consultancy report for - ucl · consultancy report maps of wildlife management areas (wmas) in...

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CONSULTANCY REPORT

Maps of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) in Tanzania

Prepared by

Prof. Boniface P. Mbilinyi* Dr. Japhet J. Kashaigili

Prof. Reuben Mwamakimbullah Prof. Alexander N. Songorwa

(hereafter referred to as Consultant)

for

WWF-TCO

February 2012

* Team Leader and contact person. Contact Address: Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 3013, Morogoro

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Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the WWF Tanzania Country Office for appointing us (Prof. Boniface P. Mbilinyi, Dr. Japhet J. Kashaigili, Prof. Reuben Mwamakimbullah and Prof. Alexander N. Songorwa) to undertake this consultancy. Our deep appreciations go to Mr. Leonard Mayeta, Ms Zawadi Mbunda and Prof. Hussein Sosovele, staff from WWF Tanzania Country Office, for facilitating and providing valuable information and guidance in the course of this consultancy. We really appreciate their inputs. Also, we are very grateful to Prof. Neil Burgess for his technical inputs. Also, our deep appreciations go to the CBO/AA leaderships, village governments and village game scouts in the 14 WMAs for their cooperation and assistance during data collection despite their busy working schedules. Finally, we thank Mr. Winfred Mbungu, Mr. Heri Kayeye and all other people who, in one way or another, assisted in completing this assignment.

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Executive Summary

The objective of this assignment was to prepare maps and detailed notes showing key socio-economic data for 14 gazetted WMAs. In undertaking the assignment, the Consultant carried out the following key activities: mapping of WMAs, desk review of relevant documents, consultation with key stakeholders, and physical visits to WMAs. In mapping of land covers of the 14 WMAs the Consultant used recent Landsat TM and Google Earth images. Furthermore, the Consultant collected and used thematic maps from TAWIRI and Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. For each of the 14 WMAs three categories of maps have been produced: those showing member villages and important sites, land cover and adjacent protected areas. In addition, a general map showing locations of all 14 WMAs with AA status and another 20 at various stages of development was produced. In the course of mapping, boundary overlaps between WMAs and other protected areas were observed but, this could be due to position errors on protected area maps. Some of the maps of WMA member villages had boundaries while others had not (e.g. Wami-Mbiki, Tunduru, Pawaga-Idodi). Among those with boundaries, some were based on outdated data (e.g. Burunge WMA). About 420,000 people reside in member villages of the 14 gazetted WMAs. Population per WMA is as follows: Ikona (21,067), Enduimet (47,103), Makao (14,607), Burunge (19,989), Makame (10,664 excluding Ngabolo village), Uyumbu (17,076), Ipole (8,884), Wami-Mbiki (65,935 from a 2006 report), Ukutu (53,146), Pawaga-Idodi (57,954), Ngarambe/Tapika (3,759), Liwale (15,688), Mbarang’andu (75,170 – this is population of the three wards and not only the Songea WMA member villages) and Tunduru (8,941). The more populated villages could be those participating in Wami-Mbiki WMA while the lowest population is in Ngarambe/Tapika WMA member villages.

Major economic activities in member villages of the 14 WMAs include subsistence agriculture, livestock keeping, small businesses, and small-scale industries. In terms of investments, findings show a variation in investments and attraction sites across the 14 WMAs. Some WMAs such as Burunge and Pawaga-Idodi have good numbers of investments in terms of tourist lodges, tented camps and hunting camps. Others such as Makao, Mbarang’andu, Liwale, Tunduru, Ukutu and Wami-Mbiki have limited numbers of investments, although they are very potential in terms of tourist attractions such as wildlife (for hunting and phototourism), canoeing, fishing, camping and eco-tourism in general.

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The 14 WMAs are all important due to their biodiversity values. They have a range of habitat types from wetlands to miombo woodlands. The habitats and the WMAs in general are home to a variety of wild animals, including wild dog, lion, leopard, elephant, giraffe, hippo, buffalo, black and white colobus, blue monkey, crocodile etc. However, the WMAs are threatened by a number of human activities, including overgrazing, bush fires, poaching, honey collection, illegal timber harvesting, charcoal making, illegal fishing and encroachment for settlements, agriculture and grazing.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- II

LIST OF TABLES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- VII

LIST OF FIGURES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- IX

LIST OF PLATES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XII

ACRONYMS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- XIV

LIST OF ANNEXES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ XIV

1.INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

1.1 Background ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1

1.2 Objective of the Assignment ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

1.3 Scope of the Consultancy ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

2.METHODOLOGY --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2.1 Mapping of the 14 WMAs ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

2.2 Collection of Socio-economic Data ----------------------------------------------------------- 6

2.3 Collection of Biodiversity Data ---------------------------------------------------------------- 7

2.4 Collection of Views and Opinions from Stakeholders --------------------------------- 7

3.DESCRIPTION OF WMAS AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES ------------------------- 1

3.1 IKONA WMA --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

3.1.1 Member villages ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

3.1.2 Socio-economic issues --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

3.1.3 Biological value ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5

3.1.4 Adjacent protected areas ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 6

3.2 ENDUIMET WMA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

3.2.1 Member villages ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

3.2.2 Socio-economic issues -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10

3.2.3 Biological values --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13

3.2.4 Adjacent protected areas ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

3.3 MAKAO WMA ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 16

3.3.1 Member villages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

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3.3.4 Adjacent Protected Areas --------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

3.4 BURUNGE WMA --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21

3.4.1 Member villages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21

3.4.2 Socio-economic activities ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

3.4.3 Biological value ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27


3.5 MAKAME WMA ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30




3.6 UYUMBU WMA ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37




3.7 IPOLE WMA ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

3.7.1 Member villages --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43




3.8 WAMI-MBIKI WMA ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50

3.8.1 Member Villages -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51

3.8.2 Socio-economic data ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52



3.9 UKUTU WMA ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59

3.9.1 Member Villages -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59

3.9.2 Socio-economic data ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61

3.9.3 Biological Values -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62


3.10 PAWAGA-IDODI WMA ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 65

3.10.1 Member villages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 65

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3.10.2 Socio-economic data ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67

3.10.3 Biological values ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 71

3.10.4 Adjacent Protected Areas ------------------------------------------------------------------ 72

3.11 NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA ----------------------------------------------------------------- 74

3.11.1 Member Villages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 74

3.11.2 Socio economic data ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76


3.11.4 Adjacent protected areas ------------------------------------------------------------------- 81

3.12 LIWALE WMA ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 82

3.12.1 Member villages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 82




3.13 SONGEA WMA ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88

3.13.1 Member villages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 88




3.14 TUNDURU WMA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97

3.14.1 Member villages ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 97


3.14.3 Biological values ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100

3.14.4 Adjacent protected area------------------------------------------------------------------- 102

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1.1A: WMAS WITH AA STATUS ----------------------------------------------------------------- 2

TABLE 1.1B: WMAS WITH OTHER STATUS ----------------------------------------------------------- 2

TABLE 3.1.1: HUMAN POPULATION DATA IN IKONA WMA MEMBER VILLAGES 3

TABLE 3.1.2: LIVESTOCK POPULATION DATA FOR IKONA WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3

TABLE 3.2.1: POPULATION DATA FOR ENDUIMET WMA MEMBER VILLAGES --- 10

TABLE 3.2.2: LIVESTOCK DATA FOR ENDUIMET WMA MEMBER VILLAGES ------ 11

TABLE 3.3.1: HUMAN POPULATION DATA IN MAKAO WMA MEMBER VILLAGES

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

TABLE 3.3.2: LIVESTOCK DATA IN MAKAO WMA MEMBER VILLAGES -------------- 17

TABLE 3.4.1: HUMAN POPULATION DATA IN BURUNGE WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

TABLE 3.4.2: LIVESTOCK POPULATION DATA IN BURUNGE WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

TABLE 3.5.1: HUMAN POPULATION DATA FOR MAKAME WMA----------------------- 31

TABLE 3.5.2: LIVESTOCK DATA FOR MAKAME WMA ---------------------------------------- 32

TABLE 3.6.1: HUMAN POPULATION IN MEMBER VILLAGES OF UYUMBU WMA 39

TABLE 3.6.2: UYUMBU WMA LIVESTOCK DATA ------------------------------------------------ 39

TABLE 3.7.1: HUMAN POPULATION DATA IN IPOLE WMA MEMBER VILLAGES 45

TABLE 3.7.2: LIVESTOCK POPULATION DATA IN IPOLE WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45

TABLE 3.8.1: PARTICIPATING VILLAGES FROM EACH DISTRICT ----------------------- 51

TABLE 3.8.2: NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN EACH VILLAGE AND AGE DISTRIBUTION,

2006 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53

TABLE 3.8.3: TREE SPECIES FOUND IN WAMI MBIKI WMA -------------------------------- 56

TABLE 3.9.1: POPULATION IN UKUTU WMA MEMBER VILLAGES, 2009 -------------- 61

TABLE 3.10.1: HUMAN POPULATION IN PAWAGA-IDODI WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES (IDODI DIVISION), 2002 CENSUS ------------------------------------------------- 67

TABLE 3.10.2: HUMAN POPULATION IN PAWAGA-IDODI WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES (PAWAGA DIVISION), 2002 CENSUS -------------------------------------------- 68

TABLE 3.11.1: HUMAN POPULATION IN NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA MEMBER

VILLAGES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76

TABLE 3.11.2: REVENUES FOR NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA FROM HUNTING AND

SALE OF GAME MEAT --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77

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TABLE 3.11.3: COMMON TREE IN NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA AND KICHI HILLS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 79

TABLE 3.12.1: NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN LIWALE WMA MEMBER VILLAGES, 2002

CENSUS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83

TABLE 3.12.2: TREE SPECIES FOUND IN LIWALE WMA -------------------------------------- 86

TABLE 3.13.1: POPULATION SIZE IN WARDS WHERE SONGEA WMA IS LOCATED

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 90

TABLE 3.14.1: HUMAN POPULATION IN TUNDURU WMA MEMBER VILLAGES - 99

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1.1: LOCATIONS OF WMAS (WITH AA AND OTHER STATUS) AND

OTHER PROTECTED AREAS IN TANZANIA --------------------------------------------------- 3

FIGURE 3.1.1: MAP SHOWING MEMBER VILLAGES OF IKONA WMA AND

IMPORTANT SITES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

FIGURE 3.1.2: VEGETATION TYPES OF IKONA WMA -------------------------------------------- 5

FIGURE 3.1.3: MAP OF IKONA WMA SHOWING NEIGHBORING PROTECTED

AREAS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7

FIGURE 3.2.1: MAP OF ENDUIMET AREA SHOWING VILLAGES AND IMPORTANT

SITES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8

FIGURE 3.2.2: THE MAP OF ENDUIMET AREA SHOWING THE VEGETATION

TYPES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

FIGURE 3.2.3: MAP OF ENDUIMET AREA SHOWING THE WMA AND ADJACENT

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15

FIGURE 3.3.1: MAP OF MAKAO WMA SHOWING MEMBER VILLAGES --------------- 16

FIGURE 3.3.2: MAP OF MAKAO AREA SHOWING VEGETATION TYPES -------------- 19

FIGURE 3.3.3: MAP OF MAKAO WMA SHOWING NEIGHBOURING PROTECTED

AREAS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20

FIGURE 3.4.1: MAP OF BURUNGE AREA SHOWING THE FIVE ORIGINAL

VILLAGES --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

FIGURE 3.4.2: MAP SHOWING VEGETATION TYPES IN BURUNGE WMA AND

SURROUNDING AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

FIGURE 3.4.3: MAP SHOWING BURUNGE WMA AND ADJACENT PROTECTED

AREAS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

FIGURE 3.5.1: MAP SHOWING MEMBER VILLAGES OF MAKAME WMA ------------- 30

FIGURE 3.5.2: MAP OF MAKAME WMA SHOWING VEGETATION TYPES ------------ 35

FIGURE 3.5.3: MAP OF MAKAME WMA SHOWING ADJACENT PROTECTED

AREAS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

FIGURE 3.6.1: MAP SHOWING MEMBER VILLAGES OF UYUMBU WMA -------------- 38

FIGURE 3.6.2: VEGETATION MAP OF UYUMBU WMA ---------------------------------------- 41

FIGURE 3.6.3: MAP OF UYUMBU WMA SHOWING NEIGHBOURING PROTECTED

AREAS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42

FIGURE 3.7.1: MAP SHOWING IPOLE WMA MEMBER VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

FIGURE 3.7.2: VEGETATION MAP OF IPOLE WMA --------------------------------------------- 48

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FIGURE 3.7.3: MAP OF IPOLE WMA SHOWING NEIGHBOURING PROTECTED

AREAS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49

FIGURE 3.8.1: MAP SHOWING WAMI-MBIKI WMA MEMBER VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52

FIGURE 3.8.2: VEGETATION MAP OF WAMI MBIKI WMA ----------------------------------- 57

FIGURE 3.8.3: MAP OF WAMI MBIKI WMA SHOWING NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 58

FIGURE 3.9.1: MAP SHOWING UKUTU WMA PARTICIPATING VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60

FIGURE 3.9.2: VEGETATION MAP OF UKUTU WMA ------------------------------------------- 63

FIGURE 3.9.3: A MAP SHOWING UKUTU WMA AND NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64

FIGURE 3.10.1: MAP OF PAWAGA-IDODI WMA SHOWING PARTICIPATING

VILLAGES AND IMPORTANT SITES ------------------------------------------------------------- 66

FIGURE 3.10.2: VEGETATION MAP OF PAWAGA-IDODI WMA --------------------------- 72

FIGURE 3.10.3: MAP SHOWING PAWAGA-IDODI WMA AND NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 73

FIGURE 3.11.1: A MAP SHOWING NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA SHOWING

MEMBER VILLAGES AND IMPORTANT SITES ---------------------------------------------- 75

FIGURE 3.11.2: VEGETATION MAP OF NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA -------------------- 80

FIGURE 3.11.3: MAP SHOWING NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA AND

NEIGHBOURING PROTECTED AREAS --------------------------------------------------------- 81

FIGURE 3.12.1: MAP SHOWING LIWALE WMA MEMBER VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 83

FIGURE 3.12.2: VEGETATION MAP OF LIWALE WMA ----------------------------------------- 86

FIGURE 3.12.3: MAP SHOWING LIWALE WMA AND NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 87

FIGURE 3.13.1: MAP SHOWING SONGEA WMA, MEMBER VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 89

FIGURE 3.13.2: VEGETATION MAP OF SONGEA WMA --------------------------------------- 94

FIGURE 3.13.3: MAP SHOWING SONGEA WMA AND NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 96

TUNDURU WMA IS LOCATED IN TUNDURU DISTRICT, RUVUMA REGION

(FIGURE 3.14.1). LIKE SONGEA WMA, THIS WMA IS PART OF THE SELOUS-

NIASSA WILDLIFE CORRIDOR AND COMPRISES AN AREA OF ABOUT 111,125

HECTARES. IT IS MANAGED BY NALIKA AA. THE NAME NALIKA IS AN

ACRONYM, WHICH WAS COINED BY TAKING THE TWO FIRST LETTERS

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FROM EACH OF THE NAMES OF THE THREE WARDS THAT FORM THE

WMA, I.E. NAMWINYU, LIGUNGA AND KALULU. -------------------------------------- 97

FIGURE 3.14.1: MAP SHOWING TUNDURU WMA, MEMBER VILLAGES AND

IMPORTANT SITES -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 98

FIGURE 3.14.2: VEGETATION MAP OF TUNDURU WMA------------------------------------ 101

FIGURE 3.14.3: MAP SHOWING TUNDURU WMA AND NEIGHBOURING

PROTECTED AREAS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102

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LIST OF PLATES

PLATE 3.1.1: IKONA WMA’S OFFICE IN MUGUMU TOWN ............................................ 1

PLATE 3.1.2: IKONA WMA VISITORS’ CENTRE FUNDED BY WWF .............................. 4

PLATE 3.1.3: IKONA WMA GATES ......................................................................................... 4

PLATE 3.2.1: DEEP WELLS DUG TO GET WATER FOR LIVESTOCK AND PEOPLE IN

THE DRY SEASON IN ENDUIMET WMA. THE WATER SAVES WILDLIFE AS

WELL. ..................................................................................................................................... 9

PLATE 3.2.2: SHEEP STRUGGLING TO GET FOOD IN DUSTY ENDUIMET WMA ON

13 SEPTEMBER 2011 ............................................................................................................ 9

PLATE 3.2.3: NAMBOPO HILL WITH 360-DEGREE VIEW .............................................. 10

PLATE 3.2.4: NGASURAI VGS CAMP (LEFT) AND ELERAI GATE (RIGHT) BOTH AT

FINAL STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION .......................................................................... 12

PLATE 3.2.5: SHUMATA TOURIST CAMP (LEFT) AND KIBO LODGE IN ENDUIMET

WMA .................................................................................................................................... 12

PLATE 3.4.1: VISITORS CENTER BUILT BY JUHIBU WITH FUNDS FROM USAID

THROUGH WWF-TANZANIA ....................................................................................... 24

PLATE 3.4.2: PICTURE SHOWING VIEW OF THE WMA AND L. BURUNGE FROM

ORIDOI ROCK OUTCROP ............................................................................................... 25

PLATE 3.4.3: REMAINS OF AN ELEPHANT POACHED INSIDE BURUNGE WMA .. 26

PLATE 3.4.4: RESIDENT HUNTERS FOUND HUNTING INSIDE THE WMA ON 16

SEPTEMBER 2011 WITH A PERMIT FOR OLASITI AREA ........................................ 26

PLATE 3.5.1: PART OF INDEMA’S OFFICE IN MAKAME VILLAGE ............................. 31

3.5.2: WATER WELL DUG BY VILLAGERS FOR WATERING LIVESTOCK AND FOR

DOMESTIC USE AT NDENDO VILLAGE IN MAKAME WMA ............................... 33

PLATE 3.5.3: MEMBERS OF A PACK OF HUNTING DOGS OBSERVED BY THE

TEAM IN MAKAME WMA ON 20 SEPTEMBER 2011 ................................................ 34

PLATE 3.5.4: TYPICAL VEGETATION IN MAKAME WMA ............................................ 34

PLATE 3.6.1: UYUMBU WMAS’ OFFICE IN NSOGOLO VILLAGE ................................ 39

PLATE 3.7.1: KANJAGALA VGS POST IN IPOLE WMA ................................................... 46

PLATE 3.7.2: FISHING ACTIVITIES ON KALULU RIVER ............................................... 46

PLATE 3.8.1: MAIN GATE TO MKONGO CAMP SITE ...................................................... 50

PLATE 3.8.2: A TENTED CAMP (L) AND A MEETING ROOM AT MKONGO CAMP

(L) .......................................................................................................................................... 54

PLATE 3.9.1: UKUTU HEAD OFFICE AND CAMP SITE ................................................... 62

PLATE 3.10.1: OFFICE OF MBOMIPA IN TUNGAMALENGA VILLAGE (L) PLATE XX

: .............................................................................................................................................. 69

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PLATE 3.10.2: GATE TO LUNDA VGS POST (L) AND LUNDA VGS POST (R) ............ 70

PLATE 3.11.1: THE OFFICE WHICH HOSTS MUNGATA AA ......................................... 78

PLATE 3.12.1: OFFICE OF MANGINGO AA IN LIWALE TOWN ................................... 85

PLATE 3.13.1: THE OFFICE OF MBARANG’ANDU AA ................................................... 91

PLATE 3.13.2: FARAJA VILLA MOTEL ................................................................................. 91

PLATE 3.13.3: CONSULTANT AND HIS HOSTS STANDING BEFORE NANDOLE

DAM ..................................................................................................................................... 93

PLATE 3.13.4: CAMPSITE UNDER CONSTRUCTION ON THE SHORE OF NANDOLE

DAM ..................................................................................................................................... 93

PLATE 3.14.1: A SIGNBOARD INDICATING WHERE THE THE SELOUS-NIASSA

WILDLIFE CORRIDOR CROSSES THE SONGEA-MASASI ROAD........................ 103

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ACRONYMS

Acronym Long form of the name AWF African Wildlife Foundation CBO Community Based Organisation

DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DRC Democratic Republic of Congo FGD Focused Group Discussion FZS Frankfurt Zoological Society

GE Google Earth GPS Global Positioning System GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit IRA Institute of Resource Assessment JUHIWAI Jumuiya ya Hifadhi Wanyamapori Ipole MBOMIPA Matumizi Bora ya Malihai Tarafa za Idodi na Pawaga MLHZ Misisima Local Hunting Zone MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism MTHZ Mbarang’andu Tourist Hunting Zone SNMZ Sasawala Nature Management Zone TANAPA Tanzania National Parks TAWIRI Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute ToRs Terms of Reference UCCP Ugalla Community Conservation Project USAID United States Agency for International Development WMA Wildlife Management Area WPT Wildlife Policy of Tanzania

LIST OF ANNEXES

ANNEX 1: PROGRESS PROFILE OF WMAS AS OF 24 JUNE 2010 (SOURCE: WWF) 106

ANNEX 2: SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA FOR SPECIFIC WMAS ........................... 111

http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article.php?id=1564

http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CDQQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.giz.de%2F&ei=hk45T5CtJ6LX0QXrg5HFAg&usg=AFQjCNHOhgWoKhoKIcAaZ2b6uffis9u66A

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

In Tanzania, wildlife is a unique natural resource of great importance to the country’s economy and to rural communities’ livelihoods. But, the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania, 2007 acknowledges that the wildlife sector is facing a number of problems, including persistent illegal harvesting of wildlife, poor remuneration of staff and difficult conditions in protected areas. These and other problems have led to low staff morale, limited human resource to carry out conservation activities, low budgetary allocation for wildlife conservation at local government level, and inadequate wildlife user rights to rural communities. To address them the government of Tanzania through its wildlife policy aims at involving stakeholders especially rural communities in the conservation of wildlife. Rural communities are encouraged to conserve wildlife by establishing Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) on village lands. This approach to conservation represents a significant paradigm shift in which rural communities will have a greater role to play and will derive increased benefits from wildlife on their lands. WMA regulations, which came into force in 2002, provide legal support to the WMA process, defining procedures, management, utilization of the resource and benefit sharing among stakeholders. Objectives of WMA implementation include to (i) increase participation of local communities in the management of wildlife; (ii) enable the communities to derive benefits from wildlife, and (iii) enhance the conservation of wildlife. Implementation of WMAs has led to changes in the conservation approach by fostering openness and participatory management. Over the last decade, 14 WMAs have attained Authorized Association (AA) status and 20 others are at different stages of development (Table 1.1a & b and Figure 1.1). AA status allows the CBOs to apply for user rights and to engage in tourism-related business ventures, including hunting and photographic tourism. An AA Consortium has been formed and registered as an apex body that addresses common issues relevant to WMA implementation. Currently the Consortium’s office is in Dar es Salaam. Implementation of the WMA program has resulted into many positive changes in policy-related aspects, conservation, rural livelihoods, local participation, governance and resource tenure rights. Also, the implementation has necessitated institutional change in the Wildlife Division by establishing a WMA section, which serves as a focal point and link between WMAs and AA Consortium on one side and the Director of Wildlife on the other.

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Table 1.1a: WMAs with AA status S/No. Name of WMA Name of the AAs District Year

started Year

Gazetted Area (Ha)

Facilitator (Donor)

i Burunge JUHIBU Babati 2003 2006 61,700 AWF-USAID

ii Enduimeti ENDUIMET Longido 2003 2007 75,100 AWF-USAID

iii Ikona JUHIWAIKO Serengeti 2003 2007 24,200 FZS (EX NORAD)

iv Ipole JUHIWAIKO Sikonge 2003 2006 240,600 WWF-USAID

v Liwale MAGINGO Liwale 2003 2009 451,500 WWF -USAID(EX

GTZ)

vi Makame INDEMA Kiteto 2003 2009 537,200 AWF-USAID

vii Makao JUHIWAPOMA Meatu 2007 2009 76,900 FZS

viii Mbarang'andu MBARANG'ANDU Namtumbo 2003 2010 247,100 WWF-USAID (EX

GTZ)

ix Ngarambe/Tapika MUNGATA Rufiji 2003 2006 76,700 WWF-USAID

x Pawaga-Idodi MBOMIPA Iringa 2003 2007 77,700 WWF-USAID

xi Tunduru NALIKA Tunduru 2003 2009 139,100 WWF-USAID (EX

GTZ)

xii Ukutu JUKUMU Morogoro 2003 2010 75,000 WWF -USAID

xiii Uyumbu UWIMA Urambo 2003 2006 83,900 WWF-USAID

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Wami-Mbiki WAMI-MBIKI SOCIETY

Morogoro, Mvomero and Bagamoyo

2003 2007 240,000 WWF-USAID (EX DHA)

Total 2,406,700

Table 1.2b: WMAs with other status S/No. Name District Year Started Facilitator/Donor Status

1 CHINGOLI Tunduru 2008 UNDP/GEF & KfW In progress

2 ISAWIMA Urambo 2007 SIMMORS/SWMP/DANIDA New

3 JUHIWANGUMWA Rufuji 2008 BTC In progress

4 KAMSISI Mpanda 2009 WWF/USAID New

5 KILINDI Kilindi 2009 WWF/USAID New

6 KIMBANDA Namtumbo 2008 UNDP/GEF & KfW In progress

7 KISUNGULE Namtumbo 2008 UNDP/GEF & KfW In progress

8 Loliondo (GCA) Ngorongoro 2003 FZS Pending due to land use conflicts

9 MAWIMA Kigoma 2007 SIMMORS/SWMP/DANIDA New

10 MBOMAMINJIKA Kilwa 2008 BTC In progress

11 MCHIMALU Nanyumbu 2008 WWF/SWEDEN & WWF US New

12 MPIMBWE Mpanda 2006 WWF/USAID New

13 Natron North Longido 2008 SWMP/DANIDA/AWF New

14 Natron South Ngorongoro & Longido 2008 SWMP/DANIDA/AWF New

15 NDONDA Nanyumbu & Nachingwea 2008 WWF/SWEDEN & WWF US New

16 Tarime Tarime 2003 NORAD Pending due to land use conflicts

17 UBENDE Mpanda 2006 WWF/USAID New

18 UMEMARUWA Mbarali & Mbarali 2006

WCS/SWMP/DANIDA/WWF/USAID New

19 WAGA Mufindi, Iringa & Mbarali 2006

WCS/SWMP/DANIDA/WWF/USAID New

20 YAEDACHINI Mbulu 2009 AWF/USAID New

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While all 14 WMAs with user rights have had land use plans and resource zone management plans prepared and approved (IRA, 2007; BPWMA, 2005; JUHIBU, 2010; JUHIWAI, 2004; JUHIWAIKO, 2005; MBOMIPA, 2006; Monduli District Council, 2005; NALIKA, 2009; UWIMA, 2004; USAID et al., 2010a,b&c; see also Annex 1), it has become apparent that there are no detailed and accurate maps that show locations, boundaries and features of the WMAs. Owing to that, WWF-TCO, with funds from United States Agency for International Development (USAID), initiated a process to prepare high resolution maps for the 14 gazetted WMAs (Table 1.1). The purpose of the exercise is to provide baseline information and reference materials for planning and policy dialogue.

Figure 1.1: Locations of WMAs (with AA and other status) and other protected areas in Tanzania

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1.2 Objective of the Assignment

The objective of this assignment was to prepare high resolution maps for WMAs that have been gazetted.

1.3 Scope of the Consultancy

The scope of this assignment involved preparation of high resolution maps of the 14 gazetted WMAs (Table 1.1) showing different features. To accomplish the assignment the following tasks were addressed:

a) Preparation of maps for each of the 14 WMAs to show the following: i. Boundaries of each WMA with adjacent villages that constitute member

villages; ii. Land cover (vegetation, relief features including rivers, forest areas etc.);

iii. Individual WMA map showing areas of high biodiversity value and breeding or refuge areas for the animals and a description of the habitat;

iv. Individual WMA maps in relation to neighboring protected areas; v. Infrastructure (e.g. roads, camping sites, other investments) available in

the WMA; vi. A map of Tanzania showing all WMAs in relation to protected areas of

Tanzania.

b) Consultation with Authorized Associations (AAs) in the 14 WMAs, the AA Consortium leadership, Wildlife Division, WMA facilitators and implementers such as WWF, AWF, Wildlife Conservation Society, AFRICARE, Frankfurt Zoological Society and USAID to get their views and opinions on issues that need to be included in the maps.

c) Preparation of detailed notes for each WMA showing the key socio-economic

data i.e. human population, livestock, per capita income, facilities (health, education, investments etc.).

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2. METHODOLOGY

In undertaking the assignment, and to facilitate a detailed assessment and collection of essential information for the mapping of WMAs, the Consultant, among other things, carried out the following key activities:

(a) Desk review of relevant documents through Internet and library search to obtain information especially regarding 1.3(c) above.

(b) Extensive consultation with key stakeholders, including Authorized Associations (AAs) in the 14 WMAs, the AA Consortium leadership, Wildlife Division, Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI), Tanzania Natural Resources Forum, WMA facilitators and implementers and USAID to get their views and opinions on issues that needed to be included in the maps. Two two-man sub-teams were formed. One went to the northern and western WMAs (Enduimet, Burunge, Makame, Makao, Ikona, Uyumbu and Ipole) and the other one visited the rest (Wami-Mbiki, Ukutu, Pawaga-Idodi, Mbarang’andu, Tunduru, Liwale and Tapika/Ngarambe).

(c) Physical visits to WMAs to gather relevant socio-economic data, i.e. human and livestock populations, per capita income and facilities (health, education, roads, camping sites, investments etc.). In each WMA the sub-teams held discussions with Chairpersons/Speakers and other members of the CBOs/AAs, VGSs and respective DGOs. After the discussions, most of which were held in the CBO’s offices, the sub-teams crisscrossed the WMAs accompanied by a few VGSs and some members of the CBOs. Discussions continued during this activity. The aim of going to the WMAs was to take GPS coordinates of the various types of infrastructure in the WMAs (e.g. roads, gates, visitors’ centers, camping sites, lodges and other investments), to observed land cover and areas of high biodiversity value. Where possible sections of the WMA boundaries were verified and GPS coordinates taken. Also, distances to neighboring protected areas were discussed and verified.

(d) Mapping of WMAs

2.1 Mapping of the 14 WMAs

In mapping of land covers of the 14 WMAs the Consultant used mostly remotely sensed data. Landsat TM was the major source of data. However, in order to get more ground details, other data were also sourced. These included high resolution images (QuickBird and Spot 5) from Google Earth (GE), existing land use/cover maps and WMA bounderies obtained from TAWIRI and Division of Wildlife, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT). The land cover classes (vegetation types) used for mapping included natural forest, closed woodland, open woodland, bushland, grassland, inundated grassland, cultivated land, bare land, and fresh water.

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In addition, more feasible mapping approaches for obtaining classes and coverage of vegetation were selected. The approaches included visual interpretation of images with subsequent screen digitization of the land cover classes. The methodology integrated information collected in the field. ERDAS Imagine and ArcGIS software was used to produce the land cover maps. Furthermore, the Consultant conducted ground truthing and participatory mapping with the communities and other key stakeholders to verify and collect additional information on the WMAs’ resource distribution (e.g. breeding and refuge areas for the animals), facilities and infrastructure. A handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to map locations of various features in the WMAs. Where beacons were nonexistent or boundaries were not clear, local people, particularly those who had been working or living for long periods of time in villages bordering the WMA, were consulted. Other details like drainage systems and road networks were extracted from other sources and supplemented from the GE images. Physical visits to the WMAs helped to verify the information.

2.2 Collection of Socio-economic Data

Socio-economic data collected included human and livestock populations, cash and food crops, revenue, per capita income, facilities/infrastructure (health, education, rivers, roads, camping sites, investments etc.), and activities of the locals in WMA member villages. In each WMA a discussion was first held in the office with CBO leaders and VGSs. They provided most of the data. For data that were not available at the CBO offices the CBO leaders communicated with Village Executive Officers in member villages. In other cases the Consultant requested for the data from relevant district officials. For instance, livestock data in Makao WMA member villages were sought from the District Livestock Office in Mwanhuzi. Fortunately, in 2010, WWF commissioned a study on Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife Management Areas under the Financial Crisis Initiative/Cash-for-Work Program. Also, in April 2011, TAWIRI carried out Categorization of Hunting Blocks in Wildlife Management Areas, work that was done for the Wildlife Division. These, Resource Management Zone Plans and other documents became valuable sources of secondary data. Additionally, discussions (following a predetermined list of questions) were held with the AA Consortium leadership, Wildlife Division officers, WMA facilitators and implementers such as WWF, AWF, Wildlife Conservation Society, AFRICARE, Frankfurt Zoological Society and USAID. Secondary sources such as reports, policies from District Councils of the respective WMA areas, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, and other relevant stakeholders were explored.

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Data on investments, employments, use of services/facilities financed by proceedings from WMAs’ economic activities, government taxes on income and revenues, revenue sharing arrangements among and within AA member villages were gathered mostly through secondary sources. Interviews with CBO/AA leaders and, in some cases, with investors (mostly their managers) were conducted to gather supplementary information.

2.3 Collection of Biodiversity Data

The Consultant employed various approaches to collect biodiversity data. These entailed sourcing of primary data but also secondary data from the literature and reports on the targeted WMAs (Annex 2). Key information was collected from existing WMA maps, resources distribution (including wildlife populations), facilities and infrastructure, land cover (vegetation/habitat, relief features (including rivers, forest areas etc.)) and breeding or refuge areas for animals. Secondary data were verified during field survey.

2.4 Collection of Views and Opinions from Stakeholders

Views and opinions of WMA stakeholders on issues that needed to be included in the maps were gathered through interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs). Stakeholders targeted in this exercise included individuals and village governments in WMA member villages, AAs, AA Consortium, Wildlife Division, WMA facilitators and implementers, World Wildlife Fund, African Wildlife Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Society, AFRICARE, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Tanzania Natural Resource Forum, and academics who have carried out WMA evaluations in the past.

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3. DESCRIPTION OF WMAs AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

3.1 IKONA WMA

Ikona WMA was established with facilitation from Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS) through its regional office located in Serengeti National Park (TAWIRI, 2011; USAID et al., 2010b). It is located in Serengeti district where it occupies the former Fort Ikoma Open Area. Its size is approximately 242.3 km2 (about 2.336% of the total area of the district)2. 3.1.1 Member villages

Ikona WMA is managed by a CBO called JUHIWAIKO on behalf of member villages. The CBO has its office in Mugumu town (Plate 3.1.1). Progress Profile of WMAs of June 2010 shows that, JUHIWAIKO received its Authorized Association (AA) certificate in Government Notice (GN) No. 57 of 3 September 2007 and user rights on 21 February 2007.

Plate 3.1.1: Ikona WMA’s office in Mugumu town

2 Serengeti District has a total area of 10,373 square km of which Serengeti National Park occupies 7,000

square km, Ikorongo Game Reserve covers 190 square km, while Grumeti Game Reserve occupies

66.9 square km and there is an open area of 2,456 square km. Therefore only 659 square km of the

district area is arable land used for agriculture, livestock grazing and residence (USAID et al., 2010).

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The five member villages of Robanda, Natta-Mbiso, Makundusi, Park Nyigoti and Nyichoka (Figure 3.1.1) are located in three different wards (Ikoma, Natta and Kyambahi) in Grumeti Division. Each has representatives to the AA.

Figure 3.1.1: Map showing member villages of Ikona WMA and important sites

3.1.2 Socio-economic issues

Demography and income generating activities: Major economic activities in member villages of Ikona WMA include farming, livestock keeping, small businesses, small-scale industries and formal employment. However, majority (90%) of the people in these villages, and in Serengeti District in general, engage in subsistence agriculture with almost 18% of village land being under agriculture. The WMA area is, however, not affected by cultivation. Livestock keeping is also carried out in the member villages. Human and livestock population data are as shown in Tables 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 respectively. USAID et al. (2010b) report that, there are more male headed (58.6%) than female headed households (41.4%) although the latter

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are on the increase. Tourism is a growing sector in Serengeti district due to the presence of varied tourist attractions. Socio-economic issues in Ikona WMA member villages are reported in detail by USAID et al. (2010b).

Table 3.1.1: Human population data in Ikona WMA member villages

S/No. Village Males Females Total

1 Robanda 1,015 2,000 3,015

2 Park Nyigoti 611 505 1,116

3 Makundusi 3,718 3,631 7,349

4 Natta-Mbiso 1,379 2,378 3,757

5 Nyichoka 3,230 2,600 5,830 Total 9,953 11,114 21,067

Table 3.1.2: Livestock population data for Ikona WMA member villages

S/No. Village Cattle Goats Sheep

1 Robanda 2,756 1,016 758

2 Park Nyigoti 7,886 800 458

3 Makundusi 12,000 3,939 2,339

4 Natta-Mbiso 7,950 1,220 640

5 Nyichoka 2,000 1,755 949

Total 32,592 8,730 5,144

Source: JUHIWAIKO, 2011 Investments Ikona WMA is accessible both by air and by road. Fort Ikoma airstrip (which is located about 8 km from the WMA) and Mugumu airstrip (about 20 km) are the closest to the WMA. The WMA is about 360 km from Arusha airport via Seronera, which is the main entry and exit point for tourists. Furthermore, the WMA is bisected by the Seronera–Mugumu road, which passes through Roband village. There is also a good road network used for game viewing and other tourism activities (TAWIRI, 2011). Ikona WMA, through the support of WWF, has completed construction of one Village Game Scouts’ outpost, one visitors’ centre (Plate 3.1.2) and two gates (Plate 3.1.3). Two more gates will be built in the near future and there is also a proposal to build one more VGS post. Key informants reported that, currently Ikona WMA has seven active investors. These are Gurumet Reserves, Rough Tracks Ltd, Task Tours and Safaris Ltd, Thomson Safari Ltd, Zara International Travel Agency, Moivaro Investment Trading Ltd and Serengeti Simba Lodge. One investor, Gurumet Reserves, works in the trophy hunting zone while the rest work in the photographic tourism zone. There are, however, other investors who have contracts with individual villages and these include Ikona Safari Camp, Robanda Safari Camp, Swala Safari Camp and Soki Tented Camp. But, USAID et al.

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(2010b) reports that, Ikona WMA has four visitor facilities (on Robanda village land): Ikoma Bush Camp run by Sengo Safaris is located close to Ikoma Gate and Serengeti National Park, east of the WMA; Thomson Safaris has a facility north of Robanda village in the reserve area but is not part of the WMA; There is also A&K Camp located in the South of Robanda Village; and Grumeti Fund is another big investor in the WMA. There are about eight active investors working in Ikona WMA – one (Grumet Reserves Limited) works in the tourist hunting zone and the other seven work in the photographic tourist zone.

Plate 3.1.2: Ikona WMA Visitors’ Centre funded by WWF

Plate 3.1.3: Ikona WMA Gates

Resource Management Zone There are two zones in Ikona WMA namely tourist/trophy hunting zone and photographic tourism zone (JUHIWAIKO, 2005; TAWIRI, 2011b).

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3.1.3 Biological value

Ikona WMA and surrounding areas are endowed with open grasslands, forests, hills, kopjes and rivers. The area is rich in wildlife, including lions, leopards, roan antelopes, cheetah, buffaloes, and lesser and greater kudu. Others include hartebeest, topi, klipspringer, zebra, warthog, waterbuck, white and black colobus monkey, giraffe, wildebeest, hippopotamus and crocodiles. Groups of elephants and various bird species also inhabit the area. This diversity of wildlife has been the main attraction to investors in photographic tourism and trophy hunting. Also, the area is a passage for the migratory wildebeests on their way to Masai Mara Reserve in Kenya especially between June and July (USAID et al., 2010b; JUHIWAIKO, 2005; TAWIRI, 2011). The WMA is composed of sparse vegetation consisting of bushland, grasses and herbs (Figure 3.1.2.), major tree species being Acacia mellifera, Acacia tortilis, Acacia senegalensis, Acacia travigela, Acacia hockii and Balanites aegyptiaca. Main grass species include Aristida spp, and Eragrosits spp. Ikona WMA is drained by permanent rivers, which are Grumeti, Rubana and Maruru. Evergreen thickets and riverine forests are found along these rivers (TAWIRI, 2011).

Figure 3.1.2: Vegetation types of Ikona WMA

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Problems/challenges and opportunities Ikona WMA is facing several challenges and threats. Among them are:

i. high pressure from illegal hunting (bush meat poaching) from surrounding villages;

ii. Robanda village has experienced reduction of revenues and, therefore, has some second thoughts about continuing its membership in the WMA;

iii. occurrence of wildfires in the dry season; and iv. crop raiding by elephants.

However, the WMA stands as a good investment area because it acts as a migratory corridor for wildebeests on their way to Kenya’s Masai Mara Reserve. The presence of the WMA in the corridor increases its potentiality for sustaining both tourist hunting and photographic safaris. 3.1.4 Adjacent protected areas

Ikona WMA borders Serengeti National Park in Robanda village in the south and southeast. In the south and southwest the WMA borders Grumeti Game Reserve, in the west it borders Sasakwa concession area and in the east and north-east it borders Ikorongo Game Reserve (Figure 3.1.3).

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Figure 3.1.3: Map of Ikona WMA showing neighboring protected areas

3.2 ENDUIMET WMA

Enduimet WMA was established in 2003 and was officially gazetted in 2007 with facilitation from the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF). The WMA is located in Longido District, Arusha Region. It is bordered in the north by Kenya (i.e. it follows the Tanzania-Kenya border), in the southeast by Kilimanjaro National Park and in the west by Ngasurai Open Area. The area is semi-arid with low rainfall, just like all other areas in the West Kilimanjaro basin and this is a result of a rain shadow caused by Mt. Kilimanjaro. Rainfall and temperatures vary within the WMA: precipitation is limited to 300-600 mm per annum (Pole and Reuling, 1997) with two rain seasons – from November to December and from March to May – and a dry period from June to October. 3.2.1 Member villages

Enduimet WMA has nine member villages, which are Irkaswa, Kitendeni, Lerang’wa, Olmolog, Sinya, Tingatinga, Elerai, Ngereyani, Kamwanga (Figure 3.2.1). Total village

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land covers approximately 1,282 km2 3 of which 751.435 km2 have been set aside as a WMA, which is demarcated with beacons (IRA, 2007).

Figure 3.2.1: Map of Enduimet area showing villages and important sites

There are no permanent rivers or other reliable water sources in Enduimet WMA except a few natural seasonal lakes and ponds. As a result the WMA faces water shortage especially in the dry season (TAWIRI, 2011), something which has forced resident Maasai livestock herders to dig for water where both livestock and human beings get water in the dry season (Plate 3.2.1).

3 TAWIRI (2011) reports this as the size of the land under the WMA.

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Plate 3.2.1: Deep wells dug to get water for livestock and people in the dry season in

Enduimet WMA. The water saves wildlife as well. In the wet season, wildlife and livestock obtain water from natural reservoirs such as the Olkishing, Loomotorok and Nanyorpookin but, in the dry season water has to be dug for both livestock and people (and wildlife). As Plate 3.2.1 shows the structures are very deep and labor intensive yet these man-made water sources are found in many locations in the WMA. Due to the fact that rainfall in the area is low, pastures are also not enough, especially in the dry season (Plate 3.2.2).

Plate 3.2.2: Sheep struggling to get food in dusty Enduimet WMA on 13 September 2011 Key informants reported the presence of important caves and shrines on lands belonging to member villages such as the Namolotok Motonyi caves, which are located outside the WMA but are potential tourist attractions. Other tourist attractions are the areas with air circulations in a form of gas. Also, there are good observation points such as Nambopo hill, Shu’mata hill and Mbolei hill (where a temporary VGS post is located), which provide good view of the scenery. A hotel has been proposed to be constructed on the foothills of Nambopo hill (Plate 3.2.3).

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Plate 3.2.3: Nambopo hill with 360-degree view


Demography and income-generating activities: Enduimet WMA’s member villages have a total human population of 47,103. Distribution in the respective villages is as shown in Table 3.2.1.

Table 3.2.1: Population data for Enduimet WMA member villages


1. Kamwanga 3,335 3,385 6,720

2. Tinga Tinga 1,653 2,225 3,878

3. Elerai 1,578 2,378 3,956

4. Kitendeni 1,825 2,027 3,852

5. Irkaswa 3,415 3,445 6,860

6. Sinya 2,242 3,416 5,658

7. Ngereiyani 2,209 2,627 4,836

8. Olmolog 2,251 2,267 4,518

9. Lerang’wa 3,305 3,520 6,825 Total 21,813 25,290 47,103

Source: Enduimet WMA Office as collected from Village Executive Officers (2011) Pastoralism is the major land use in Enduimet area, although most people in all the member villages except Sinya practice a combination of farming and livestock herding. There are approximately 34,345 heads of cattle and 66,820 goats and sheep together in the member villages (Table 3.2.2). Majority of the wealthy engage in livestock production as compared to the poor (Odumbe Michael, 2009; Homewood et al., 2006; Ashley et al., 2002). Major crops grown in the Enduimet area are maize, beans, groundnuts and wheat (which is used as a cash crop). The dominant ethnic group is Ilkishongo Maasai but, on the more heavily cultivated lands, there are also WaArusha, WaChagga, WaPare and

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WaMeru (Trench et al. 2009; Kabiri 2007). Cultivation in Enduimet is growing as community members feel the pressure to diversify income sources and as non-Maasai immigrate to the area. This has been part of a general trend in many African pastoralist societies (Homewood & Randall 2008; Homewood et al. 2009).

Table 3.2.2: Livestock data for Enduimet WMA member villages

S/No. Village Name Cattle Goats/Sheep

1 Kamwanga 450 470

2 Tinga Tinga 4,250 600

3 Elerai 5,300 12,450

4 Kitendeni 4,800 7,500

5 Irkaswa 1,200 800

6 Sinya 5,200 12,000

7 Ngereiyani 2,845 12,300

8 Olmolog 5,120 11,200

9 Lerang’wa 5,180 9,500 Total 34,345 66,820

Source: Enduimet WMA Office as collected from Village Executive Officers (2011) Investments: There are several roads crossing or passing through Enduimet WMA. The WMA can be reached through a gravel road from Bomang’ombe through Sanya Juu and Engare Nairobi to Rongai. This road serves Elerai, Olmolog, Lerang’wa, Kitendeni, Irkaswa and Kamwanga villages. The other route is through a seasonal road from Namanga through Sinya village branching to Tingatinga, Ngereiyani and Elerai, which joins the Bomang’ombe–Rongai road. Also, it can be reached by using a rough road from Arusha–Namanga road junction at Longido village to Sinya, Ngereiyani and Tingatinga. Another rough road is from Engikaret village at the junction of Arusha–Longido road to Ngereiyani up to Tingatinga and Sinya. There is also a road from Arusha National Park’s gate in Ngarenanyuki ya juu (Orkong’wado) village to Ngabobo and Ngereiyani village. In addition to these and based on the terrain, there are several tracks and footpaths in the WMA. There are four VGS posts constructed with funds from WWF-Tanzania, which are located at Ngasurai, Sinya, Kitendeni and Irkaswa Nyuki, which, at the time of the survey, were at final stages of construction (Plate 3.2.4).

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Plate 3.2.4: Ngasurai VGS camp (left) and Elerai gate (right) both at final stages of

construction

In addition to the VGS posts, WWF has funded construction of four gates at Tingatinga, Ngasurai, Naambala and Elerai. The four gates were also at final stages of construction at the time of the survey. Potential of the WMA is highlighted by investment attractions within the division. Enduimet enjoys investments through lodges, tented camps and hunting blocks (Plate 3.2.5). There are a number of investments in the WMA that are already functioning. They include Kibo Lodge, Shumata Tourist Camp/Hatari Lodge, Kambi ya Tembo (Elerai Tented Camp) and Old Nyika Safaris Hunting Camp.

Plate 3.2.5: Shumata tourist camp (left) and Kibo lodge in Enduimet WMA Resource Management zones Enduimet WMA is divided into four resource management zones, which are Embarnati, Elatia, Olkunonoi-Kitendeni Wildlife Corridor and Roonjo (the WMA’s core area used for hunting). The purpose of zoning is to designate “where various management strategies will best resolve existing problems facing the objectives by defining what can and cannot be done in different lands of area of the EWMA” (Monduli District Council, 2005:19). Ronjoo Zone constitutes 80% of Enduimet WMA with the majority of economic and tourist activities. The Olkunonoi-Kitendeni Wildlife Corridor Zone protects the area demarcated for wildlife conservation from further encroachment by

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people who want to settle or cultivate in the corridor (Noe, 2003). No human activities such as agriculture, camp sites, hotels or settlements are allowed in this zone. In addition, mining, hunting, tree felling and charcoal making are all prohibited (Minwary, 2009). Embarnati Zone encompasses areas within the WMA that include human settlements, mainly in the Tingatinga ward. These areas have been demarcated for photographic tourism as well as hunting (there is a tourist hunting block). Other activities include photographic and walking safaris, two community-based campgrounds and specialized bird watching. Problems/challenges and opportunities Discussions with key informants revealed that, although Enduimet is one of the areas where livestock and wildlife co-exist, the big number of livestock especially during the dry season poses a threat to its survival. Also, the WMA is facing other challenges, including illegal harvesting of natural resources, bush fires and conflicts over water and land. Security in the area has recently improved resulting into settling of wild animals for most periods of the year. Besides all these, Enduimet WMA stands as a potential migratory corridor and a link to other protected areas such as Amboseli National Park, Kilimanjaro National Park, Arusha National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The saltlicks present in the WMA were also reported to be an attractant to wild animals. 3.2.3 Biological values

Enduimet WMA has high species diversity and biodiversity values. According to respondents in a FGD and to TAWIRI (2011), it has the following species: elephant, bufallo, giraffe, leopard, oryx, lesser kudu, eland, gerenuk, zebra, klipspringer, hartebeest, bushbuck, wildebeest, hyena, Thomson gazelle and Grants gazelle. Others are reedbuck, bushpig, black and white pulva, fox, warthog, impala, dikdik and many small animals. Also, there are cheetah and the endemic Kilimanjaro mouse shrew (TAWIRI, 2011; Grimshaw et al., 1995). The WMA has a significant elephant population since the animals use the region as a migratory route from neighboring Amboseli National Park in Kenya to Mount Kilimanjaro and back, and an elephant research centre is located in the WMA. Respondents reported that elephants and other animals move from Amboseli National Park in the lowlands during heavy rains and from Mt. Kilimanjaro in the uplands to the WMA to escape from ants and foot diseases, and slippery slopes respectively. Also, the WMA acts as a mating and breeding ground especially for buffaloes, elephants, wildebeests and zebra during the wet season. Wild animals from other parks also move to the WMA in search of saltlicks and water. Longido GCA, which overlaps with village lands in Enduimet, serves as an important migratory route for Palearctic birds, including raptors and storks. Some 400 bird species have been recorded in the Longido GCA alone (Minwary, 2009). Key informants identified several areas with high biodiversity in the WMA, including:

Oldupai-Tingatinga and Ngereiyani areas because of the presence of closed forests

Nambopo areas: these are also closed forests in the direction of Mt. Kilimanjaro

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Orikinyei

Kitenden Corridor

Lake Shoko

Nengereli

Engipima The WMA is dominated by a mixture of bushlands, woodlands (Acacias) and patches of grasslands (Figure 3.2.2). Ronjoo Zone (the WMA’s core area) contains Forest Reserves, seasonal wetlands, corridor for wildlife migrating from Amboseli, Arusha and Kilimanjaro National Parks, crucial grazing land, saltlick and water holes for livestock.

Figure 3.2.2: The map of Enduimet area showing the vegetation types

3.2.4 Adjacent protected areas

Enduimet WMA is surrounded by some of East Africa’s most renowned conservation areas, including Amboseli National Park in neighboring Kenya, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Kilimanjaro National Park and Arusha National Park (Figure 3.2.3).

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Figure 3.2.3: Map of Enduimet area showing the WMA and adjacent protected areas

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3.3 MAKAO WMA

Makao WMA was established in 2007 and is located in Meatu District, Shinyanga region. It has an area of 768.9 km2. Climate in Makao WMA can be classified as semi-arid with a bimodal rainfall pattern. Mostly rains start in November and end in December. Rainfall increases from less than 700 mm per year in the south to 900 mm in the north. In Makao WMA, rivers are seasonal and altitude declines slightly from north to south. The area is made up of rocky hills and flat plains with typical black cotton and sandy loam soils. 3.3.1 Member villages

Makao WMA belongs to seven villages, including Makao, Sapa, Mbushi, Iramba Ndogo, Mwanjoro/Jinamo, Mwangudo and Mwabagimu (Figure 3.3.1). It is managed by a CBO called JUHIWAPOMA on behalf of member villages. The CBO was gazetted as an AA on 20 November 2009 (GN 369) and was granted user rights on 29 March 2010 under the facilitation of FZS. The areas surrounding the WMA are occupied mainly by Sukuma, Datoga and Nyaturu tribes. There are also members of Hadzabe tribe estimated at about 1,500 people living outside the WMA.

Figure 3.3.1: Map of Makao WMA showing member villages

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Demography and income-generating activities Cultivation is the major economic activity in Makao WMA member villages. The area surrounding the WMA is not officially a livestock keeping area but, is regarded as dry season grazing area, though recently people have settled there with large heads of cattle. Human and livestock population data are as shown in Tables 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 respectively.

Table 3.3.1: Human population data in Makao WMA member villages


1 Makao 546 526 1,072

2 SAPA 710 663 1,373

3 Mbushi 1,381 1,437 2,818

4 Iramba Ndogo 698 673 1,371

5 Mwangudo 1,083 1,144 2,227

6 Mwabagimu ?? ?? 2,818

7 Jinamo 1,366 1,562 2,928

Total ?? ?? 14,607

Source: Meatu District (2002 Census Data)

Table 3.3.2: Livestock data in Makao WMA member villages

S/No. Village Cattle Goats Sheep Donkeys

1 Sapa 2,772 3,545 999 22

2 Mwangudo 5,355 1,998 917 41

3 Mwabagimu 35,296 12,821 10,261 4,612

4 Makao 65 99 35 38

5 Mbushi 6,960 5,964 2,689 145

6 Jinamo 3,560 2,275 896 68

7 IrambaNdogo 3,945 3,545 2,501 44 Total 57,953 30,247 18,298 4,970

Source: Meatu District Livestock Office Investments: Makao WMA can be reached by both road and air. Air access is possible through an airstrip owned by Maswa Game Reserve near Makao village. One road from Makao traverses the wilderness area of Mwanhuzi through Maswa Game Reserve to Seronera in Serengeti national park and the other one is through Enduleni, Kakesio, Ngorongoro Conservation Area to Arusha. However, once it rains heavily Makao WMA is inaccessible by road. The road is partly maintained especially outside the protected areas but, is very rough inside the WMA. The infrastructure in Makao WMA is generally still undeveloped and only simple temporary tracks developed by hunting companies exist. The WMA’s office is in Mwanhuzi town, headquarter of the district.

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Currently there is no tourist or hunting camp inside the WMA, after Robin Hurt Safaris left the area. Resource Management Zones According to key informants, Makao WMA is divided into two zones: tourist hunting and resident hunting zones. The tourist hunting zone occupies about 471.4 km2 and the resident hunting zone occupies about 297.5 km2. Problems/challenges and opportunities Makao WMA is facing challenges related to meat poaching and land invasion for agriculture and settlements. At the time of the survey many areas of the WMA had been invaded and converted to agriculture although a few months later the invaders were evicted by district authorities. With the invasion sustainability of the WMA is in jeopardy. However, the WMA has a lot of potential for undertaking both conservation and development activities as it shares its resources with important protected areas like Serengeti national park, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Maswa Game Reserve and open areas in the Serengeti ecosystem. 3.3.3 Biological values

Makao WMA is rich in wildlife. Species include lion, leopard, roan antelope, buffalo, lesser and greater kudu that are mostly trophy enemies. Others are hartebeest, klipspringer, zebra, warthog and wildebeest. Groups of elephants are also found in the area. Rare species like wild dogs are also sighted in some areas. The WMA is the southernmost end of the famous wildebeest migration and migrating ungulates only visit this area if other areas in the Serengeti have no grass and water. The area is used as an emergency zone by these migrating ungulates especially during the months of December through May. Vegetation in the WMA is as shown in Figure. 3.3.2.

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Figure 3.3.2: Map of Makao area showing vegetation types

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3.3.4 Adjacent Protected Areas

Makao WMA is bordered by Serengeti national park in the north, Ngorongoro Conservation Area in the east and Maswa Game Reserve in the north-west (Figure 3.3.3). In the west, there are Kakesio escarpment and communities.

Figure 3.3.3: Map of Makao WMA showing neighbouring protected areas

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3.4 BURUNGE WMA

Burunge WMA was established in 2006 with facilitation and financial assistance from the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), USAID and Babati District Council and is located within Burunge Game Controlled Area (GCA) in Babati district and in the wildlife-rich northern tourism circuit. It has an area of 240 km2 4 and is bisected by the Arusha-Babati road, about 110 km from Arusha airport and 20 km from Majimoto and Tarangire airstrips. 3.4.1 Member villages

Initially Burunge WMA had five member villages (Figure 3.4.1) but, the number has grown to 10 namely Olasiti, Minjingu, Vilima Vitatu, Mwada, Sangaiwe, Ngoley, Maweni, Manyara, Kakoi and Magara (TAWIRI, 2011). Member villages formed a CBO called Jumuiya ya Hifadhi Burunge (JUHIBU), which was granted an AA status in Government Notice (GN) No. 37 of 31 March 2006 and got user rights on 2 February 2007.

4 JUHIBU (2010) reports in Burunge GMP that, the area is 243 km2

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Figure 3.4.1: Map of Burunge area showing the five original villages

(Source: Tynnerson Sara, 2009) In participatory consultative workshops (BPWMA, 2005; TAWIRI, 2011b) purposes for establishing Burunge WMA were defined as:

To generate revenue from tourism, photographic and hunting activities;

To protect and preserve the wilderness character of the area;

To protect and preserve the variety of wildlife, including birdlife;

To protect and preserve the Burunge and Manyara lakes; and

To safeguard the wildlife corridor for L. Manyara and Tarangire national parks. Burunge WMA is one of the WMAs in Tanzania with huge potentials for generating revenues from tourism.

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3.4.2 Socio-economic activities

Demography and income generating activities: Cultivation and livestock keeping are the main economic activities. Main crops grown are maize, rice, millet and sorghum. Maasai and Barbaig are mostly livestock keepers. Human and livestock population data in Burunge WMA member villages are shown in Tables 3.4.1 and 4.4.2 respectively.

Table 3.4.1: Human population data in Burunge WMA member villages


1 Sangaiwe 996 1,184 2,180

2 Mwada 2,231 2,299 4,530

3 Ngoley 976 1,095 2,071

4 Vilima Vitatu 1,399 1,618 3,017

5 Minjingu 451 508 959

6 Kakoi 398 418 816

7 Olasiti 685 758 1,443

8 Manyara 1,016 1,194 2,210

9 Magara 408 512 920

10 Maweni 892 951 1,843 Total 9,452 10,537 19,989

Source: JUHIBU Office as collected from Village Executive Officers (2011)

Table 3.4.2: Livestock population data in Burunge WMA member villages

S/No. Village Name Cattle Goats Sheep Donkeys

1 Sangaiwe 2,340 6,813 1,430 20

2 Mwada 6,516 11,026 4,113 94

3 Ngoley 6,149 8,104 3,685 207

4 Vilima Vitatu 7,014 9,120 3,241 49

5 Minjingu 4,995 5,446 1,498 196

6 Kakoi 4,582 5,026 1,318 83

7 Olasiti 6,173 4,949 2,429 104

8 Manyara 1,985 1,312 865 16

9 Magara 1,026 947 415 28

10 Maweni 3,786 1,846 526 37

Total 44,566 54,589 19,520 834

Source: Burunge WMA Office as collected from Village Executive Officers (2011) Investments Burunge WMA enjoys a good road network. It is bisected by the Arusha-Babati highway. There are also tracks across the WMA built with support from AWF. Also, the track near Tarangire national park going to Lake Burunge funded is under construction,

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a project funded by USAID through WWF-Tanzania. There is a plan to construct an airstrip close to Chemchem lodge and the area has been identified. Burunge WMA is one of the WMAs with many investments in terms of tourist lodges, tented camps as well as hunting camps. Tourism investments include Osupuke Lodge, Lake Burunge Tented Lodge, Maramboi Lodge, Un-Lodge En Afrique (also known as Chemchem Lodge), Tarangire River Camp, Roika Tarangire Tented Camp, Lake Burunge Hunting Camp and Tarangire Paradise Camp (not currently operating). The WMA is finishing construction of a visitors’ centre with funds from USAID through WWF-Tanzania (Plate 3.4.1). Figure 3.4: Visitor’s centre in Burunge WMA Plate 3.4.1: Visitors Center built by JUHIBU with funds from USAID through WWF-Tanzania Also, WWF-Tanzania has funded the construction of two Village Game Scout posts like those in Enduimet WMA namely TRC (Tarangire River Camp) and Maweni as well as four gates (Tarangire Gate, Oridoi Gate, Maramboi Gate and Chemchem Gate). Important sites Within Burunge WMA a worship site called Oridoi is used by Barbaig and Mbugwe people for cultural activities. This is a potential tourist attraction. Another important site is a rock outcrop at Oridoi where tourists climb to get good view of the scenery of Lake Burunge, the WMA and surrounding areas (Plate 3.4.2).

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Plate 3.4.2: Picture showing view of the WMA and L. Burunge from Oridoi rock

outcrop Resource Management zones Burunge WMA is divided into seven resource management zones: (i) Corridor Use Zone (CUZ); (ii) General Use Zone (GUZ); (iii) Hunting Use Zone (HUZ); (iv) Lake Use Zone (LUZ); (v) Horse Race Use Zone (HRUZ); (vi) Visitor Development Zone (VDZ); and (vii) Total Protection Zone (TPZ) (TAWIRI, 2011). However, the WMA’s General Management Plan (GMP) mentions six zones only – Horse Race Use Zone is not on the list in the GMP (JUHIBU, 2010). Problems/challenges and opportunities Key informants reported that, Burunge WMA is threatened by maize and rice farmers especially in Magara, Maweni and Manyara villages. In these three villages, farmers were reported to have removed beacons to expand their farms. Overgrazing is also a big problem due to the presence of large numbers of livestock (Table 3.4.2) mostly belonging to Maasai, Barbaig, Mang’ati and Hadzabe herders. A boundary conflict was reported in the south-east of the WMA with Tarangire national park. The park has reportedly expanded its boundary on a number of occasions into the WMA. Chemchem lodge and the CBO on one side are in conflict with a few Hadzabe and Mang’ati households, which have refused to vacate the area. Also, the CBO is in conflict with Minjingu village. Minjingu has, for some time now, wanted to get out of the association with fear of losing prominent revenues they, as a village, enjoyed before the establishment of the WMA (IRA, 2007). TAWIRI (2011) quotes LAMP (2009) reporting that, the WMA has been facing human-related problems such as bushfires, charcoal making, encroachment through cultivation and poaching. During the survey for this

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report the Consultant came across remains of an elephant carcass, which was poached not long before the survey (Plate 3.4.3). Crop raiding is also a problem to some farmers.

Plate 3.4.3: Remains of an elephant poached inside Burunge WMA

Also, the Consultant came across resident hunters who were poaching inside the WMA (Plate 3.4.4). They had a hunting permit for Olasiti area and they knew that but decided to go and hunt inside the WMA instead. When asked why they said there were no animals in Olasiti area.

Plate 3.4.4: Resident hunters found hunting inside the WMA on 16 September 2011 with

a permit for Olasiti area

The GMP (JUHIBU, 2010) also identifies the following challenges/issues/problems:

i. Weak BWMA leadership, poor governance and unskilled labour; ii. Boundary conflicts between Tarangire National Park (TNP) and villages which

border the park; iii. Increased number of livestock, encroachment / haphazard movements of

livestock inside WMA and perceived wildlife-livestock disease interactions;

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iv. Encroachment for farming inside WMA and impact of onion cultivation on WMA;

v. Central government cannot implement non-consumptive utilisation regulations effectively;

vi. Inadequate conservation values, knowledge and attitudes of the local people of the villages forming JUHIBU;

vii. Inadequate facilities and infrastructure for the management of WMA; viii. Inadequate investment in the area;

ix. Inadequate cash flow that hinders development of WMA; x. The hunting block does not provide optimal income to JUHIBU;

xi. Property damage by wildlife; xii. Income inequity amongst the shareholders of the WMA;

xiii. Effects of climate change; xiv. Illegal and unsustainable fishing operations; xv. Environmental destruction caused by tree cutting and wildfires;

xvi. Poaching; xvii. Effects of increased human population; and

xviii. Declining natural resource stock Since JUHIBU was registered it has attained some economic, conservation and social development achievements, including new revenues from tourism, women’s micro-enterprise development, increased natural resource management capacity and increased conservation. Fifty percent of the revenues collected from tourism are divided amongst member villages. In 2010, each member village, including Minjingu, received around 11 million shillings and for 2011 they were estimating the village shares to grow to the tune of 16 million. 3.4.3 Biological value

Located in the southern Maasai Steppe and southeast of Tarangire national park, Burunge WMA is a very important dispersal area for the park. It is a wildlife-rich area with high diversity. Being adjacent to both Tarangire and to L. Manyara national parks and in a corridor between the two parks, the WMA has almost all species found in the two parks. The species include but are not limited to elephant, buffalo, lion, wildebeest, giraffe, impala, eland, hartebeest, zebra, waterbuck and even wild dogs (BPWMA 2005; TAWIRI 2011). TAWIRI (2011) reports that, Burunge WMA is dominated by shrubland vegetation whereas JUHIBU (2010) says it is a mix of woodland, bushland and grassland vegetation types. The WMA provides essential habitats to wildlife (TAWIRI, 2011). Figure 3.4.2 shows vegetation in the WMA.

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Figure 3.4.2: Map showing vegetation types in Burunge WMA and surrounding areas

Burunge is a WMA with unique wetlands of Burunge and Manyara lakes and is the only WMA that protects a wildlife corridor of two famous national parks. It is situated in a well watered system – lakes Burunge and Manyara. Tarangire river and other seasonal rivers and ponds are also found in the WMA. 3.4.4 Adjacent Protected Areas

Burunge WMA is bordered by Tarangire national park to the east and southeast, Lake Manyara national park to the west and Lake Manyara to the north (Figure 3.4.3). It overlaps with a wildlife corridor, making it an area of critical value to wildlife in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem.

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Figure 3.4.3: Map showing Burunge WMA and adjacent protected areas

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3.5 MAKAME WMA

Makame WMA was established in 2003 and is located in Kiteto district, Manyara region. The area is remote and with poor social infrastructure. The WMA is estimated to cover 3,719 km2. 3.5.1 Member villages

Makame WMA belongs to five villages namely Ndedo, Makame, Ngobolo, Katikati and Irkushbor (Figure 3.5.1). The five villages formed a CBO called INDEMA for the purpose of running the WMA on their behalf. INDEMA received an AA status on 4 December 2009 (GN 385)5 with facilitation from the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), LAMP and Kiteto District Council. Based on the Progress Profile of WMAs of June 2010 the issue of user rights is still pending.

Figure 3.5.1: Map showing member villages of Makame WMA

INDEMA CBO/AA has its office (Plate 3.5.1) in Makame village. The WMA is close to Irkushbor, Mbogo and Talamai airstrips (TAWIRI, 2011).

5 TAWIRI (2011) reports that, it was gazetted in 2006.

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Plate 3.5.1: Part of INDEMA’s office in Makame village


Demography and income generating activities: Pastoralism is the major economic activity in Makame WMA with crop cultivation taking only 3% of the WMA area (TAWIRI, 2011). The main crops grown in are maize, beans, simsim and sorghum. Human and livestock population data are as shown in Tables 3.5.1 and 3.5.2 respectively.

Table 3.5.1: Human population data for Makame WMA

S/No. Village Name Pupulation

Households Males Females Total

1. Makame 438 1,633 1,753 3,386

2. Irkiushiobor 38 946 983 1,929

3. Ndedo 403 1,111 1,506 2,617

4. Katikati ?? 1,281 1,451 2,732

5. Ngabolo ?? ?? ?? ?? Total

Source: Makame WMA (2008 data)

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Table 3.5.2: Livestock data for Makame WMA

S/No. Village Cattle Goats Sheep Donkeys

1. Makame 14,173 5,238 1,714 538

2. Irkiushiobor 9,612 20,895 2,376 347

3. Ndendo 15,883 22,167 3,755 612

4. Katikati 8,354 4,802 1,732 550

5. Ngabolo 4,970 2,158 627 322 Total 52,992 55,260 10,204 2369

Source: WMA Makame (2008 data) Investments: Makame WMA has a good road network though some of the roads are impassable during the wet season. There is one airstrip within the WMA at Ndedo. The WMA is close to other airstrips at Irkushbor, Mbogo and Talamai. There was also a hunting camp, which was recently abandoned according to the outfitter due to livestock invasion. Makame WMA is surrounded by hunting blocks, including Masai O.A (W), Masai O.A (E), Masai O.A (E), Talamai O.A, Irkushbor and Mkungunero Game Reserve, which are administered by the Wildlife division. Important sites In Makame WMA, important sites include a baobab tree used for worship and Emawei Elrkdong’oi, which is a place used for circumcision. Resource Management zones Makame WMA is divided into three Resource Mangement Zones: Manyiho (Makazi Ya Kudumu) Management Zone (MMZ); Ronjoo (Makazi Ya Muda) Management Zone (RMZ); and Eng’orore/Ilaramatak (Uwindaji/Ufugaji) Management Zone (EIMZ).6 Problems/challenges and opportunities Makame WMA is facing a number of challenges, including those related to land invasion for agriculture and increase of livestock. Increase of livestock has led one investor who owned a hunting block within the WMA to abandon it. Also, the WMA is facing problems such as water shortage, property damage by wildlife and small-scale agriculture. In the WMA, the scarcest resource could be water since there are no permanent rivers. As a result struggle for water is a common phenomenon especially in the dry season. Few scattered water points serve and save humans, livestock and wildlife in the wet season. Important water sources include Orkirangirai, Lorngiwarra, Lelukunya, Olotudung’o/Laisanga, Lorkidong’oi, Iloihoro-Kurumi, Olengirumu,

6 But, TAWIRI (2011) reports four resource management zones, which are Embarnati, Elatia, Olkunonoi-Kitendeni Wildlife

Corridor and Roonjo.

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Lesoit, Oloyangalani, Lanjani Orgira, Olturoto Uwas and Orbolotihorbilin. Orbolotihorbilin is also famous for saltlick. In September 2011, when the Consultant visited the WMA water was a big problem. In Ndedo village, residents had dug open pits (water dens) tens of meters deep (Plate 3.5.2) and it was these that saved people, livestock and wildlife. TAWIRI (2011) also reports problems of water shortage, property damage by wildlife and small-scale agriculture.

3.5.2: Water well dug by villagers for watering livestock and for domestic use at Ndendo village in Makame WMA

Overall, Makeme WMA is potential for generating revenues from tourism-related activities and most importantly it has high concentration of wildlife species, even the endangered wild dogs (also known as hunting dogs). 3.5.3 Biological value

Interviews, field visits and literature (TAWIRI, 2011) all indicate that Makame WMA is a wildlife-rich area with large numbers of elephants, greater kudu, lions, bufallo, giraffe, leopard, oryx, lesser kudu, eland, gerenuk, klipspringer, hartebeest, bushbuck, zebra, waterbuck, wildebeest, reedbuck, hyaena, Thomson Gazelle, Grants Gazelle, warthog, impala, dikdik, wild pig and even wild dog, which is a rare species. The Consultant was lucky to encounter wild dogs (Plate 3.5.3).

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Plate 3.5.3: Members of a pack of hunting dogs observed by the Consultant in Makame

WMA on 20 September 2011 The dominant vegetation type in Makame WMA is bushland (Plate 3.5.4 and Figure 3.5.2).

Plate 3.5.4: Typical vegetation in Makame WMA

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Figure 3.5.2: Map of Makame WMA showing vegetation types

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Makame WMA is bordered and/or completely surrounded by hunting blocks. These are Masai Open Area (west), Irkushbor and Masai Open Area East in the north, Mkungunero Open Area and Masai O.A South in the west and Talamai Open Area in the southeast (TAWIRI, 2011 and Figure 3.5.3).

Figure 3.5.3: Map of Makame WMA showing adjacent protected areas

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3.6 UYUMBU WMA

Uyumbu WMA was established in 2003 and AFRICARE Tanzania, through Ugalla Community Project (UCCP), facilitated the process (UWIMA, 2004). It is located in Urambo district, Tabora region. According to the Resource Management Zone Plan of 2004 – 2014, the WMA covers an area of 870 km2 (UWIMA, 2004) but, TAWIRI (2011) reports it to be 830 km2. 3.6.1 Member villages

Uyumbu WMA belongs to four villages namely Izimbili, Izengabatogilwe, Nsongolo and Isongwa (Figure 3.6.1). It is run by a CBO called Uyumbu Wildlife Management Association (UWIMA) on behalf of the member villages. UWIMA was gazetted as an AA in 2006 (GN 37 of 31 March 2006), got user rights on 2nd February 2007 and has its office (Plate 3.6.1) in Nsogolo village.

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Figure 3.6.1: Map showing member villages of Uyumbu WMA

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Plate 3.6.1: Uyumbu WMAs’ office in Nsogolo village


Demography and income generating activities: Tobacco farming is practiced by the majority of residents in Uyumbu WMA member villages. Other crops grown are maize, sorghum, beans and millet. The other important economic activity is beekeeping. Human and livestock population data are as shown in Tables 3.6.1 and 3.6.2 respectively.

Table 3.6.1: Human population in member villages of Uyumbu WMA S/No. Village Males Females Total

1 Nsogolo 1,464 1,519 2,983

2 Izimbili 2,158 2,047 4,205

3 Izengabatogile 1,328 1,260 2,588

4 Isongwa 3,400 3,900 7,300

Total 8,350 8,726 17,076

Source: UWIMA (2011)

Table 3.6.2: Uyumbu WMA livestock data

S/No. Village Cattle Goats Sheep

1 Nsogolo 2,360 3,470 -

2 Izimbili 511 800 458

3 Izengabatogile 4,100 800 -

4 Isongwa 1,500 600 200 Total 8,471 5,670 ??

Source: Uyumbu WMA (2011)

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Accessibility and Investments: Uyumbu WMA is accessible throughout the year by the following ways:

By road from Tabora Municipality through Urambo road via Ussoke (53 km), then Ussoke to Izimbili (20 km);

By road from Tabora Municipal through Sikonge road to Izimbili via Tutuo and Molle in Sikonge;

By train from Tabora through Kigoma line to Ussoke railways stations and from Ussoke station by road to Izimbili village; and

By air to an airstrip located within Ugalla Game Reserve and then by road to Izengabatogilwe village (UWIMA, 2004). The airstrip is about 50 km from the WMA centre (TAWIRI, 2011).

At the time the Consultant visited the WMA there were no investments in terms of gates and VGS posts. There was, however, one outfitter called African Buffalo Safari Treckers (ABSAT) hunting in the WMA. Problems/challenges and opportunities TAWIRI (2011) reports that, human-related activities such as logging, pit sawing, poaching, grazing and settlements are threatening both wildlife and its habitats. Increased protection, proper management of the area aimed at reducing these threats will increase viability and flow of animals from the adjacent Ugalla Game Reserve (UWIMA 2004). The WMA holds a great potentiality for beekeeping, fishing and tourist/trophy and resident hunting. The WMA has few water sources and poor road network (TAWIRI, 2011). 3.6.3 Biological value

Uyumbu WMA is rich in both wildlife and plant species. According to UWIMA (2004) and TAWIRI (2011), and to key informants and own observation during the field visit, Uyumbu WMA has the following species, elephants, lion, bufallo, zebra, warthog, eland, giraffe, hartebeest, waterbuck, hippopotamus, leopard, duicker (Common), kudu, reedbuck, sable antelope, roan antelope, hyena, baboon, hyrax, porcupine, bushbuck, impala, monkeys, aardvark and other species such as snakes and birds. Woodland is the natural vegetation over most of the area (Figure 3.6.2) and can be divided into two groups: Miombo woodland and Acacia, Cambretum and Albizia species. Some of the tree species include Pterocarpus angolensis, Afzelia quanzensis, Terminalia sericea, Julbernadia globiflora, Albizia antunesiana, Brachestigia boehemii, Brachystegia globarrima, Pterocarpus tinctorius, Piliostigma thonningii, Combretum adenogonium, Borasus aethiopum, Strychnos cocculoides, Sclerocarya birea, Vitex doniana and Vitex mombassae (UWIMA, 2004; TAWIRI, 2011). Walla River is the main water source in the WMA (TAWIRI, 2011b).

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Figure 3.6.2: Vegetation map of Uyumbu WMA

Resource Management Zones According to UWIMA (2004), Uyumbu WMA has the following seven resource management zones:

i. Logging/timber harvesting zone ii. Beekeeping zone

iii. Tourist hunting zone iv. Resident hunting zone v. Photographic tourism zone

vi. Fishing zone, vii. Logging/Timber harvesting zone

These zones were delineated based on resource potential in each unit. The uses of each entity are described in the UWIMA document (UWIMA 2004, TAWIRI, 2011b). But, TAWIRI (2011) does not recognize the first zone above.

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In the east and north-east, Uyumbu WMA follows the borders with Sikonge and Uyui districts respectively. In the south, it borders Walla River Forest Reserve, in the south-west it borders Ugalla River Game Reserve, in the west it borders Ugalla North Forest Reserve and in the north there are the member villages of Izimbili, Nsogolo, Izengabatogile and Isongwa (UWIMA, 2004; TAWIRI, 2011) (Figure 3.6.3).

Figure 3.6.3: Map of Uyumbu WMA showing neighbouring protected areas

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3.7 IPOLE WMA

Ipole WMA is located in the former Ugunda Game Controlled Area (GCA), in Sikonge district, Tabora region. It is found to the south of Sikonge town, which is the district headquarters. The size of the WMA is 2,540 km2 (TAWIRI, 2011; JUHIWAI, 2004). 3.7.1 Member villages

The villagers of Ipole (in Ipole ward) and Msuva, Udekamiso and Utimule (which are all in Ngonywa ward) (Figure 3.7.1) together decided to form an association known in Kiswahili as Jumuiya ya Uhifadhi Wanayamapori Ipole (JUHIWAI) to run Ipole WMA on their behalf (USAID et al., 2010c).

Figure 3.7.1: Map showing Ipole WMA member villages and important sites

On 31 March 2006 JUHIWAI obtained the status of Authorized Authority (AA) and on 2 February 2007 it was granted user rights. The CBO’s office (Plate 3.7.1) is in Ipole village.

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Plate 3.7.1: JUHIWAI’s office in Ipole village

Ipole WMA is somehow difficult to reach (USAID et al., 2010c). In the dry season it can be accessed by air, the closest seasonal airstrips being Koga (35 km) and Kalulu (60 km). Also, there is one at Ipole village (TAWIRI, 2011; USAID et al., 2010c). The WMA can be accessed throughout the year by road as follows:

• From Tabora municipality via Sikonge township to Ipole village; • From Mbeya via Kitunda to Ipole village; and • From Mpanda via Inyonga to Ipole village

But, public transport is a problem because there is only one bus a day and mainly during the dry season coming from Mbeya, Mpanda and Tabora. As a result people depend mostly on bicycles, motorcycles and the few available buses crossing to Mbeya, Mpanda and Tabora. It is about 87 kilometres from Tabora to Sikonge town and another 24 kilometres from Sikonge town to Ipole village (HDIC, 2010). A detailed socio-economic report is available (USAID et al., 2010c). 3.7.2 Socio-economic issues

Demography and income generating activities: Ipole people engage in a number of economic activities ranging from farming, beekeeping (involves two beekeeping zones: the first one lies along Kululu river from Idaho fishing and honey collection camp, Mgonda A camp, Iswagala camp, Koga camp, Mtugunsu camp and Isambila camp. The second zone includes Ipole and Msuva villages, Mwanamsika camp, Ugunda Forest Reserve and Uluwa River) (USAID et al., 2010c). The people in Ipole WMA memer villages also engage in fishing activities conducted on Koga River, Kululu River, Mgonda A and Mgonda B fishing camps along Limbalimba River, also at Isimbila, Kaumbu and Msato camps situated on Kululu River, which provide abundant catfish and other fish species. Timber production also

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provides income to Ipole people but, this is subject to the WMA timber harvesting regulations. Timber production is carried out at Igulugulu camp, Lyampande camp and Mwana-Msika camp. Trophy hunting, resident hunting and photographic tourism are among the potential economic activities in Ipole WMA. Tobacco is an important cash crop in the area as well as sunflower while maize, cassava, groundnuts, sorghum and sweet potatoes are cultivated as food crops. According to TAWIRI (2011b) and USSAID et al. (2010c), about 14% of the land belonging to member villages is under cultivation. Human and livestock population data are as shown in Tables 3.7.1 and 3.7.1. Currently the main income-generating activities for residents of Ipole WMA member villages are tourism, beekeeping and fishing (USAID et al., 2010c).

Table 3.7.1: Human population data in Ipole WMA member villages

S/no. Village H/hs Males Females Total

1. IPOLE 518 1,266 1,403 2,669

2. Msuva 273 1,051 1,185 2,236

3. Idekamiso 230 812 789 1,601

4. Utimule 270 1,179 1,199 2,378

Total 1291 4,308 4,576 8,8847

Source: JUHIWAI (2011)

Table 3.7.2: Livestock population data in Ipole WMA member villages

S/No. Village Name Cattle Goats Sheep

1. Ipole 2,044 334 117

2. Msuva 2,709 921 320

3. Idekamiso 6,810 1,424 400

4. Utimule 10,146 1,903 649

Total 21,709 4,582 1,486

Source: JUHIWAI (2011) Investments: There is one investor working in the area and this is Northern Hunting Ent Ltd., which is dealing with trophy hunting. JUHIWAI, with financial support form WWF, has built one storage structure at the headquarters for storing honey, timber and other natural resources from the WMA (see the building in the background of Plate 3.7.1). The construction of VGS post at Kanjagala (Plate 3.7.3) was at its final stage when the Consultant visited the area.

7 USAID et al. (2010c) reports a total population of 9184.

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Plate 3.7.1: Kanjagala VGS Post in Ipole WMA Resource Management Zones Ipole WMA is divided into two main zones: beekeeping zone (set aside for conducting beekeeping activities and for logging) and wildlife utilization zone (set aside for trophy and resident hunting, and for photographic tourism) (TAWIRI, 2011). Also, there are fishing activities conducted on Kalulu River (Plate 3.7.4) from Koga fishing camp to Ulunga fishing camp (TAWIRI, 2011b).

Plate 3.7.2: Fishing activities on Kalulu River

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Problems/challenges and opportunities Land invasion was a threat reported during discussions with key informants. There is a conflict with Ugunda Forest Reserve – at one time a forest officer went and removed about 220 beacons belonging to the WMA. Despite the clarification and negotiations, until the survey conducted for this report the beacons had not been returned. Also, the WMA has, in the past, faced a problem of poaching especially for hippos mainly by people from refugee camps in Mpanda district. Deforestation is another challenge the WMA is facing, particularly for valuable timber species (TAWIRI, 2011). 3.7.3 Biological value

Ipole WMA is rich in terrestrial wildlife and fish. A combination of literature (JUHIWAI, 2004; TAWIRI, 2011b) and the Consultant’s own observations show that, the area harbours many wildlife species, including sable antelope, roan antelope, kudu, hartebeest, lion, giraffe, impala, elephant, leopard, warthogs, monkeys, aardvark, baboon, hyena, buffalo, waterbuck, hydrax, porcupine, and snakes and bird species. Ipole WMA is dominated by open woodland (Figure 3.7.2) with tree species such as Pterocarpus angolensis, Afzelia quanzensis, Terminalia sericea, Julbernadia globiflora, Strychnos cocculoides, Sclerocarya birea and Vitex spp (TAWIRI, 2011). It has fertile valleys, which attracted many people to settle there in the past. There are seasonal and permanent water sources in the WMA, the main ones being Kalulu and Koga Rivers (TAWIRI, 2011).

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Figure 3.7.2: Vegetation map of Ipole WMA


Ipole WMA, which is located in the former Ugunda Game Controlled Area, is bordered by Ipembambazi Forest Reserve in the east, Inyonga East GCA and Inyonga FR in the south, Walla FR in the west and Ugalla River Game Reserve in the north-west (which allows a flow of wild animals from the Game Reserve to the WMA and vice-versa) (JUHIWAI, 2004) (Figure 3.7.3). In most cases animals move from Ugalla River Game Reserve in the dry season to the WMA where they get access to more water.

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Figure 3.7.3: Map of Ipole WMA showing neighbouring protected areas

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3.8 WAMI-MBIKI WMA

Wami-Mbiki WMA is managed by Wami-Mbiki Society (WMS). WMS is a membership

association, which was formed and registered as a Community-Based Organisation

(CBO) under the Societies Ordinance Act with registration no. 11491 on 15 July 2002.

The WMA was first identified in 1995 in a joint effort between local elders and hunters

coming to the area and who were greatly troubled by the many unsustainable uses of

natural resources that threatened the future of the area and thus the livelihoods of the

surrounding communities. The size of the WMA, which is situated in central, eastern

Tanzania in Morogoro and Coast regions, is about 2,500 km2. The WMA is located north

of the Dar es Salaam-Morogoro highway (Figure 3.8.1) and its main entrance (Plate

3.8.1) is located 14 km from Bwawani bus stop. Mkongo Camp, which is the

headquarters of the WMA, is located about 43 km north of the highway.

Plate 3.8.1: Main gate to Wami-Mbiki WMA

The WMA is sculpted by Wami River, which bisects the area into north and south

segments, joined by Lukigula River from the north, and Ngerengere River that makes

up the southern boundary. All rivers that trickle through the WMA with the exception

of Wami are mainly seasonal. These include Mbiki, Lukigula, Ngerengere, Luguhazi,

Mkombezi, Misangazi, Mbaha and Dala among others (Group discussion, 2011).

Similarly, natural ponds namely Matungu, Lundenga and Luguhazi are seasonal. Both

the rivers and natural ponds serve as sources of water for wildlife in the WMA.

Climate in the area is warm tropical, with short rains from October to December and long rains from March to May, averaging 700 - 900 mm annually. Average temperature

ranges between 26 and 28 oC.

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3.8.1 Member Villages

Wami-Mbiki WMA belongs to 24 villages (Figure 3.8.1) with a population of over 65,000 people. The member villages are from three different districts (Bagamoyo in Coast region, and Morogoro and Mvomero districts in Morogoro region) (Table 3.8.1).

Table 3.8.1: Participating villages from each district

District Participating villages

Bagamoyo Kifuleta, Tukamisasa, Visakazi, Mwidu, Diozile, Makombe, Kwaruhombo, Kwamsanja, Pongwe Kiona, Pongwe Msungura, Kaloleni, Kinzagu and Mindu Tulieni

Morogoro Mkono wa Mara, Maseyu and Gwata Ujembe

Mvomero Lukenge, Mlumbilo, Kidudwe, Kunke, Kambala, Kanga, Mziha and Dihinda

Wami-Mbiki WMA has a number of sites, which could cater for day visitors, both photographic tourists and hunters. Among them are:

A stone (jiwe la msikiti) that resembles an Islamic religious symbol (Kibra)

A site where lions normally give birth

A place where there is a human footprint on a stone

An observation point at Mkongo camp

Scenic hills of Nguru (located within the WMA) and Kanga (located in the livelihood zone of the participating villages)

Waterfalls

Bee caves

Swamps on the northeastern side of the WMA

The road from Mziha through Madizini is also a potential tourist attraction since it is a route which was used by Stanley when he was searching for Dr. Livingstone in the 19th Century.

Wami River also provides avenues for canoeing and sport fishing. The river is rich in tiger fish and giant catfish forming an attraction for enthusiastic fishermen and photographic tourists.

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Figure 3.8.1: Map showing Wami-Mbiki WMA member villages and important sites

3.8.2 Socio-economic data

Population:

Table 3.8.2 presents the number of people residing in each member village. It also shows the number of households in each village according to WMA reports (2006). However, these numbers could be on the lower since due to population increase over the past five years. New statistics were not available at the time of this study.

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Table 3.8.2: Number of people in each village and age distribution, 2006

S/n Village Households Pupulation

1 Dihinda 980 7,549

2 Diozile 332 1,789

3 Gwata Ujembe 350 1,783

4 Kaloleni 604 2,419

5 Kambala 534 3,735

6 Kanga 404 2,917

7 Kidudwe 1,027 6,116

8 Kifuleta 705 3,523

9 Kinzagu 129 645

10 Kunke 763 3,273

11 Kwamsanja 358 1,434

12 Kwaruhumbo 415 2,068

13 Lukenge 367 1,463

14 Makombe 231 1,026

15 Maseyu 541 1,711

16 Mindutulieni 343 2,058

17 Mkono wa Mara 258 1,033

18 Mlumbilo 334 2,000

19 Mwidu 355 1,545

20 Mziha 749 4,499

21 Pongwe Kiona 749 4,551

22 Pongwe Msungura 202 935

23 Tukamisasa 603 2,970

24 Visakazi 660 4,893

Total 11,993 65,935

Source: WMS, 2006 Sources of income:

Although there was no updated information on revenue collected, records of the WMA

indicate that WMS collected revenue to a tune of TShs 689,000.00, 1,585,300.00 and

2,274,300.00 in 2004, 2005 and 2006 respectively (Schovsbo and Campbell, 2007). The

revenue collected was from sales of charcoal, honey and other forest products, campsite

fees, fines charged for illegal activities and membership fees. However, it is conceivable

that, the revenues in subsequent years must have gone up since the revenues presented

above are a picture of WMS when it was unable to engage herself in any income

generating activity in the core area because of the dispute with the army over land

rights in 50-60% of the core area. For this reason, only a very limited number of

activities were initiated and they hardly contributed to a basis on which to evaluate the

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financial performance of WMS (Schovsbo and Campbell, 2007). Since the dispute has

been resolved, there is a lot of potential to generate revenue from activities in the core

area such as hunting, photographic tourism, sport fishing, scenic river canoeing etc.

From personal communication with officials of WMS, a new business plan for the WMS

is under preparation with the help of WWF-TCO, which is expected to reflect the

current financial status of the society.

Residents of the member villages and other neighbouring villages are mainly peasants depending on subsistence agriculture. Food crops grown in the area include sweet potatoes, beans, cow peas, bambara nuts, tomatoes, green vegetables, pumpkins, finger millet, cucumber, and oranges. Cash crops include cashew nuts, pineapples, pumpkins, tomatoes and cow peas. Other income-generating activities for residents include food vending, beekeeping,

masonry, carpentry, repair garages of bicycle and motorcycles, kiosks, bars, shops, and

selling of fruits, green vegetables, vouchers, secondhand clothes, charcoal, firewood and

thatching grass. In addition, a few residents are formerly employed as teachers, Village

Game Scouts, and medical and prison staff.

Investment:

In Wami-Mbiki WMA, investment is underdeveloped. However, a tented camp owned

by a private investor (Safari Legacy), which is still under construction and WMS’s camp

at Mkongo (Plate 3.8.2) are the only major investments in the WMA. Also, there is a

small camp known as Natasha near the Safari Legacy’s tented camp along Wami River.

There are a few guest houses at Bwawani township on the Dar es salaam–Morogoro

highway and in other surrounding villages. Guest houses available include Osmunda,

Visakazi, Bwawani Secondary school Guest wing, Magereza Guest wing, Busangwa

and Delta guest house.

Plate 3.8.2: A meeting room (L) and a tented camp (R) at Mkongo Camp

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Cultural Value to Villagers:

Wami-Mbiki WMA has areas with cultural values to the people living around it. They

include Lipungwi area in Kifuleta village, Pongwe forest in Tukamisasa, Msungura Hills

located on the edge of the WMA and Mpagali Hill in Kunke village. These areas have

ritual importance especially when there is shortage of rainfall and crop failure.

Resource management zones For managerial purposes, Wami-Mbiki WMA is divided into four management zones:

i. Community Buffer Zone - this area surrounds the core wildlife zone, and

amounts to 1500 km2 of village land. It is mainly for residential, agricultural

and grazing uses.

ii. The Boundary zone - the core wilderness zone has a boundary circumference

of about 180 km bordering 24 villages. The boundary zone is cleared and

serves as a firebreak as well.

iii. Core Wilderness Zone (the WMA): This zone is estimated to cover 2,500 km2

of village land and includes a tourist hunting block, which forms the bulk of

the WMA (about 2000 km2). Also, this zone incorporates a Photographic

Tourism Zone, which is located along Wami River covering 300 - 400 km2 and

runs 40 - 50 km to the west of Wami River bridge. It also includes Wood

Harvesting Zone near the entrance to the WMA whereby 100 km2 are set

aside for wood fuel harvesting. Mkongo Camp, where the management of the

WMA operates from, is also in this zone occupying about 10 km2. Few

kilometers from this camp is Natasha camp where one can see large-sized

hippos in the nearby Wami River.

iv. Wildlife Corridor Zones: These areas occur outside both the core and

community areas mentioned above. These are migration paths to and from

Saadani national park, Selous Game Reserve, Mikumi national park and

Maasai land. It should be noted though that these areas are not within the

jurisdiction of the WMA.

3.8.3 Biological values

Wildlife:

The WMA is home to a number of wildlife speicies, including Greater and Lesser Kudu,

wildebeest, elephant, buffalo, zebra, giraffe, impala, waterbuck, red duiker and a few

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sable antelopes. Also, the area supports a population of large carnivores such as hyena,

lion, leopard, wild dog and cheetah. Other speicies found in the area include hippo,

crocodiles, hartebeest, bushbuck, dikdik, mongoose, hare, bushpig, warthog, aardvark,

ratel, yellow baboon, vervet monkey, black and white colobus, blue monkey and

porcupines.

Although reports on the WMA indicate that it has relatively fewer animals in number

compared to core protected areas like Mikumi and Selous, the Wami River frontage has

the required animals and wilderness habitat to attract photographic and hunting

tourism, with a difference aimed at more wilderness adventure (DHA, 1997; Berg, 2000;

Savy et al., 2005; Macpherson, 2005; WWF, 2006).

Vegetation:

Wami-Mbiki WMA is covered by open and closed woodlands, bushland and inundated

grasslands (Figure 3.8.2) with commercial tree species as presented in Table 3.8.3.

Table 3.8.3: Tree species found in Wami Mbiki WMA

S/no. Kiswahili/Local name Scientific name

1 Mninga Pterocarpus angolensis

2 Mkongo Afzelia quanzensis

3 Mkarati Bridelia micrantha

4 Mpilipili Garcinia huillensis

5 Mtondolo Brachystegia spiciformis

6 Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon

7 Miombo Brachystegia boehmii

8 Migunga Acacia mellifera

9 Migude Sterculia appendiculata

10 Mkarambati Brachylaena hutchinsii

11 Mivumo Ficus ingens

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Figure 3.8.2: Vegetation map of Wami Mbiki WMA


Wami-Mbiki WMA is sharing borders with a few protected areas. These include Kiono-

Zaraninge, Msumbugwe and Gendagenda Forest Reserves. Also, in the neighbourhood

is Saadani national park (Figure 3.8.3).

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Figure 3.8.3: Map of Wami Mbiki WMA showing neighbouring protected areas

Conservation issues: Threats and drivers

There are a number of human activities, which may jeopardize the wellbeing of Wami-

Mbiki WMA and the natural resources in it. Activities mentioned during a focus group

discussion include unplanned cultivation, settlements, bushfires, illegal logging,

charcoal making, grazing (particularly by Maasai and Barabaig cattle herding tribes).

Illegal fishing, particularly the use of poison, on Wami River has been reported to have

adverse effects on aquatic life. Strategies need to be put in place to prevent these and

other activities.

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3.9 UKUTU WMA

Ukutu WMA is located in Morogoro district, in Morogoro region. The WMA covers

about 639.8 km2. It is managed by JUKUMU AA on behalf of member villages.

JUKUMU is a Kiswahili acronym for Jumuiya ya Kuhifadhi na Matumizi ya Maliasili

Ukutu, which refers to an association for conservation and sustainable use of wildlife

resources in Ukutu.

A number of rivers drain the landscape where Ukutu WMA is located. The major and permanent rivers include Mvuha, Duthumi, Mgeta, Gomero, Ruvu, Mngazi, Malaka and Msalu. Seasonal rivers include Bwakila Chini, Rungo, Mvuha kafa, Selembala, Mwanakazi, Kisegese, Nyambungo, Mikula, Mombwe and Ludete. Apart from rivers, there are ponds within the WMA and on the lands of participating villages. These include Mikese dam in Bonye/Mbwade village border, Kihunungu dam in Bonye village, Nyambunda and Nyasule dams in Kiburumo village, Mngetakata dam in Bonye village, Tini dam in Gomero village, Mgembe dam in Tulo village, and Lukulunge and Tanzangala dams in Lukulunge village. These dams contain water throughout the year and, therefore, provide a safe refuge for hippos, crocodiles and a variety of fish species. They also support birdlife. Morover, Kimelo dam in Mvuha village and Kimbwala dam in Milengwelengwe village are permanent dams and sources of water for wildlife in the area. Ng’enge dam in Sesenga village and Kilini dam in Kidunda village are also permanent. A seasonal dam called Ukengezua in Magogoni village has several ecological functions for the area. It harbours hippos, crocodiles and occasionally fish. Dala dam in Dala village provides water for agriculture and wildlife. All this proves that Ukutu WMA is privileged with abundant sources of water. Climate in the area is warm tropical, with short rains from October to December and long rains from March to May, averaging 700-900 mm. Average temperature is 26-28 oC.


Tweny-one villages are members of Ukutu WMA and these are: Kidunda located in

Mkulazi ward, Ngerengere Division; Kiganila, Kiburumo, Bwila Chini, Bwila Juu and

Magogoni that are located in Selembala ward, Mvuha Division; Dalla, Mvuha,

Lukulunge, Kongwa and Tulo are located in Mvuha ward, Mvuha Divission; Mbwade,

Bonye, Bwakila Chini and Dakawa are located in Bwakila Chini, Bwakila Division;

Mngazi, Vigolegole, Sesenga and Milengwelengwe are located in Mngazi Bwakila

Division and Nyarutanga, and Gomero are located in Kisaki ward Bwakila Division

(Figure 3.9.1). The villages are located just northwest of the Selous Game Reserve and

some of them border the eastern part of Mikumi National Park.

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Fish catching event

An interesting event was reported to happen every year along Ruvu River at a place called Kikuyu/Magogoni. Here, between May and June it is said that a large number of fish is seen swimming upstream. For some reasons, including being exhausted, the fish fail to brave the stream and as a result remain stagnant at this place. Locals take the advantage of the situation and collect them for hours and hours. The event extends for two months and is conceivable they call the place a fish spring. It is worth watching this occasion!

Mountains and hills

Prominent hills located in Ukutu WMA with their locality villages in brackets are

Mhekele (Nyarutanga), Wingu (Nyarutanga/Sesenga), Rumanga (Gomero), Ludete

(Nyarutanga), Kilemela (Milengwelengwe), Mihovu (Tulo), Msinule (Dakawa), Boya

(Dakawa), Lundo (Kiganila), Kilengezi (Dala), Nang’alumbi (Duthumi), Chamanyani

(Mvuha), Mzinge (Duthumi), Kidunda (Kidunda), Mwang’ang’a (Kidunda) and

Gongolongwa (Mkulazi) (WWF and USAID, 2010).

Figure 3.9.1: Map showing UKUTU WMA participating villages and important sites

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Population:

Human population in the 21 villages is about 53,146 people whose distribution is as shown in Table 3.9.1. Presumably, these numbers have changed due to population increase. However, during the survey there were no updates available.

Table 3.9.1: Population in UKUTU WMA member villages, 2009

S/no. Vilage Households Population

1 Kiganila 260 1,044

2 Kidunda 359 1,720

3 Bwila Chini 469 1,873

4 Bwila Juu 305 1,012

5 Kiburumo 199 545

6 Mvuha 656 3,280

7 Dalla 598 3,867

8 Kongwa 793 4,668

9 Mbwade 789 3,280

10 Vigolegole 808 3,134

11 Milengwelengwe 639 2,401

12 Mngazi 578 2,275

13 Sesenga 410 1,813

14 Magogoni 493 1,842

15 Tulo 290 1,237

16 Nyarutanga 1,284 5,405

17 Lukulunge 280 1,155

18 Gomero 999 5,661

19 Bwakila 545 1,033

20 Dakawa 479 2,489

21 Bonye 764 3,412 Total 11,997 53,146

Sources of income:

Local communities around Ukutu WMA mainly depend on subsistence agriculture for

their livelihoods. Food crops grown include maize, rice, cassava, sorghum and

tomatoes. Crops that are grown for both food and cash include pigeon pea, rice, sweet

potato, sorghum, cow peas, beans, simsim, cucumbers, vegetables, and tomatoes. They

supplement their income from other income-generating activities such as craft making

(mats, baskets), brick making, selling of firewood and charcoal, bicycle and motorcycle

transportation, fishing and hunting (mainly poaching).

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Investments:

Apart from Ukutu camp site (Plate 3.9.1), one could also find a number of guest houses within the vicinity of Ukutu WMA. The guest houses that were reported with their village location in brackets include Mungi (Mbwande), Peter and Mudi (Bonye), Mwambiki (Vigolegole), Pascal (Mngazi), Yataka Moyo, Zuberi, Doto, Msafiri, Mgumia (Mvuha) and Mnyune (Dala). The large number of guest houses in Mvuha Township colours it as a growing business centre in the area, which not only has guest houses but also hosts a number of other businesses.

Plate 3.9.1: JUKUMU head office and camp site

Schools and health facilities:

Residents of Ukutu WMA member villages are served by 10 dispensaries and five secondary schools. It was noted that all member villages have at least one primary school. Resource management zones

Ukutu WMA is divided into three resource management zones: Gonabis Tourist Hunting Zone; Resident Hunting Zone; and Photographic Zone.

3.9.3 Biological Values

A large part of Ukutu WMA is covered by woodlands, which support a high density of ungulates namely Niassa wildebeest, elephant, buffalo, zebra, giraffe, impala, common waterbuck, Bohor reedbuck, red duiker and a few sable antelopes. Also, the area supports populations of large carnivores such as hyena, lion, leopard, wild dog

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(common), and cheetah. Other mammal species found in the area include hippo, hartebeest, bushbuck, dikdik, mongoose, hare, bushpig, warthog, aardvark, caracal, serval, civet, ratel, crocodile, yellow baboon, vervet monkey, black and white colobus, blue monkey and porcupine. Common snakes were mentioned by locals in Kiswahili/local languages. They include Chatu (python), Ngole, Moma, Funga-Kuni, Kobra (Cobra?), Muyombo, Msanga, Runyasi, Mbitu or Dumila-kote and Futa. Vegetation Ukutu WMA is a mosaic of ecosystems (Figure 3.9.2) ranging from riparian forests and dense woodland to open woodland and shrubland. The WMA is part of Selous ecosystem, which comprises of southeast Tanzania block of dry woodland or miombo characterized by Caesalpiniaceous trees, especially species of Brachystegia and Julbernardia. Ground cover varies from a dense coarse grass cover to a sparse cover of herbs and small grasses. The shrub layer is variable in density and species composition, often dominated by Diplorhyncus condylocarpon and species of Combretum (JUKUMU, 2010). Based on physiognomic divisions, Ukutu WMA can be divided into three main ecosystem types: Riparian forest, Woodland and Grassland.

Figure 3.9.2: Vegetation map of Ukutu WMA

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Ukutu WMA and the majority of member villages of JUKUMU are located to the north and northwest of Selous Game Reserve while other villages border the southeastern part of Mikumi national park (Figure 3.9.3).

Figure 3.9.3: A map showing Ukutu WMA and neighbouring protected areas

Conservation issues:

There are distructive activities performed by members of the local communities, which need to be addressed in order sustain the wellbeing of the WMA and the natural resources in it. The activities that were mentioned during focus group discussion include unplanned clearing of forest for settlements in particular by cattle herding tribes, setting of bushfires, illegal logging, charcoal making and illegal fishing.

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3.10 PAWAGA-IDODI WMA

Pawaga-Idodi WMA is managed by MBOMIPA CBO/AA. MBOMIPA is a Kiswahili

acronym for Matumizi Bora ya Malihai Tarafa za Idodi na Pawaga, which refers to

sustainable use of wildlife resources in Idodi and Pawaga Divisions. The WMA is

located in Idodi and Pawaga Divisions in Iringa District, Iringa Region. It occupies an

area of 776.67 km2 (MBOMIPA Report, 2010).

The association was initiated in 1998 as a pilot project and was officially registered as an

Authorised Association in 2007. Objectives of MBOMIPA include:

To establish an effective and sustainable wildlife management system under community authority and responsibility in the 21 member villages.

To promote sustainable management of all natural and cultural resources as a means of enhancing local economic development and contributing to the reduction of poverty in the 21 member villages.

Pawaga-Idodi WMA (Figure 3.10.1) is a narrow southeast/northwest strip in the rift valley between the highlands to the south and the plateau to the north. The main physiographic feature to the north of Pawaga-Idodi WMA is the Great Ruaha River, which flows from the southwest to the northeast of the WMA and then to Mtera dam. Little Ruaha River confluences with Great Ruaha River just upstream of Mtera dam. Other important rivers include Idodi, Kitanewa, Tungamalenga and Mahuninga that join to form Ilusi River, which historically flowed permanently but now has become seasonal due to diversions for irrigation in upstream villages. Generally, the northern part of Pawaga-Idodi WMA is drier than the south and gets an average rainfall of >500 mm per annum (TANAPA, 1997). The southern part receives an average of 750 mm – 1000 mm of rain per annum. Throughout the WMA and the surrounding area rain falls during the period of November to April/May. Temperatures are high during most of the year (Nahonyo et al., 1998; SWECO, 1985) and can reach up to 44 ºC during the day (TANAPA, 1997).

3.10.1 Member villages

Pawaga-Idodi WMA belongs to 21 villages, which are Mahuninga, Makifu,

Tungamalenga, Mapogoro, Kitisi, Idodi, Malinzanga, Nyamahana and Mafuluto in

Idodi Division, and Isele, Magombwe, Kinyika, Kisanga, Magozi, Mbuyuni, Kimande,

Luganga, Ilolompya, Mkombilenga and Mboliboli in Pawaga Divison (Figure 3.10.1).

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The people we met acknowledged the presence of Kitengeneza and Chambalasi rocky

hills on the northeastern part of the WMA that are scenic and good tourist attractions

and observation points. In addition to being an observation point Chambalasi rocky hill

is used by the local communities as a sacred place.

Figure 3.10.1: Map of Pawaga-Idodi WMA showing participating villages and important sites

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Demography and income-generating activities:

Member villages of Pawaga-Idodi WMA have an estimated human population of 61,067

(Tables 3.10.1 and 3.10.2). For obvious reasons, these numbers might have increased by

now but updates were not available during the survey.

Table 3.10.1: Human population in Pawaga-Idodi WMA member villages (Idodi Division), 2002 census

Village Population

Females Males Total

Mahuninga 1,547 1,366 2,913

Makifu 837 728 1,565

Tungamalenga 1,214 1,114 2,328

Mapogoro 2,260 2,103 4,363

Idodi 2,601 2,802 5,403

Kitisi 571 629 1,200

Nyamahana 1,309 2,114 4,763

Malinzanga 1,074 1,984 910

Mafuruto 1,278 972 2,250

Total 12,691 13,812 25,695

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Table 3.10.2: Human population in Pawaga-Idodi WMA member villages (Pawaga Division), 2002 census

Village Population

Female Male Total

Itunundu 1,857 1,843 3,700

Kimande 2,400 1,200 2,600

Mbuyuni 803 751 1,554

Mboliboli 1,860 2,100 5,190* (+1230 children)

Kinyika 861 734 1,595

Kisanga 1,774 1,726 3,500

Isele 2,582 2,914 5,526

Magombwe 1,401 989 2,390

Ilolo Mpya 476 440 916

Mkombilenga 500 510 1,010

Magozi 934 602 1,536

Luganga 472 387 2,742* (+1883 youth & children)

Total 15,920 14,196 35,372

Source: MBOMIPA (2006)

Infrastructure and investment

Infrastructure: Pawaga-Idodi WMA is accessible from Dar-es-Salaam by a tarmac road to Iringa town from where one can get to the WMA using earth roads through Tungamalenga, Idodi, Malinzanga and Isele villages. The Isele entry gate can also be accessed from Dodoma by earth road through Izazi, Makuka, Mboliboli and Mbuyuni villages. One could as well access the WMA using an underdeveloped air strip at Lunda campsite. The WMA infrastructure consists of tracks, houses, sites used for camping and an old abandoned landing strip at Lunda game scouts’ post. The track system is made of the following:

Lunda Game scouts’ post to Malinzanga village, 28 km;

Lunda Game scouts’ post to Isele village 24, km;

Lunda game scouts’ post to Kibaoni, 27 km;

Tungamalenga post to new Kinyangesi Game scouts’ post, 33 km;

Branch from New to old Kinyangesi Game scouts’ post, 40 km;

Branch from New Kinyangesi to Mbarali-Iringa inter district boundary, ~10 km;

Kitengeneza-Ilusi to never ending road, 28 km; and

Three bridges on the Malinzanga-Lunda road; 1 over the Ilusi River at Chambalasi (all require repair).

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Investments Residents and private investors also indulge themselves in the hospitality industry. There are a number of guest houses, lodges, camp sites and hotels operating in the area. They include:

i. Hill top hotel at Tungamalenga village ii. Sifa Safai lodge at Tungamalenga

iii. Sunset Mountain Lodge at Tungamalenga iv. Gallery and Camp site at Tungamalenga v. Chogela campsite at Tungamalenga

vi. Tungamalenga campsite vii. Nyamwilu Snake park and Campsite at Tungamalenga

viii. An old Wildlife Division house which has been repaired and is used by WCS-RRLCP as a scientific base.

ix. A dilapidated game scouts’ house at Malinzanga entry to the WMA. x. A small scout’s house at Tungamalenga entry to western part of WMA.

xi. A tented camp at New Kinyangesi Game scouts’ camp xii. An old abandoned air strip at Lunda Game Scouts’ camp.

xiii. Office of the WMA at Tungamalenga village (Plate 3.10.1) xiv. A well built at Game Scouts’ camp in Lunda zone (Plate 3.10.2).

Plate 3.10.1: Office of MBOMIPA in Tungamalenga village

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Plate 3.10.2: Gate to Lunda VGS post (L) and Lunda VGS post (R) Sources of income:

Residents of Pawaga-Idodi WMA member villages are involved in a number of

economic activities in order to meet their livelihood needs. The activities include

farming, tour guiding, charcoal making, carpentry, hospitality services (guest houses,

lodges, bars, groceries, food vending), small shops/kiosks, grain milling, sales and

purchases of rice. Cash crops grown include groundnuts, tobacco and pyrethrum. On

the other hand, sunflower, cowpeas, potatoes, sorghum and millet are grown for food.

However, maize, groundnuts and rice serve for both purposes, i.e., cash and food.

Livestock keeping is another major economic activity in the area. According to WWF

(2010), estimates show that there are 150,810 heads of cattle, 107,442 goats, 45,624 sheep,

2,743 donkeys, 36,179 pigs and 623,382 poultry.

Expenditure patterns in villages forming WMA

Most of the Pawaga-Idodi WMA member villages spend their revenues (derived from the WMA activities) on construction of teachers’ houses, classrooms and toilets, construction of health facilities and paying salaries of village government staff. Since 2002 MBOMIPA has distributed a total of TShs 123,022,000/= to member villages for development activities (MBOMIPA REPORT 2010). Major revenue sources include:

Trophy or tourist hunting

Village membership fees

Rest house renting

Investment agreements

Donor agencies

Training fees charged to various institutions

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Schools and health facilities

Member villages are served by 24 primary schools, five secondary schools and 14 health facilities. Each village has at least one primary school.

Resource management zones

Pawaga-Idodi WMA is divided into four management zones: Lunda, Tungamalenga, Mkupule-Kinyangesi and Ruaha-Kinyangesi Zones.

Lunda zone is specifically for game viewing, and hotel and lodge construction (lunda camp site).

Tungamalenga zone is set aside for game viewing, hunting and camping.

Mkupule/Kinyangesi zone is for tourist hunting.

Kinyangesi zone is for game viewing.


Each of the zones listed above is endowed with a number of wildlife and plant species. The common wildlife species include elephants, impala, roan and sable antelopes, greater and lesser kudu, giraffe, lion, leopard, wild dog, baboon, buffalo, zebra and hippo. Others include mongoose, ratel, ostrich, klipspringer and baboons. While all these species are found in every zone, elephants and buffaloes are found in large numbers in Lunda zone.

Reptiles are also found in the WMA. Important reptiles common within the WMA include Nile crocodile, monitor lizard, python, black mamba, spitting cobra and puff adder. Hippos and crocodiles are found in Kibaoni dam located in Lunda Zone. Vegetation found in the WMA is mainly woodland of Brachystegia and Combretum spp.

bushland and Acacia tortilis thorn scrub. Figure 3.10.2 presents land cover of the WMA.

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Figure 3.10.2: Vegetation map of Pawaga-Idodi WMA


Adjacent protected areas include Ruaha national park and Lunda-Mkwabi Game

Controlled Area (LMGCA). However, it should be noted that Pawaga-Idodi WMA is

part of the LMGCA. Ruaha national park borders both the WMA and LMGCA in the

west (Figure 3.10.3).

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Figure 3.10.3: Map showing Pawaga-Idodi WMA and neighbouring protected areas

Conservation issues

Cases of human-wildlife conflicts were reported in the area. Serious cases included

crops raiding and attacks on human and livestock by wild animals. In addition, fish

poisoning was also reported to have affected fish populations in major rivers flowing

through the WMA. There is a need to urgently address these problems to ensure

resources security and sustainable management.

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3.11 NGARAMBE/TAPIKA WMA

As the name indicates, Ngarambe/Tapika WMA is composed lands belonging to

Ngarambe and Tapika villages, which are located south of Rufiji River at the

northeastern edge of Selous Game Reserve in Cost region. The WMA has a size of

731.29 km2 equivalent to 75,828 ha.

A programme to involve communities in conservation of wildlife started in Ngarambe

village in 1995 and was later on replicated in Tapika village in 1998. In a joint village

assembly in 2005 the two villages decided to form an association called in Kiswahili

Muungano wa Vijiji vya Ngarambe na Tapika (MUNGATA) which was officially registered

as an AA in 2005.

Lung’onya and Ngarambe rivers are the major rivers flowing through the two villages.

However, there are also a number of streams within the WMA landscape. Apart from

rivers and streams, there are springs and seasonal ponds such as the so-called Bwawa la

chumvi where animals do go for salty water, Mt Hamduni springs, Kambi ya bata pool

(which stands for ducks’ dam) in Ngarambe, Angarambwi pool near Mt Hamduni,

Hippo pool in Ngarambe etc. Wild animals depend on these rivers, streams and

ponds/pools for water. Not surprising, one could easily see elephants along Ngarambe

River.


As already pointed out, Ngarambe/Tapika WMA is made of only two villages, i.e.

Ngarambe and Tapika (Figure 3.11.1).

Important sites

Minyunyu plains - These are grass plains through which water springs flow. Presence

of springs makes the plains evergreen, which enables plants to sprout beautiful flowers

throughout the year. The latter makes a spectacular scene worth visiting/seeing by

tourists.

Kichi Hill Forest Reserve is another attraction in this area. The forest is a habitat for a

number of mammals, birds, butterflies, plant species etc., making it a perfect attraction

for tourists and researchers.

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Figure 3.11.1: A map showing Ngarambe/Tapika WMA showing member villages and

important sites

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3.11.2 Socio economic data

Demography and population According to 2002 national census, the population of Ngarambe and Tapika villages is as presented in Table 3.11.1.

Table 3.11.1: Human population in Ngarambe/Tapika WMA member villages

Village Households Population

Male Female Total

Ngarambe 250 1,162 1.566 2,978

Tapika 74 395 312 781

Total 324 1,557 1,878 3,759


Ngarambe and Tapika villages, each has a primary school but none has a secondary school. There is only one dispensary located in Ngarambe village, which serves both villages. Ngarambe residents are served by Kingupira dispensary as well. Sources of income

Ngarambe and Tapika residents are smallholder producers depending mostly on

agricultural, forest and wildlife products. Farming involves production of sorghum,

maize, cassava, rice, sweet potatoes, pumpkins, cucumbers, pigeon peas, cow peas and

green gram.

Other activities in which members of the two villages are involved include carpentry,

poultry (local chicken, ducks and pigeons), beekeeping and food vending. Making and

selling of mats, food covers, baskets, fans, hats ukindu (Phoenix reclinata) is another

petty business practiced.

WMA Revenues from hunting and sale of game meat

The WMA receives revenues from hunting and sale of game meet. As shown in Table 3.11.2 revenues have been increasing since MUNGATA became an AA in 2005, although not in a regular trend.

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Table 3.11.2: Revenues for Ngarambe/Tapika WMA from hunting and sale of game meat

Year Revenue in TShs

2003/4 9,5950,0050

2004/5 5,744,000

2005/6 5,295,000

2006/7 23,237,050

2007/8 43,818,050

2008/9 34,239,540

2009/10 41,278,610

The revenues are used mainly for development activities in the member villages. The

uses include construction of teachers’ houses, classrooms and toilets, construction of

health facilities and paying salaries of village government staff. The CBO/AA uses part

of these proceedings to run a generator that supplies power to its people in Ngarambe

village. Each power recipient pays a token for the power service received.

Investments

There are two routes to Ngarambe/Tapika WMA. One could either use the Dar-es-

Salaam-Utete (Rufiji district) road. From Utete to Ngarambe/Tapika WMA you follow

an earth road that goes to Kingupira (a Selous Game Reserve station) about 68 km. This

road is 80% passable throughout the year. The second route though not common is the

one that can be used if one happens to be in Liwale district. Under special arrangements

with the office of Selous Game Reserve in Liwale, you could be escorted through the

reserve to Kingupira station, which is about 7 km before Ngarambe village.

Unfortunately, there are no established hotels or lodges within the vicinity of

Ngarambe/Tapika WMA. The best alternatives for accommodation could be found in

Utete township (headquarter of Rufiji district). Under special arrangements one may

also be accommodated at the guest wing of Selous Game Reserve at Kingupira. In

Ngarambe village, where the office of the AA is located (Plate 3.11.1) you can hardly

find accommodation.

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Plate 3.11.1: A building in Ngarambe village, which hosts MUNGATA AA

Resource Management zones

Ngarambe/Tapika WMA is divided into tourist hunting zone and residential hunting zone. Other zoned lands outsed the WMA are lands for settlements and agriculture, harvesting of forest products (tubers, vegetables, fruits, fuel wood, charcoal, poles, timber) and catchment forests- mainly Kichi-Hill coastal forest.


Both tourist and resident hunting zones host a number of wildlife. The common ones

are elephants, lions, buffaloes, wildebeest, impala, hippo, hartebeest, sable antelope,

zebra, waterbuck, leopards, hyenas, bushbuck, warthog, porcupine, bush pig, baboon,

monkeys, vervet monkey, hare, common duiker, red duiker, greater Kudu, pigym

antelope, bushbaby/galago, eland, pangolin, ratel and mongoose.

In Ngarambe/Tapika WMA, vegetation is dominated by closed and open woodlands with some patches of bushland (Figure 3.11.2). Some valuable tree species found in the neighbouring Kichi Hills Forest Reserve and partly in the WMA are presented in Table 3.11.3.

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Table 3.11.3: Common tree in Ngarambe/Tapika WMA and Kichi Hills

Local Name Scientific name

Mtondoro Julbemardia globiflora

Mkongo/mbambakofi Afzelia quanzensis

Mninga jangwa Pterocarpus angolensis

Mninga maji Pterocarpus tinctorius

Msufipori Bombax rhodognaphalon

Msekeseke Swartzia madagascarensis

Mkulo Spirostachys africana

Mkuruti Baphia kirkii

Mnangu Zanthoxylum chalybeum

Mkundekunde Cassia abbreviata

Mkwaju Tamarindus indica

Mfuru Vitex doniana

Mbuyu Adansonia digitata

Mpangapanga Millettia stuhlmannii

Mkiu Dombeya quingueseta

Mpangati/Muhama Combretum imberbe

Mtanga/Mpilipili Albizia versicolor

Muyombo Brachystegia boehmii

Msolo Pachystela msolo

Mvule Milicia excelsa

Mtopetope Annona senegalensis

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon

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Figure 3.11.2: Vegetation map of Ngarambe/Tapika WMA

Ngarambe/Tapika WMA is home to a variety of bird species, including but not limited

to pigeon, francolin, guinea fowls, ducks, songbird and owls.

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On the western side the WMA borders Selous Game Reserve while in the northeast it borders Kichi Hills FR (Figure 3.11.3). Other protected areas in area include Lung’onya Forest (in the south), Namakutwa-Nyamuete FR, Kiwengoma FR, Kitope FR, Tong’omba FR and Mbinga FR. Also, adjacent are Village Land Forest Reserves (VLFRs) such as proposed Nambunju and Mbwara.

Figure 3.11.3: Map showing Ngarambe/Tapika WMA and neighbouring protected

areas

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Activities that contravene the conservation goal in Ngarambe/Tapika WMA include poaching, bushfires (which are common during the dry season - August-November), illegal logging, shifting cultivation, establishment of new settlements particularly closer or in wildlife corridors or catchment areas. Other threats though occasional are drought and floods especially from Ngarambe River.

3.12 LIWALE WMA

Liwale WMA is located in Liwale district, Lindi region. It is managed by MAGINGO

CBO/AA, which stands for Jumuia ya Uhifadhi Wanyamapori na Matumizi Endelevu

MAGINGO. Wangindo is the largest tribe residing in the villages that form the WMA.

Major rivers flowing in Liwale WMA include Liwale and Matandu. However, there are

also small ones such as Mlembwe, Tandamanga, Ndapata, Mirui, Mange, Umira and

Matepwende that are mainly seasonal.

There are also natural ponds/pools in Liwale WMA. Significant poos include Hokororo near Mlembwe village, Kiurumira, Chindo, Panda la Nyama, Ligondalima, Nachengo, Likale, Tanda la Mngoni, Nakaumbi and Namatanda. The Hokororo pool is home to hippos, fish and crocodiles. Both rivers and pools serve as a major source of water for wildlife in the area.


Liwale WMA belongs to eight villages, which are Mpigamiti, Ndapata, Mlembwe, Chimbuko, Brikiwa, Kimambi, Naujombo and Mirui (Figure 3.12.1). Initially there were nine villages, including Kikulyungu, which, due persistent boundary conflict with Selous Game Reserve, was excluded from the WMA by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism in 2010. Visitor attractions

Mikukuyumbu and Lipindula cemetery are associated with wars that were fought

between Germans and local people and have some touristic potential.

Other attractions but located outside the boundaries of the WMA include the ruins of

German colonial fort in Liwale town, German colonial court at Chimbuko village and

the ruins of German rest house at Mpigamiti village.

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Figure 3.12.1: Map showing Liwale WMA member villages and important sites


Population

Table 3.12.1 presents numbers of people residing in Liwale WMA member villages and number of people in each age category. It also shows the number of households in each village according WMA reports (2004). However, these numbers may have increased as a result of population increase over the past six years. New statistics were not available at the time of this survey. Table 3.12.1: Number of people in Liwale WMA member villages, 2002 census

Village Households Population Population distribution by age

0-5 6-15 16-30 31-50 >50yrs

Mpigamiti 476 2,542 508 941 559 305 229

Ndapata 139 664 66 113 292 146 47

Mlembwe 461 2,306 462 854 485 274 231

Chimbuko 469 2,816 926 704 538 197 451

Barikiwa 405 2,841 682 966 369 313 511

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Kimambi 139 974 127 185 370 204 88

Naujombo 184 1,101 154 374 286 242 45

Mirui 407 2,444 807 464 635 342 196 Total 2,680 15,688 3,732 4,601 3,534 2,023 1,798

Schools and health services

The total population in the eight Liwale WMA member villages is 15,688. They are served by 10 primary schools, four secondary schools and 18 health facilities. Each village has at least one primary school. Sources of income

Residents of the eight Liwale WMA member villages are involved in a number of

economic activities, including farming, carpentry, charcoal making, hospitality services

(guest houses, lodges, bars, grocery, food vending), masonry, pit sawing and selling of

timber, black smith, fish farming, craft, beekeeping, small shops/kiosks and grain

milling.

Cash crops grown in the member villages include cashew nuts, simsim, sunflower, rice,

sweet potato, banana, groundnuts and maize. On the other hand, beans, sorghum,

cassava, sweet potatoes, millet and green gram are grown for food. Maize, pigeon peas,

sweet potatoes, groundnuts are used for both food and cash purposes.

Livestock keeping is another economic activity in the area. Residents keep goats, dairy

cattle though in very small numbers, local chickens and ducks, pigeons and guinea

fowls.

Infrastructure

There are two routes to Liwale WMA. One could use either the Dar-es-saalam-Lindi-

Masasi-Nachingwea-Liwale route or the Dar-es-saalam-Nangurukuru-Liwale Town

route (known as Njinjo route). The former is a tarmac road up to Masasi while the latter

is tarmac only up to Nangurukuru junction.

Investments: Hotels and lodges and camp sites

There are a number of guest houses in Liwale town, which are in relatively good conditions to accommodate would-be visitors to Liwale WMA. They include Banana Lodge, Liwale Lodge, Wamo Guest House, Kinderu Guest house, Tumaini Mnarani

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Lodge and Selous Game Reserve’s rest house. The town also harbours the office of MANGINGO AA (Plate 3.12.1).

Plate 3.12.1: Office of MANGINGO AA in Liwale town

Resource Management zones

The WMA is divided into five management zones: Nachengo Tourist Hunting Zone; Hokororo Tourist Hunting Zone; Naimba Plain Tourist Hunting Zone; Kiurumila photographic safari Zone; and Namamwe Resident Hunting Zone.


Each of the zones listed above is endowed with a number of wildlife and plant species. The common wildlife species include elephants, eland, Wildebeest, buffalo, impala, Hartebeest, zebra, leopard, hyena, lion, jackal, warthog, bushbuck, Lesser and greater Kudu, monkeys, dikdik, wild pig, hippo, pangolin, ratel, porcupine, aardvark and baboons. Reptiles are also found in the WMA. Important reptiles common within the WMA include Nile crocodile, monitor lizard and tortoise. A variety of birds are also found in the WMA. They include guinea fowls, francolins, herons, storks, pigeons, eagles, kites, pied crows, owls, queleaquelea, egrets (which are migratory) and many others. Vegetation The vegetation (Figure 3.12.2) of the area is mainly deciduous miombo woodland with Brachystegia spp., Julbernadia globiflora, Pterocarpus angolensis, and Combretum spp. Other significant trees are indicated in Table 3.12.3.

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Table 3.12.2: Tree species found in Liwale WMA

Local Name Scientific name

Mtondoro Julbemardia globiflora

Mkongo/Mbambakofi Afzelia quanzensis

Mninga jangwa Pterocarpus angolensis

Mninga maji Pterocarpus tinctorius

Msufipori Bombax rhodognaphalon

Mbuyu Adansonia digitata

Mpangapanga Millettia stuhlmannii

Mwombo Brachystegia boehmii

Msolo Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia

Mvule Milicia excelsa

Mpingo Dalbergia melanoxylon

Figure 3.12.2: Vegetation map of Liwale WMA

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Liwale WMA borders Selous Game Reserve both in the north and west (Figure 3.12.3). Other adjacent protected areas include Nyera Kiperere FR and Angai village land Forest Reserves in the south.

Figure 3.12.3: Map showing Liwale WMA and neighbouring protected areas

Conservation issues: Threats and drivers:

Illegal hunting particularly for elephants, eland, wildebeest, buffalo, impala, hartebeest, warthog, Greater Kudu and bush pig is a serious problem. More on the list are wildfires which destroy biodiversity and the ecology of the WMA in general.

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3.13 SONGEA WMA

Songea WMA is located in Namtumbo district, Ruvuma region. The WMA is part of the

Selous-Niassa wildlife corridor and comprises an area of 2318.24 km2. It is managed by

Mbarang’andu CBO/AA on behalf of seven member villages.

Major rivers and their tributaries include Lukimwa, Litetelimo, Liwoyowoyo, Luegu and Mtimbira. Natural ponds/pools in the area include Kapera, Nandondo, Nondole, Chachu, Ngwahe, Kitanda, Kahunde, Howaye, Njengo, Litihe and Nolele. Both rivers and pools not only provide water source for animals but also a generous habitat for hippos, crocodiles and fish. The area has a single rain season from November to May with annual average of 1,200 mm. Warm months are September to May with average temperature of 25 oC. The highest temperature in record is 29 oC while the lowest is 22 oC.


Seven villages, i.e. Likuyu Sekamaganga, Mambecha, Kitanda, Mchomoro, Kilimasera, Songambele, and Mtelawamwahi form Songea WMA (Figure 3.13.1). Namutumbo district is composed of thirteen wards. However, only four wards are involved in forming the WMA. These are Kitanda (Kitanda village), Mgombasi (Nambecha and Likuyu Sekamanganga villages), Namtumbo (Songambele, Mchomoro and Kilimasera villages) and Ligera (Mtelawamwahi village).

Attraction sites:

Apart from wildlife there are attraction sites. Such sites include Bikra Mariam Caves in

Kitanda village. These caves are believed to host inscriptions that resemble those of

Virgin Mary. Also, on the list of attractions is Mlima Kanisa. This is a scenic hill that

may serve as a good tourist attraction. The hill sharply develops into a tall looking

structure without much on its feet. This is unusual as most hills start wide at the bases

and gradually narrow their circumferences as they ascend from the feet to highest

points.

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Figure 3.13.1: Map showing Songea WMA, member villages and important sites

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Population

According to the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2003), human population in the wards where Songea WMA is located is as presented in the Table 3.13.1.

Table 3.13.1: Population size in wards where Songea WMA is located

Wards Households Population

Male Female Total

Kitanda 3,042 9,948 10,134 20,082

Mgombasi 4,038 10,258 10,223 22,491

Namtumbo 4,038 11,130 11,572 22,702

Ligela 1,901 4,929 4,676 9,605

Total 13,019 36,265 36,605 75,170

Source: National Bureau of Statistics (2003) Investments

Songea WMA is accessible from Dar-es-salaam via a tarmac road to Songea town. From

Songea town to Namtumbo township it is almost an earth road with just a short strip

under tarmac after Songea town.

Infrastructure within Songea WMA is undeveloped. Member villages are typically

situated along the Songea–Tunduru road and each has its own access to the WMA. For

example, Likuyu Sekamaganga village uses a track that connects Natumbo Township

with Selous secondary school and the Community-Based Wildlife Conservation

Training Centre towards Nagole dam.

With the exception of Faraja Villa (Plate 3.13.2) in Namtumbo town there are neither

hotels nor campsites developed. There is only one operating investor in this area (Game

Frontiers of Tanzania Ltd, which is a hunting company).

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Plate 3.13.1: Office of Mbarang’andu CBO/AA

Plate 3.13.2: Faraja Villa Motel at Namtumbo

Sources of income

Residents of Songea WMA member villages are involved in a number of economic activities, including farming, charcoal making, carpentry, hospitality services (grocery, food vending), small shops/kiosks and grain milling. Cash crops grown in the villages include groundnuts, tobacco, maize, rice, simsim, cowpeas, vegetables, sunflower, sugar cane, plantain, mbambara nuts and pyrethrum.

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On the other hand, maize, plantain, cowpeas, vegetables, cassava, millet, sweet potatoes, groundnuts and sugar cane are grown for food. Livestock keeping is another economic activity in the area. Residents keep sheep, goats, and dairy cattle though in very small numbers, chickens and ducks, pigeons and guinea fowls. Schools and health facilities

Member villages of Songea WMA have 12 primary schools, four secondary schools and four health facilities. Resource Management Zones

Songea WMA is divided into three management zones: Beekeeping Zone (291.48km2); Mbarang’andu Tourist hunting Zone (1280.93 km2); and Ruhila Tourist hunting zone (745.83 km2). Names of zones depict the types of activities allowed to take place in each zone. The Mbarang’andu and Ruhila zones host a wide variety of wildlife, including mammals, birds and reptiles.


Wildlife Common wildlife species in Songea WMA include elephant, wildebeest, buffalo, greater and lesser kudu, reedbuck, hippo, zebra, wild dog, leopard, lion, hyena, impala, hartebeest, rhino, pangolin, tortoise, waterbuck, jackal, mongoose, baboons, ratel and porcupine. Large concentrations of these animals especially hippos, elephants and buffaloes are found around Nondole dam (Plate 3.13.3), which provides water for them and refuge from hot temperatures especially for hippos. Conceivably, Mbarang’andu CBO/AA is in a move to set a campsite (Plate 3.13.4 - under construction) by this dam. It should be noted that, elephants move from Selous Game Reserve through Songea WMA to Niassa Game Reserve in Mozambique and vice versa through Selous-Niasa Corridor.

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Plate 3.13.3: Consultant and his hosts standing before Nandole dam

Plate 3.13.4: Campsite under construction on the shores of Nandole dam

Birds

A number of bird species are found in Songea WMA. The species include but are not limited to guinea fowls, owls and songbirds. Reptiles Reptiles are also found in Songea WMA. Important reptiles common within the WMA include crocodile, monitor lizard, python and cobra. Vegetation and Trees

Songea WMA is dominated by closed and open woodlands and some patches of forests and bushland (Figure 3.13.2). Commercial timber species include Pterocarpus angolensis, Afzelia quanzensis, Brachystegia boehmii, Garcinia huillensis, Diplorhynchus condylocarpon and Deinbollia borbonica among others.

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Figure 3.13.2: Vegetation Map of Songea WMA

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In the north, Songea WMA borders with Selous Game Reserve and Northern- Undendeule FR (Figure 3.13.3). In the south, it shares a border with Liulinde Forest Reserve. Also, this area is part of the Selous-Niassa corridor - a landscape linkage between Africa’s largest protected areas: The Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania and Niassa Game Reserve in Mozambique.

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Figure 3.13.3: Map showing Songea WMA and neighbouring protected areas

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Land encroachment for agriculture was reported as one of the threats to the existence of

Songea WMA. The driver of this was said to be increased population in the area that

dictates for additional land. Unsustainable and illegal uses of natural resources were

other reported threats. Poaching of elephants and buffaloes for their precious ivory and

meat respectively were noted to be a serious threat. Furthermore, uncontrolled wildfires

were reported to be common and claiming hectares of wildlife habitats each year.

3.14 TUNDURU WMA

Tunduru WMA is located in Tunduru district, Ruvuma region (Figure 3.14.1). Like

Songea WMA, this WMA is part of the Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor and comprises

an area of about 111,125 hectares. It is managed by NALIKA AA. The name NALIKA is

an acronym, which was coined by taking the two first letters from each of the names of

the three wards that form the WMA, i.e. Namwinyu, Ligunga and Kalulu.

Tunduru WMA is privileged to have several sources of water, including rivers, dams and springs. For example, in Mbarang’andu zone there are Mbarang’andu and Lipembe rivers. On the other hand, in Sasawala zone, there are Sasawala and Nampungu rivers. Moreover, there are dams like Mahonda, Kwashauri and Lipembe in Mbarang’andu zone. One can see wild animals in large numbers visiting these places for water. The area has a single rain season from November to May with annual average of 1200 mm. Warm months are from September to May with average temperature of 25 ºC,with highest temperature being 29 ºC and the lowest 22 ºC.


Tunduru WMA is comprised of 10 member villages, which are Twendembele, Kindamba, Kajima, Ndenyende, Namakungwa, Namwinyu, Darajambili, Hulia and Rahaleo (Figure 3.14.1). Each village has contributed land to the WMA. In Sasawala zone, there are saltlicks (locally known as ving’wenyu). These are salty grounds where animals tend to lick the soils to meet their mineral needs. Tunduru WMA hosts a sacred area in Mbarang’andu zone, closer to one of the Lipembe river tributaries.

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Figure 3.14.2: Map showing Tunduru WMA, member villages and important sites


Population

Table 3.14.1 provides a summary of human population in the area based on the national census that was conducted in 2002.

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Table 3.14.1: Human population in Tunduru WMA member villages

Ward Village Households Population

Males Females Total

Kalulu Rahaleo 142 454 482 936

Mbugulaji 211 553 657 1,210

Kajima 133 276 228 504

Ligunga Twendembele 226 464 535 999

Kindamba 168 333 358 691

Namwinyu Huria 171 498 458 956

Darajambili 134 377 400 777

Namwiyu 181 534 605 1,139

Namakungwa 211 539 548 1,087

Ndenyende 175 292 350 642 Total 1,752 4,320 4,621 8,941

Source: National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2003) Investments

One could access Tunduru WMA from two different directions: one is the Dar-es-salam-

Iringa-Makambako-Songea-Namtumbo road. As you travel towards Tunduru, you stop

at a place called Milonde or popularly known as Kiuma (named after a Centre run by a

Church of the Love of Christ-The Messiah-Kiuma). Both the bus stop and Centre are

located in Matemanga division, Tunduru district, Ruvuma region. The WMA;s office is

located some meters from the bus stop towards Tunduru. On the other hand, one could

follow the southern route, i.e. Dar-es-salaam-Lindi-Masasi-Tunduru-Matemanga route.

This route is shorter and, therefore, most preferred by residents.

Infrastructure within Tunduru WMA is still poor, with a few tracks from Namtumbo-

Tunduru road branching into the WMA.

Accommodation is primarily provided by the Kiuma Centre as there are neither camp sites nor hotels around. However, there are unregistered small guest houses at Matemenga township.

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Sources of income

Residents of Tunduru WMA are involved in a number of income-generating activities,

including farming, beekeeping, hunting, fishing, tailoring, cereal milling, blacksmith,

carpentry, hospitality services (grocery and food vending), small shops/kiosks and

provision of transport services using motorcycles.

Cash crops grown in Tunduru WMA member villages include groundnuts, simsim,

tobacco, sugar canes, plantain, cashew nuts and sunflower. On the other hand, maize,

cassava, rice, sorghum, millet, vegetable, cowpeas, beans, green gram, sweet potatoes,

sugar cane, palms, oranges, mbambara nuts and mangoes are grown for food.

However, maize, groundnuts and rice serve as food as well as cash crops.

Livestock keeping is another economic activity in the area. Residents keep sheep, goats,

dairy cattle, chicken and ducks, pigeons and guinea fowls. Households rear these

animals in small numbers.


Tunduru WMA member villages have a total of 11 primary schools, one secondary school located in Namwinyu and six health facilities. Resource Management Zones

According to the nature or peculiarity of the area, the WMA has been divided into three management zones: Sasawala Nature Management Zone (SNMZ); Misisima Local Hunting Zone (MLHZ); and Mbarang’andu Tourist Hunting Zone (MTHZ).


Each of the zones listed above is endowed with a number of wildlife and plant species. The common mammal species include elephants, impala, roan and sable antelopes, greater and lesser kudu, wildebeest, hartebeest, eland, lion, leopard, wild dog, baboon, buffalo, warthog, wild pig, aardwark, zebra and hippo. Others include hyena, mongoose, ratel, ostrich, zebra and baboons. Reptiles are also found in the WMA. Important reptiles common within the WMA include crocodile, monitor lizard, python, black mamba, spitting cobra and puffadder. Vegetation Vegetation (Figure 3.14.2) in Tunduru WMA is mainly deciduous miombo woodland with Brachystegia spp, Julbernadia globiflora, Pterocarpus angolensis, Terminalia spinosa and Combretum spp. being the major species. The vegetation is maintained by frequent fires. Other areas are covered by dense thickets, riverine and ground water forests.

101

Figure 3.14.3: Vegetation map of Tunduru WMA

Conservation issues: Threats and drivers Human attacks from wild animals specifically from lions, elephants and buffaloes are

common in Tunduru WMA member villages and other areas adjacent to the WMA.

Residents’ properties, mostly crops, are frequently raided by wild animals from the

WMA or nearby protected areas.

As already pointed out, agriculture is the major source of income for residents of Tunduru WMA. Unfortunately, best agricultural practices are not implemented in the area and, therefore, cases of shifting cultivation were reported.

102

3.14.4 Adjacent protected area

Selous Game Reserve shares a border with Tunduru WMA in the north. Muhuwesi Forest Reserve is in the northeast while Sasawala Forest Reserve is in the south (Figure 3.14.3).

Figure 3.14.4: Map showing Tunduru WMA and neighbouring protected areas

Although the Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor is not a protected area, it is relevant to mention it here because of its importance in maintaining the Tunduru WMA and the ecosystem in general. And, indeed, this WMA is part of the corridor. In order to bring the attention of people to this important corridor, one will notice a number of signboards indicating where the corridor crosses the Songea-Tunduru-Masasi road (Plate 3.14.1).

103

Plate 3.14.1: A signboard indicating where the the Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor

crosses the Songea-Tunduru-Masasi road

104

References Ashley, C., Mdoe, N., and Reynolds. L. (2002) Rethinking wildlife for livelihoods and

diversification in rural Tanzania: a case study from northern Selous LADDER Working Paper No.15 March 2002.

BPWMA (2005) "Resource Management Zone Plan 2005-2010 for Burunge Pilot Wildlife Management Area, Babati District, Tanzania.

Grimshaw, J.M., Cordeiro, N.J. & Foley, C.A.H. (1995) The Mammals of Kilimanjaro.Journal of East African Natural History, 84: 105-139.

Homewood, K. & Randall, S. (2008) Ecology of African pastoralist societies. Oxford; Athens, Ohio: James Currey ; Ohio University Press. 292 p.

Homewood, K., Kristjanson, P. & Trench, P.C. (eds) (2009) Staying Maasai? Livelihoods,Conservation and Development in East African Rangelands. 1 ed. Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation, vol. 5. New York: Springer. 428 pp.

Honey, M. (2008) Ecotourism and Sustainable Development: Who Owns Paradise? 2nd Ed. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA) (2007) Assessment and Evaluation of the Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania. Dar es Salaam: Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA).JUHIWAI (2004). Resource Managemenet Zone Plan (2004-2014) for Ipole WMA, Sikonge District, Tanzania.

JUHIBU (2010) Burunge Wildlife Management Area: The General Management Plan 2010 – 2020.

JUHIWAI (2004) Resource Management Zone Plan (2004-2014) for Ipole WMA, Sikonge District,Tanzania.

JUHIWAIKO (2005) Resource Management Zone Plan (2005-2010) for Ikona WMA, Serengeti District, Tanzania.

JUKUMU (2010) Resource Management Zone Plan (2010-2015) for UKUTU WMA, Morogoro Rural District.

Kabiri, N. (2007) Global Environmental Governance and Community-Based Conservation in Kenya and Tanzania. Dissertation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Political Science. 305 p.

MBOMIPA (2006) RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ZONE PLAN MBOMIPA REPORT (2010) Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife

Management Areas under the Financial Crisis Initiative/Cash-for-Work Program Miniwary, M.Y. (2009) Politics of Participatory Wildlife Management in Enduimet

WMA, Tanzania. MSc Thesis in Development Studies, Noragric, Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB).

Monduli District Council (2005) Enduimet Wildlife Management Area: Resource Management Zone Plan July 2005 – July 2010.

Nahonyo C.L, Mwasumbi L., and Bayona D.G. (1998) Survey of the vegetation communities and utilization of woody plant species in the MBOMIPA Project Area. MBOMIPA Iringa.

105

NALIKA (2009) Resource Management Zone Plan (2009-2013) for Tunduru WMA in Tunduru District

National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2003) 2002 Tanzania Human population Census, Tanzania Government Printers, Dar-es-Salaam

Odumbe, M. (2009) The Socio-Economic Baseline Assessment for Enduimet Wildlife Management Area in Tanzania. African Wildlife Foundation.

SWECO (1985) Mtera Reservoir, Ecology of a new man-made Lake in Tanzania. SWECO 1985.

TANAPA (1997) Management Zone Plan; Manyara National Park Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) (2011a) "Wildlife Survey Data in Tanzania's Protected Area, Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI), Arusha, Tanzania.".

TAWIRI (2006) Aerial Wildlife Census in Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor, Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Arusha

TAWIRI (2011b) Categorization of Hunting Blocks in Wildlife Management Areas In Tanzania. Report Prepared for Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism.

The Government of Tanzania (2002) Guidelines for Designation and Management of Wildlife Management Areas, Tanzania Government Printers, Dar-es-Salaam

The Government of Tanzania (2005) The Wildlife Conservation (Wildlife Management Areas) Regulations, 2005, Tanzania Government Printers, Dar-es-Salaam

Thomas, L. and Middleton, J. (2003) Guidelines for Management Planning of Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge

Tynnerson Sara (2009). Community Based Wildlife Management - its Role in Conservation and Development. Bachelors Thesis, Södertörn University College, School of Life Sciences, Environmental Science

URT (1974) The Wildlife Conservation (Wildlife Management Areas) Regulations, 2005, Tanzania Government Printers, Dar-es-Salaam

URT (1998) The Tanzania Wildlife Policy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar-es-salaam

URT (2002) Guidelines for Designation and Management of Wildlife Management Areas, Tanzania Government Printers, Dar-es-Salaam

USAID, FZS and WWF (2010a) Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife Management Areas under the Financial Crisis Initiative/Cash-for-Work.

USAID, FZS and WWF (2010b) Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife Management Areas under the Financial Crisis Initiative/Cash-for-Work Program: Ikona WMA Report.

USAID, FZS and WWF (2010c) Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife Management Areas under the Financial Crisis Initiative/Cash-for-Work Program: Ipole WMA Report.

UWIMA (2004) Uyumbu Pilot Wildlife Management Area Resource Management Zone Plan (2004 – 2014)

Wildlife Division (2002) Guidelines for Designation and Management of Wildlife Management Areas 2002.

106

ANNEX 1: Progress Profile of WMAs as of 24 June 2010 (Source: WWF)

No. Name of WMA

Dis

tric

t

DN

RA

B

Yea

r S

tart

ed

Fa

cili

tato

r

Are

a (

km

2)

Nu

mb

er o

f v

illa

ges

Ben

efic

iari

es (

'000

)

Status of AA Process

(0 = Underway/requires more input; 1 = Completed/In place)

Sta

tus

Vil

lag

e M

inu

tes

LU

P

CB

O R

egis

tere

d

GM

P/R

ZM

P

AA

Ap

pli

cati

on

Reg

iste

red

AA

Ga

zett

ed

Use

r R

igh

ts

PP

PP

1 Ikona

(JUHIWAIKO)

Serengeti 1 2003 FZS (Ex-

NORAD)

242 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN57,

3.9.07)

1

(21.2.07)

1

2 Enduimet

(ENDUIMET)

Longido 1 2003 AWF 751 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN57,

3.9.07)

1

(4.5.07)

1

3 Makao

(JUHIWAPOMA)

Meatu 1 2007 FZS 769 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN369,

20.11.09)

29.03.10

4 Burunge (JUHIBU) Babati 1 2003 AWF 617 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN37,

31.3.06)

1

(2.2.07)

1

5 Makame (INDEMA) Kiteto 1 2003 AWF 5,372 3 1 1 1 1 1 GN 385

(4.12.09)

pending Gazetted

6 Uyumbu (UWIMA) Urambo 1 2003 Africare 839 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN37.

31.3.06)

1

(2.2.07)

7 Ipole (JUHIWAI) Sikonge 1 2003 Africare 2,406 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN37,

31.3.06)

1

(2.2.07)

1

8 Wami-Mbiki Society

(WMS)

Morogoro,

Bagamoyo,

Mvomero

1 2003 DHA

(Danida)

2,400 24 65 1 1 1 1 1 1 GN86

(13.4.07)

1

(30.3.07)

1

(U/way)

Joint venture

contract

pending

9 Ukutu (JUKUMU) Morogoro 1 2003 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

750 22 45 1 0 1 1 1 (R/apply) 1 (GN261,

23.7.10)

19.8.10 2 Gazetted

107

No. Name of WMA

Dis

tric

t

DN

RA

B

Yea

r S

tart

ed

Fa

cili

tato

r

Are

a (

km

2)

Nu

mb

er o

f v

illa

ges

Ben

efic

iari

es (

'000

)



Sta

tus

Vil

lag

e M

inu

tes

LU

P

CB

O R

egis

tere

d

GM

P/R

ZM

P

AA

Ap

pli

cati

on

Reg

iste

red

AA

Ga

zett

ed

Use

r R

igh

ts

PP

PP

10 Pawaga-Idodi

(MBOMIPA)

Iringa 1 2003 WCS/WW

F (Ex-

DFiD)

777 21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN57,

3.9.07)

1

(21.2.07)

3

11 Ngarambe/Tapika

(MUNGATA)

Rufiji 1 2003 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

767 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN37,

31.3.06)

1

(16.2.07)

0

(pending

)

Not yet

secured

investor

12 Liwale (MAGINGO) Liwale 1 2003 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

4,515 10 1 1 1 0 1 1 (GN103,

1.5.09)

17.9.10 boundary

conflict,In

progress

U/right

suspended

due to

boundary

conflict

13 Mbarang'andu

(MBARANG'ANDU

)

Namtumbo 1 2003 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

2,471 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN ???) I

(29.03.1

0)

1

14 Tunduru (NALIKA) Tunduru 1 2003 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

1,391 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 (GN217,

26.10.07)

1

(24.09.0

9)

1

15 Twatwatwa Kilosa 1 2003 None (1000) (4) 0 Conflicts,

failed to

agree

108

No. Name of WMA

Dis

tric

t

DN

RA

B

Yea

r S

tart

ed

Fa

cili

tato

r

Are

a (

km

2)

Nu

mb

er o

f v

illa

ges

Ben

efic

iari

es (

'000

)



Sta

tus

Vil

lag

e M

inu

tes

LU

P

CB

O R

egis

tere

d

GM

P/R

ZM

P

AA

Ap

pli

cati

on

Reg

iste

red

AA

Ga

zett

ed

Use

r R

igh

ts

PP

PP

16 Loliondo (GCA) Ngorongor

o

0 2003 FZS (1000) (6) 0 Task force

from

NLUPC,

VPO

(DoE)),MN

RT,Water,

Livestock,A

griculture,P

MO, PMO-

RALG are in

Loliondo to

address the

land dispute.

17 Tarime Tarime 1 2003 NORAD 2 1 1 1 1 0 Pending

18 Mpanda (UBENDE) Mpanda 1 2006 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

17,059 10 83.0

5

1 1 1 Need to

review of

VLUPs

19 Mpanda

(MPIMBWE)

Mpanda 1 2006 WWF (Ex-

GTZ)

5 22.3

6

1 1 1 RMZP

pending

20 Mpanda (KAMSISI) Mpanda 1 2009 Africare 3 1 New WMA

21 Igombe/Sagara

(ISAWIMA)

Urambo 1 2007 SIMMORS

/SWMP

(Danida)

315 11 1 1 0 1 In progress

109

No. Name of WMA

Dis

tric

t

DN

RA

B

Yea

r S

tart

ed

Fa

cili

tato

r

Are

a (

km

2)

Nu

mb

er o

f v

illa

ges

Ben

efic

iari

es (

'000

)



Sta

tus

Vil

lag

e M

inu

tes

LU

P

CB

O R

egis

tere

d

GM

P/R

ZM

P

AA

Ap

pli

cati

on

Reg

iste

red

AA

Ga

zett

ed

Use

r R

igh

ts

PP

PP

22 Malagarasi

(MAWIMA)

Kigoma 1 2007 SIMMORS

/SWMP

(Danida)

305 9 1 1 0 1 In progress

23 Natron North Longido 2008 SWMP

(Danida)

24 0 Just started

24 Natron South Ngorongor

o /Longido

2008 SWMP

(Danida)

8 0

25 Mpanga/Kipengere

(WAGA)

Mufindi/M

barali

2006 WCS/SW

MP

(Danida)

20 1 1 1 Constitution

u/way

26 Mpanga/Kipengera

(UMEMARUWA)

Mbarali/

Njombe

2006 WCS/SW

MP

(Danida)

22 1 1 1 Constitution

u/way

27 Rufiji

(JUHIWANGUMW

A)

Rufuji 2008 BTC 13 1 1 1 RZMP

pending

28 MBOMAMINJIKA Kilwa 2008 BTC 9 1 1 1 RZMP

pending

29 KIMBANDA Namtumbo 2008 UNDP/GE

F & KfW

2,150 1 0 CBO

registration

110

No. Name of WMA

Dis

tric

t

DN

RA

B

Yea

r S

tart

ed

Fa

cili

tato

r

Are

a (

km

2)

Nu

mb

er o

f v

illa

ges

Ben

efic

iari

es (

'000

)



Sta

tus

Vil

lag

e M

inu

tes

LU

P

CB

O R

egis

tere

d

GM

P/R

ZM

P

AA

Ap

pli

cati

on

Reg

iste

red

AA

Ga

zett

ed

Use

r R

igh

ts

PP

PP

30 CHINGOLI Tunduru 2008 UNDP/GE

F & KfW

938 1 0 CBO

registration

31 KISUNGULE Namtumbo 2008 UNDP/GE

F & KfW

1,345 1 0 CBO

registration

32 KILINDI Kilindi 2009 AWF/USA

ID (WWF)

Project

proposal

u/way

33 YAEDACHINI Mbulu 2009 AWF/USA

ID (WWF)

Project

proposal

u/way

111

ANNEX 2: Sources of Secondary data for specific WMAs

No. WMA (CBO) Documents consulted Author

1 Ikona (JUHIWAIKO) Socio-Economic Baseline Studies

in Selected Wildlife Management

Areas under the Financial Crisis

Initiative/Cash-for-Work

Program: IKONA WMA Report

USAID et al. (2010)

2 Enduimet

(ENDUIMET)

The Socio-Economic Baseline

Assessment for Enduimet

Wildlife Management Area in

Tanzania (Draft Report)

Enduimet Wildlife Management

Area: Resource Management

Zone Plan (July 2005 – July 2010)

Socio-Economic Baseline Studies




Program: ENDUIMET WMA

Report

AWF (2009)

Monduli District

Council (2005)

USAID et al. (2010)

4 Burunge (JUHIBU) Resource Management Zone Plan

for the Burunge Pilot Wildlife

Management Area (2005 – 2010)

The General Management Plan

(2010 – 2020)

Babati District

Council (2005)

Babati District

Council & JUHIBU

(2010)

6 Uyumbu (UWIMA) Ushirikishaji Jamii Katika

Kupanga Matumizi Boraya Ardhi

ya Kijiji cha Izengabatogilwe,

Izimbili, Isongwa na Nsongoro

Uyumbu Wildlife Management

Area: Resource Management

Zone Plan (2004 – 2014)

Africare (2002)

112


7 Ipole (JUHIWAI) Mpango wa Ushirikishwaji Jamii

Katika Kupanga na Kusimamia

Matumizi Bora ya Ardhi ya Kijiji

cha Ipole, Utimule, Idekamiso na

Msuva

Ipole Wildlife Management Area:

Resource Management Zone Plan

(2004 – 2014)





Program: Ipole WMA Report

Africare (2001)

JUHIWAI (2004)

USAID et al. (2010)

9 Ukutu (JUKUMU) The Business Plan (2011-2015) for

the UKUTU Wildlife

Management Area

Resource Zone Management Plan

(2010-2015) for the UKUTU

Wildlife Management Area

Morogoro District

Council & UKUTU

AA (2011)

Morogoro District

Council &

JUKUMU AA

(2010)

10 Pawaga-Idodi

(MBOMIPA)

Eneo la Usimamizi wa

Wanyamapori la Pawaga-Idodi:

Mpango wa Kanda wa

Usimamizi wa Rasilimali

Katiba ya MBOMIPA





Program: MBOMIPA WMA

MBOMIPA (2006)

USAID et al. (2010)

MBOMIPA (2006)

113


Report

Pawaga-Idodi Wildlife

Management Area: Resource

Management Zone Plan

11 Ngarambe/Tapika

(MUNGATA)

Kanda ya Majaribio ya

Usimamizi wa Wanyamapori ya

Ngarambe na Tapika: Mpango

wa Mwaka 2003-2007

12 Liwale (MAGINGO) Liwale Pilot Wildlife

Management Area Resource

Management Zone Plan (2010-

2015)

USAID & WWF

(2010)

13 Songea

(MBARANG’ANDU)

Katiba ya Jumuiya ya Hifadhi na

Matumizi Endelevu ya Maliasili

Mbarang’andu, Namtumbo

The Business Plan (2010-2015) for

Mbarang’andu Wildlife

Management Area

Resource Zone Management Plan

(2009-2013) for the Mbarang’andu

Pilot Wildlife Management Area

Namtumbo District

Council &

MBARANG’ANDU

AA (2010)

Namtumbo District

Council &

MBARANG’ANDU

AA

14 Tunduru (NALIKA) Katiba ya Jumuiya ya Uhifadhina

Matumizi Endelevu ya Maliasili

Katika Kata za Namwinyu,

Ligunga na Kalulu (Nalika),

Tunduru

Tunduru Pilot Wildlife

Management Area Resource

Management Zone Plan (2009-

Tunduru District

Council & NALIKA

AA (2009)

Tunduru District

Council & NALIKA

114


2013)

The Conservation Business Plan

(2010-2015) for the Tunduru

Wildlife Management Area

AA (2010)

All Categorization Of Hunting Blocks

In Wildlife Management Areas In

Tanzania. Report prepared for the

Ministry of Natural Resources

and Tourism

Names and Addresses of AA

Leaders and Investors in WMAs

in Tanzania

TAWIRI (2011)

Anon