if the pilot’s cockpit was

designed to be good-looking, covered in fancy aesthetics to be

interpreted at the visceral level. The controls must do nothing but the

task at hand, the design must excel at the behavioural level as

potentially people’s lives are at stake.

Finally reflective

elements consider the rationalisation and intellectualisation of a

product. This area evokes the meaning of things, the message a

person wishes to send out to others. Watches are a classic example

of this. For example when people choose to wear clothes or

accessories that match the rest of an outfit they are sending out the

message that they are classy, fashionable, desirable and thus they

are concerned with their reflective self-image. At the reflective level

this is why a product is purchased, to illuminate a particular aspect of

a person’s self-image. People may or may not like to admit this but to

some degree everyone worries about how they present themselves in

society and how other people interpret them based on the decisions

they made. These are reflective decisions. Even people who claim

that they do not care how they are perceived by others, the kind who

refrain from being fashionable or buying products before the old one

is unusable are still making a statement about themselves and what

they deem to be important by doing so. Again these are the properties

of reflective processing.

Norman argues that there is a strong emotional component in how

products are designed and put to use and that this may be more critical the

success of a product than its practical elements. This means that by

designing in an emotional attachment to a product you can sway consumer

choices towards your product, thereby selling more units. ‘A favourite

object is a symbol, setting up a positive frame of mind, a reminder of

pleasant memories, or sometimes an expression of one’s self’

2004). As our self-image is made up of our interactions with other people

and our relationships, so a person can have an emotional attachment with

a product that has become linked to another person, a loved one, friend or

family member, through the form of a gift or just a reminder of the other

person. Although when we buy a gift it is intended for someone else

nevertheless it may well be that the choice of gift also serves to express a

part of our own unique selves.

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Conclusion

It is clear that different and disparate factors, personal, social and ethical and

more influence a consumer’s decision when it comes to purchasing a product.

Whilst needs can be utilitarian, it is equally the case that self-image and

personal identity play a major part in influencing the type of product

purchased.

References

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Blackwell, S., 1999. Think. First Edition ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

The Complete Psychological works of Sigmund Freud (1932-36) Introductory lectures on psycho-analysis

Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.

Schmitt, B., 2012. The consumer psychology of brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, pp.7-17.

Norman, D., 2004. Emotional Design. New York: Basic Books.

Jeffry F, Durgee, ‘Self-esteem advertising’, journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21

Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited.

Tajfel, H., 1981. Human Groups and social categoriesstudies in social psychology. First edition ed. Cambridge University press.

SAGE Publications, 2005. The Ethical Consumer. SAGE Publications.

Lisa M. Keefe, ‘You’re so Vain’, Marketing News (28 February 2000)

David Martin, ‘Branding: Finding that “one thing”, brandweek, 16 February 1998, 18.

Subodh Bhat and Srinivas K. Reddy, Symbolic and Functional Positioning of Brands’, journal of Consumer marketing, 15,1988, 32-43.

Emily Yoffe, ‘You are what you buy’, Newsweek (4 June 1990)

Self-esteem in context: a case study of the motivational processes underlying social identity construction by township youth

Catherine Campbell psychology in society (pins), 22, 1997, 20-36

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