CHAPTER – III

CONSERVATION DISCIPLINE : IT’S VARIOUS ASPECTS

1. Conservation as a discipline : its theoretical and historical background

For several centuries before ours, the people working in the field of

conservation of historic and artistic works were usually artisans practicing

restoration as an aspect of various traditional trades and they were mostly

craftsmen such as cabinet makers, musical instrument makers, book

binders, etc. Many of their traditional skills and attitudes regarding

standards of workmanship or the appearance of a restored artifact have

persisted as elements of this craft heritage have been assimilated into the

conservation discipline of the present day. The trade and practices of

restoration continue, their common primary ideal being to repair an object

in such a manner that the viewer or user is unaware of such intervention.

This can be accomplished either by skillful facsimile work or by substantial

reconstruction of the original in which a patron or a client and a restorer

consider to be the style or effects most desirable in the particular historical

or aesthetic genre.

Last fifty years or so have however, witnessed an increasing

divergence from such perceptions and practices amongst many concerned

with the study and case of cultural property, manifested in the development

of the museological philosophy and occupation termed as ‘conservation’. It

is considered that conservation should be restricted to treatment necessary

to ensure the object’s existence with the minimal possible deterioration in a

protective environment. There should be no destruction of constituent

materials and structure, just to improve its appearance, and no faking of

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missing elements without extensive consideration and investigation of its

historical and cultural context.

Until about fifteen years ago, the scale of the conservation

profession as a whole, its research advances discoveries and their

dissemination were such that these could to a satisfactory degree at least, be

accommodated under the aegis of broadly – based organization and

publications which encompassed the whole range of conservation activities.

These bodies continue to play a most vital role in the unification of an

increasingly diversified occupation and is encouraging and facilitating the

cross – disciplinary flow and mutual stimulus of ideas and information[1].

Conservation of Documentary Wealth

Conservation of organic materials which are bound to decay with the

passage of time and exhaust because of use, has become an important

aspect of the modern society. The word ‘conservation’ has been used in

different fields, such as conservation of energy, conservation of

momentum, conservation of forests, conservation of wild life and

conservation of soil etc. Different word power has been used to define the

term in its respective fields. But the soul of conservation i.e., to keep the

things intact and safe in quantity, quality and shape and size for the use of

future generations, has ever been kept intact in every field. Indifferent from

above, the sole purpose of conservation of the

archival and library wealth which is entirely organic in character is to

protect the material from undergoing any changes because of which the

wealth in question disintegrates, damages and perishes.

Today, conservation has come up as a full fledged science and is

composed of five elements. But the question arises as to whether

conservation is a concept of modern age and its seeds were there, in the past

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as well. In order to find out the factual position, an exploration of the world

literacy sources seems to be the need of time, before making any

comprehensive and analytical study of conservation and its elements.

Antiquity of conservation

The significant character fused by nature in every form of life is the

existence of fear and security against any micro and macro organism or any

other agency. This concept of safety towards life against the enemies is

nothing but a nucleus for conservation. Thus, the antiquity of conservation

may be said to be contemporary to the evolution of life on the earth. The

initial stage or the beginning of first stage, it was limited to life and was

mostly in conceptual form and therefore may be termed as conceptual

conservation. Second phase of conceptual conservation especially in Indian

society, is marked with the concept of welfare for all and that may be

manifested by the emergence of slogans like “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam”

and “Ahinsa Parmodhharama” which appeared as a main code of conduct

of people in the vedican and its contemporary societies.

A remarkable shift, hence after, is noticed in the concept of

conservation when it enters in the form of material conservation from

conceptual one. The oldest example of material conservation in the world

history is the pyramids of Egypt. The remarkable story behind the pyramids

is that people of Egyptian royal family had a custom to bury the dead

bodies of their kings in pyramids, with the belief that after thousand years

or so, the dead kings will come back to life and they will look for their

bodies. These pyramids have been dated back to 4400 years. No doubt, the

pyramids are famous for their glory, but at the same time, they may be

treated the milestone in the history of material conservation because no

other source than pyramid is available in the world literature which throws

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light on the scientific preservation of organic materials. Thus, antiquity of

material conservation may be fixed to the period prior to 2400 B.C., that is

the age of pyramids, as the thought of preserving dead things of organic

nature would have been appeared much before this age.

Conservation in India :

The concept of conservation may be a new thing for others, but so

far as the Indian society is concerned, it is ages old. The subsequent period

of Indian history is marked with gracious construction of sculptures like

“Stupas” dated 3rd century B.C. But the question arises as to what was the

motto behind their construction ? The answer is to preserve the memories

of Lord Buddha and his teachings. Quite contemporary to stupas, there was

a custom in prevalence to encarve the teachings of Lord Buddha from

Dharmapada on stone pillars and stone caves and the purpose of it was two

folds viz. to familiarize people with the master’s teachings and also to give

them lasting character, obviously the purpose of latter has a tinge not other

than their preservation.

The knowledge of Vedas, which is presumed to be the oldest

knowledge gathered by any human societies on the earth, was in prevalence

in Indian society when art of writing was not known to the people.

Similarly, the knowledge of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and that of the

Puranas was known to the people of that society which was unaware of

expressing of feelings in characters and letters. A noteworthy feature to be

kept in mind is that age old knowledge, in the form of texts is still with us.

How was it kept alive ? Obviously, it could be possible only because any

system of preserving memories was being followed by the people of

different ages.

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Thus, it becomes clear from the above that a silent stream,

effectively preserving the knowledge in Indian society, has ever been in

flow because of which scattered knowledge could be put together and kept

alive for the generations of today. Unfortunately, this stream in varied form

could not get due recognition as conservation or preservation unless the

same got recognition from western people[2].

Growth of Conservation in Modern India

Historical sources speak that big libraries were in existence in

ancient period in India. One such library in existence was in Nalanda in the

ages of ‘Ganapadas’. Similarly, various Grinthagars are also reported to

have been in existence during the medieval period. As already deduced that

a stream of preservation had ever been in flow throughout the ages, yet it is

difficult to say that scientific conservation of documentary wealth was in

existence before A.D. 1860. The idea of scientific preservation of modern

records was first time put forth in this year by Sandeman, a Civil Auditor,

suggesting in his report to weed out the records of ephemeral nature and

centralise those that were of value for preservation. But, this idea because

of one reason or the other, could not be put into practice till 1891. For the

first time, restorative conservation was introduced by Samul Charles Hill

(1899 – 1903), the then keeper of Imperial Records Department. He

instructed that folded documents be flattened and placed in docket covers

after necessary repair. Subsequently, Alwyn Faber, made a breakthrough in

the history of archives conservation, by discarding unsatisfactory tracing

paper in favour of more enduring chiffon cloth and less expensive Japanese

tissue paper, as reinforcement material. Actually, it was the period of Faber,

during which restorative conservation was redressed to match the

requirement and thus he put the idea of conservation on sound footing.

Once the archives started to grow, it continuously and progressively

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remained in growing to the extent that now the same has attained the

leading status to the archival world in third world countries, specially

located in Afro-Asian and Latin American regions[3].

Elements of Conservation

Conservation is not the name of single function or treatment but it is

composed of five elements, namely

a. Examination

b. Preventive Conservation

c. Curative Conservation

d. Restorative Conservation

e. Micro and Macro – Reproduction.

a. Examination

This part of conservation is very much similar to the activities of a

doctor. Not much different from doctoral work, a conservator has to

examine a document and art piece using chemical and mechanical methods

to find out the real cause (diagnosis) of decay, damage and infection before

any remedial measures (treatment) he suggests for its recovery. Sometimes,

a document is subjected for complicated tests to find out the real cause.

Any way, the examination is carried out before a document or art piece is

subjected for any chemical treatment or restorative conservation and also at

the storage level. Examination at the storage level is aimed at to make note

of any adverse development in repository and also to ensure appropriate

storage norms guaranteeing physical defence of documentary wealth.

b. Preventive Conservation

Preventive conservation is an aid to keep the documentary materials

safe and sound because of decay and biological attacks and it involves

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mainly scientific storage, dust free storage areas, display, ideal storage

conditions and also prevention against theft, fire and intrinsic damages.

c. Curative Conservation

When micro and macro organisms came into play in records to

damage them adversely, curative conservation comes on the way as an

annihilative measure to those damaging agencies. It involves chemical

treatment and fumigation of documents and storage material. However,

now-a-days, non-chemical means as curative measures are coming up as an

effective tool.

It is significant to mention that prevention conservation as well as

curative conservation are jointly known as preservation.

d. Restorative Conservation

Documents which attain fragile character because of decay besides

being damaged because of rough handling and use by the scholars and

administrators are forced for further damage if their use is continued

without any repair. And therefore, in order to bring them back to usable

form, it is essential to rejuvenate them and that is only possible by

imparting additional strength to them. This system of imparting strength to

fragile and damaged documents is put into the category of restorative

conservation.

e. Micro and Macro Reproduction

By adopting effective preventive and curative measures, if the rate of

decay is arrested and chances of physical damage are also reduced to

negligibility, it does not mean that our cultural heritage is sealed for proper

preservation unless the frequency of use of original archives and other

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documentary material is not significantly reduced. More or less, a file or

book and volume is damaged by users also and the increased number of

demand of a document will lead to its damage in order of proportionality.

Therefore, it is judicious not to supply document, in original instead copies

of these should be supplied. This ideology today has gained impetus world

over and therefore, reproduction techniques has come up in a big way as an

effective tool for conservation of documentary wealth. For the purpose of

reproduction, reprographic and micrographic techniques are being deployed

widely[4].

2. Base Materials Used for Writing Through the Ages

The origin of art of writing in India could be traced back to the Indus

valley civilization, which was one of the four oldest civilizations of the

world. The inscribed seals and tablets collected from the sites of Mohan –

Jodaro and Harappa have revealed this fact. Actually, the writing materials,

the art of writing or depiction of ideas and the styles are almost

contemporary. It is very difficult to guess among the three which came first

into existence.

As water is necessary for ice, so base is needed to incarnate the ideas

or feelings. And if, in this context, we explore the past, the date of origin of

using material for symbolic expression of ideas, goes back to the period of

rock paintings of “Bhima Barthaka” (in modern Madhya Pradesh) which

dates back 16,000 – 18,000 years and appears to be the oldest rock

paintings not only in India, but also in the world. It means that in the age of

Bhima Barthakan society, or prior to it, people of Indian region, had started

to use base material for depicting the ideas and writing. Though the

scholars of world are divided over the issue of first writing material, yet

taking the above facts into account, possibility as stone was the first

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material used by man for effigy and then for expressing his views in

characters and letters has sound base to believe.

First Base Material Used for Writing

Kalidas’ famous works Kumar Sambhav and Abhigyan Shakuntalam

have referred to use the birch bark leaf (Bhoj Patra) as writing material but

they are silent about its antiquity. If the historical facts are counted well

about the famous poet and his works, the antiquity of material under

discussion can be fixed around 5th or 6th century A.D. It indicates that

during the age of Kalidas, people of India had started the use of birch bark

and leaf as writing material. From this fact, it can also be deduced that the

use of birch bark and leaves is not much older than the stone material,

which was widely used during the period of Mauryas in 3 rd Century B.C.

for the purpose of writing. However, in the course of epigraphical

development, various materials were used by the ancient and medieval man

for the purpose of writing prior to the invention of paper. The materials

which are very strong and can stand with the natural and man-made

calamities may be grouped under inorganic writing materials and the

remaining under organic ones.

Inorganic Writing Materials

Clay, stone, ivory and metal are the principal substances of this

group, which were used for writing in different ages. Clay was used in the

form of tablets and seals, while stone in various forms such as pillars,

plates, rocks, caves etc.

Stone

Evidences show that stone was vastly used in the period of Ashoka

the Great for inscribing religious sutras conveying the messages about

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maintaining peace and welfare of his subjects. In subsequent period too, its

use continued. Text on stone, Prayaga Prasasthi is one of the well-known

examples of stone inscriptions of later Ashokan period. Other well-known

examples of stone inscription in world history are the Rosetta stone

discovered in 1799 a 70' high obliska and the Cleopatra’s needles. Rosetta

stone was transported to London and now stands by Thames embankment

while Cleopatra’s is now-a-days attracting visitors in New York’s Hide

Park.

Clay

People of Indus valley civilization were the users of clay tablets and

seals for inscribing their views. Custom of writing on bricks and earthen

pots were also prevalent in Indian society of pre-Christian period.

Evidences available in several museum in India and elsewhere throw light

upon the fact that bricks were used for writing in the Buddha age too.

Buddhist religious hymns and sutras were written over bricks in this age.

Apart from Indian sub-continent, Babylonian people in ancient times

engraved letters and characters with stylus on clay tablets, which were

baked until hard and were passed from person to person as in the present

day books and letters. The people of this age were perhaps aware about the

importance of preserving memory and so they established a library in Asia-

minor and Egypt where clay tablets were housed.

Organic Writing Materials

Numerous materials fall under this category but the first and

foremost material, used for the purpose in the history of writing materials

before invention of paper, is the papyrus. Its quality resembles to a great

extent with modern paper and is the oldest known writing materials of

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organic nature. It is believed that it was used for the first time in 3500 B.C.

by Egyptians and it was prepared by them from papyrus plant. Though, no

collection of manuscripts on papyrus has so far been reported from any part

of India, the possibilities of its use in the region are not entirely eliminated.

So far as the possibilities of papyrus making in Indian region is entirely null

and void as the fauna of this region was deprived of papyrus plant which

was the only raw material for manufacturing the papyrus. But there is no

reason for denial of import of prepared papyrus to this country, as the

writing to Indians at that time was known.

Another important fact to be taken into account is the writing during

these days was generally made under the patronage of ruling clans. So the

import of papyrus depended, to a large extent, on the need and desire of

Kings or Rajas. Under these circumstances, if papyrus was used, perhaps a

very nominal number of manuscripts might have been written only for

special purposes and on special occasions. As a result, collection on

papyrus manuscripts in the region might have been very meager and that

too could not remain preserved either due to disinterest of kings or due to

unfavourable climatic conditions of the region or they were destroyed by

foreign invaders with other valuable assets at the time of rage.

Leather as Writing Material

Leather in the form of parchment and vellum was being used as

writing material ever since 1500 B.C. in different parts of the world. Indian

literacy sources show that leather was used in the region in various ages in

one way or the other. In Devi-Puran, word Charm (leather) has been used

for wrapping the books written on palm leaves. It indicates that people of

India in the age of Puranas were familiar with the use of leather.

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No doubt, leather was used in India for writing but in a very limited

scale and perhaps the religious traditions were responsible for it.

In the neighbouring region, Iran is a country where books written on

parchment (leather) were prepared. In Palhavi language, the synonymous of

word khal (leather) is Pusta. This word transmigrated to India from Iran and

perhaps is being used as Pustak for books.

Leather (parchment and vellum) was widely used for writing in

Egypt, Arabian Peninsula, Europe and Asia-minor. In Egypt, a number of

leather books were prepared during the period of eminent philosopher,

Socrates. Arabia was another such country where custom of writing on

leather was prevalent in the beginning days of Islam.

Parchment and Vellum

The terms parchment and vellum are often used interchangeably but

it is erroneous.

Parchment

It was discovered, as believed by the king of Pergamam in the year

of 157 – 159 B.C. when the Egyptian ruler restricted the export of papyrus.

However, some facts mention that it was being used in the 1500 B.C. also.

Though, there is controversy about the actual date of its adoption for use, it

is almost certain that the same was prepared from the skin of sheep and

lambs by splitting it into two layers. Flash inside layer of the skin was used

to convert into parchment if it was found suitable. Foul is the coarse type of

parchment made from sheep skin. It was used for manuscripts and bindings

of low quality. One book on parchment has been preserved in National

Library, Calcutta in t he rare book collection wing.

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Vellum

It is unsplit skin of young, not usually 6 weeks old calf which is

cleaned of adhering flesh, hair, fat and muscles, preserved by soaking in a

lime solution and carefully scrapped and polished. It has always been the

choice of craftsman for luxurious manuscripts and expensive binding. The

fundamental difference between the parchment and vellum is that latter is

finer in texture than average parchment and has ever been preferred for

writing[5].

It has been stated that vellum must not be kept too dry or it will

become brittle. It would perhaps be more correct to say that it becomes

hornier and would probably return to its natural suppleness when returned

to a normal atmosphere. In a horny condition, it could possibly be damaged

by excessive bending and creasing which is hardly the normal treatment for

the pages of a book, though it may be for large documents.

Dampness is the real envy of these materials, causing them to cockle

and ultimately to rot. Owing to a high degree of imperviousness, especially

of vellum, it would be difficult to impregnate them effectively with a

fungicide and in practice, they must be kept dry if they are to last. A

relative humidity of 60 – 75 per cent should be suitable at temperature of 40

– 700 F. It is almost impossible to treat parchment and vellum to render

them unfit for insects to eat, so the only remedy is to prevent the access of

insects[6].

Palm Leaf

Today, more than 4000 species of palms are claimed to be in

existence but a few of them are liable for writing or in carving mental

feelings. Most of the old manuscripts available in India are on palm leaves.

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The oldest one on “Palm leaf” are two Buddha Granthas, presently housed

along with Buddha Literature collection in Hurij Mahta of Japan. These

books were perhaps transmigrated from Central India and were written in

6th Century B.C. Another such old book on palm leaves belongs to the 4 th

Century B.C. and the script of book is Sanskrit. The text of this book was

published in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal (No. 66 : 218).

Likewise, two important works of leaf, belonging to the period 1st and 2nd

century A.D. are Kusmanjali Tika and Prabodhni, both written by Acharya

Rameshwardhwaj who was a follower of Shaivism. A research work of Sri.

C.D. Dayal has established that Tilak Manjari written in the year 1130 A.D.

and Kuvalayamal written in 1139 are the oldest among the so far known

collections on palm leaf in Rajasthan. But according to another source, the

work Panchmikaha housed in the Tapagrachi Granth Bhandar in Jaisalmer,

is the oldest manuscript and belongs to period A.D. 1109.

Other rich collections on palm leaf manuscripts are available in

Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona in Maharashtra and

Shantinath Gyan Bhandar, Khambat in Gujarat state. A copy of Jain granth

of the palm leaf comprising 178 sheets and written in Sanskrit script

belonging to period 962 A.D. has been preserved in the Bhandarkar

Institute.

After India, Nepal is a rich custodian of palm leaf manuscripts.

Among the rich collection of this country, a work Scandapuran which

belongs to 7 A.D. has been treated to be the oldest. Another palm leaf

manuscript in Parameshwar Tantra which belongs to 859 A.D. presently

housing in Cambridge Library.

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It is obvious from the above facts that the use of palm leaf as writing

material started from 6th Century B.C. and continued upto 12th and 13th

Centuries. The old collection on palm leaf belonging to the period before

Christian age are rare in the world. Most of the available manuscripts,

belong to either 11th or 12th Centuries. Palm leaves were not only used as

writing material but also in subsequent period, as base for in carving Arts

and paintings. Some in carved figures and attractive paintings over palm

leaf are housing in Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneshwar[7].

Birch Bark

Birch bark is popularly known as Bhoja Patra. It is the bark of

Bhoja tree abundantly found in the Himalayan region. A rich collection on

birch bark is found in Kashmir. The interior surface of the bark of Bhoja

tree resembles. to some extent, in smoothness, to the modern paper. Some

barks made out of the Bhoja tree are 60' in length resembling in shape to

the trunk of an elephant. One end of the bark is wider which constantly

reduces to the another end. Out of this long bark, the pieces of required

length and width were cut to write upon them. It is comparatively less

permanent than palm leaf and the modern day paper.

One of the oldest collections on birch bark belonging to the 8 th

Century A.D. and is popularly known as Ankaganit of Bakchali. Some

manuscripts collected from Takshashila are being preserved in National

Museum, New Delhi. These manuscripts are written in Brahmi and dates

back to 5th and 6th Century A.D. A religious work on Buddhism

Bhaishajuagyruvadurya Prabha Sutra written on birch bark belonging to

period 5th and 6th Century A.D. has been preserving in National Archives of

India, New Delhi. It is in Guptan script. A copy of Durgasaptashati written

on birch belonging to the period 16 A.D. has been preserved in Rajasthan

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Prachya Vidya Pratisthan Museum, Jodhpur. A few other manuscripts have

been housing in Maharaja Jaipur Museum, Jaipur. It appears that use of

Bhoja Patra as writing base was prevalent in nearly 5th Century A.D. in

India. Another important fact is that once the use of bark started, it

continued even after the invention of paper. In 17th Century, written letters

on the bark were often sent to Europe from America. Bark books were

common in Central India and the Far East until recent.

Some of the constituents of birch bark are the salts of Salicylic Acid,

which are regarded significant natural insecticides. That is why, the birch

bark collections are seldom attacked by any of the insects and pests.

However, the most common species attacking this materials bookworm or

book beetle also known as gastralus indicus.

Collection on birch bark are adversely affected by physical and

chemical agencies, leading the embattlement of the wealth. They are

vulnerable to dampness. Rough storage conditions marked with high

humidity, high temperature and dust promoting the growth of fungus and

sticking of manuscripts together forming a solid mass. Wet stuck mass of

manuscripts when dried, they split and powder easily on handling[8].

Sanchi Pateeya

Another bark which was used in India, for writing was the bark of

Agru Tree. To make liable for writing, the bark had to undergo mechanical

treatment and was called Sachi Pateeya in Assamese language.

On the basis of collections on Sanchi Pateeya available in India, the

antiquity of its use as writing material goes back to 15 th and 16th Century

A.D. A tantrik work of Buddhists Arya – Manjushrikalpa also mentions the

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use of ‘Agro Walkal’. It is almost certain that it was used in India (probably

in the North Eastern Region) around 6th or7th Century or even before it for

writing.

Tulipateeya

‘Tulipat’, a writing material used in the past, was neither the leaf nor

the bark of any tree. But it was a papyrus or paper like product prepared

from certain tree barks. After writing on Tulipat, it was called

‘Tulipateeya’. It was used in a large scale in the modern state of Assam.

Tulipat is generally found in three colours – red, grey and white. For

preparing White Tulipat, the bark of mabai tree and for dark grey coloured

Tulipat, the bark of Jamun tree is used[9].

Cotton Cloth

Cotton industry in India, had been very advance even in the ancient

period, much before the period of Christ. From the dressed female effigies

inscribed on gates of Stupa of Sanchi, it can easily be said that people of the

day were familiar with the feature of fine cloth. It is well known fact that

people of Pre-Mauryan age were familiar about the writing script. So the

possibility of the use of cloth, as writing material even in the year before

Christ can not be denied. Unfortunately no such old collection on cotton of

that period have come into notice so far. In Maharaja Jaipur Museum,

several tantric maps, palatial architectural designs on cotton have been

preserved. Most of these belongs to the period 17th or 18th Century. Several

Panchangs also of the period on cotton which are now in brittled state, have

been preserved by Maharaja Museum collection of Jaipur. Some old

“Panchangs” on textile are available in Rajasthan Prachaya Vidya

Pratisthan, Jodhpur.

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Likewise, in Shringeri Math in South India (now in Andhra), a huge

collection of ledgers are available. All these are on cloth and have more

than 300 years on their back. Both the surfaces of cloth, to prepare ledger

sheets, were specially treated with a paste prepared from the seeds of

“Imli”. The white chalk was used to write upon the sheets. These ledgers

were called “Kaditam”. The only book of cloth, containing 93 sheets has

been preserved in old, Grantha Bhandar of Patna. The title of the text is

Dharma Vidhi and has been written by Prabhasoori. Each sheet of the book

measures 13" x 5" in size.

To make the cloth liable for writing it is essential to make the

surface smooth and for that purpose, paste prepared either from flour or

starch of rice or melted wax was used. After drying, the surface to be used

for writing was rubbed either by “Shankha” or smooth stone or Akik. Not

only the cotton cloth but silk was also used as writing material.

Thus, we find that there were several types of material used as a base

for writing in the past.

3. Writing Materials

Besides the quality of the paper, ink also plays an important role in

the deterioration of paper. Ink, which is being used presently, has come up

after travelling a long course of development. Today it is available in

various colours but in the past, around 2nd Century B.C., it was mainly in

black and occasionally in red and blue. The world’s oldest ink used for

writing was known to the Romans as atramentum spectrum which was

sometimes simply called Atramentum. Another old carbonaceous ink

known to the people of the medieval age was encaustum, which was later

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known as iron gall ink and today as gallotannate of iron. On the basis of

use, inks may be divided in two groups:

1. Writing ink

2. Printing ink

Writing Ink

This ink further may be sub-divided in three groups viz. (a)

Carbonaceous inks, (b) Iron Gall inks, (c) Inks with provisional colouring

only

(a). Carbonaceous Inks

There are different types of inks, of which the earliest known is

possibly the carbon ink. Carbon ink was used in ancient Egypt, China and

India. It was prepared by mixing lamp black with a solution of glue or gum.

Sometimes, it was moulded into sticks and allowed to dry. Before use, the

ink was prepared by mixing the sticks with water. Solvents used for the

purpose were either water, or wine or vinegar. Carbon black was used as

colouring agent while arabic gum emulsified the oils in the blacks, provided

viscosity to the fluid, kept carbon particles in suspension and also acted as

binder to hold the particles of carbon to the paper or to any base on which it

was used. These inks are called manuscript inks also. The notable

characteristics of such ink is that these do not fade over a period of time.

They remain unaffected by sunlight and bleaching agents. It has also been

observed that the particles of gum and glue do not harm the paper fibre.

From archival point of view, these qualities in ink are regarded and valued.

These inks, however, possess two capital imperfections. First, these can

easily be washed from the documents and secondly smudge in dampness.

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Ainsworth Mitchell states that this type of ink was in common use until the

eleventh century when iron-gall inks began to come into prominence.

(b). Sepia Ink

Dictionary meaning of sepia is a kind of fish or a black brown

pigment used in painting. This pigment is discharged by the cattle fish in

order to cover retreat when attacked. Ink prepared from this colouring agent

got the name sepia after the name of mother fish. Like carbonaceous inks,

this ink is also dark in colour. It is believed that Romans first used it as ink.

So far as permanency is concerned, sepia inks are less permanent[10].

(c). Iron Gall Ink

According to Ainsworth Mitchell use of parchment and vellum made

iron gall inks essential since carbon-gum inks would not adhere to greasy

vellum and in any case could be readily removed by sponging. Therefore,

perhaps, two demerits of carbon inks, viz. smudging in damp weathers and

washability in water, led the path for discovery of Iron Gall inks. It is

prepared by dissolving an iron salt, like ferrous sulphate and glue or gum in

a liquid extract of nut galls soaked in water which in effect is a tannin. As

the ink is prepared by the action of iron with gall solution, it is known as

iron – gall ink. The other sources of tannin are bark of acacia (babool),

chestnut wood and bark and some leaves. When freshly made, the ink has

very little colour and can not be used but gradually on keeping, oxidation

takes place and a blue black colour develops. The oxidation of the ink

continues even after writing on paper. During this process, the ink fixes

itself permanently on paper. Iron gall ink remains legible for a long time

but through the action of chemical present in the paper, and of light, it

turned from black to brown. Oxidation of iron-gall ink leads to the

formation of acid. This acid, together with the hydrocholric or sulphuric

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acid mixed to the ink to improve its flow, has an adverse effect on paper.

Quite often, the ink has burnt, and in many a case, produced perforations in

the paper. Sometimes, it might migrate to adjacent sheets and affect them

also.

Many a time, a dye usually of blue colour is added to the iron-gall

ink, so that initially the writing is blue but turns to blue-black on oxidation.

The purpose of the dye is to give a brightness to the writing or fastness to

washing. A number of dyes have been used for this purpose, for example,

the extract of logwood or indigo. These days aniline dyes are commonly

used. By the addition of an aniline dye, the almost colourless freshly made

ink could be given sufficient immediate colour to avoid the necessity for a

preliminary oxidation, while sufficient acid could be added to slow down

the oxidation of the ink to such an extent that it did not quickly become

muddy in the inkwell. This iron – gall dye mixture became the popular

Stephens blue-black ink. It was easy to write with on sized paper, it became

deep black with age and was permanent enough for important archive work

but it was rather too acid for steel pens and on the danger line for paper.

Blue Inks Use of blue inks as writing material started a new chapter in the

history of ink. It is believed that first blue ink was manufactured from

indigo. According to some European scientists, Indigo was first made in

India from the leaf of indigofera tinctoria. According to Mitchell, indigo

was first time used in 1770 for preparing ink. The use of indigo to

manufacture blue ink continued till the invention of Prussian blue in 1800

A.D. After the discovery of new compound, Indigo was replaced by it.

However, despite of its demerits of smudging in dampness and washability

in water, the sphere of its users continuously increased. It was perhaps due

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to the merits of colour holding capacity, non-damaging character to the

paper fibres and remaining unaffected by certain micro-organisms. It has

also been observed that dyes manufactured with Indigo prohibit the growth

of micro-organisms. Another unusual characteristic of this type of writing is

that after machine lamination, it turns bright blue, but gradually attains its

original colour after few weeks or months. It is believed that it happens due

to the interaction of small fraction of acetic acid, which remain as residual

in the acetate film. Actually at high temperature, the acetic acid changes the

blue Indigo into Indigo white.

Blue Iron Inks

The ink prepared by adding finally powdered Prussian blue to gum

and water in suitable proportions, was termed as blue iron ink. Though,

writing with this ink is resistant to bright light and bleaching agents, yet it

gets affected with moderately strong alkalies and smudges in damping

climatic conditions. Many of the writings, with this ink, even after the lapse

of 100 years or more still posses the high degree of cluster[11].

Modern Inks

Although, iron gall inks are still extensively used for records where

permanence is important, they have been almost entirely superseded for use

with modern fountain and ball-point pens. Nowadays, the inks giving

brilliant colours and easy to be removed of their stains on clothes and on

hands, have gained popularity. Such inks were prepared by the ink

manufacturers keeping in view the increasing popularity if using fountain

pen for writing. But bad experience of impermanency and difficulty of

deciphering the faded writing over yellowed paper after aging, impelled the

industrialists to develop such inks also which may be used for permanent

records. Certainly, success was claimed in formulating such inks and they

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were known as Gallo Tennate fountain pen inks. This category of inks are

dye based and are available in multicolours such as red, violet, green and

blue etc. But presence of dye and low concentration of iron i.e. 0.1 % in

inks neither could restrict them to fade with age nor made it possible to

revive the writing with usual chemical treatments. And therefore, a new

fountain pen ink of this series with 0.2% iron contents was formulated for

permanent records.

The constituent materials to compose such inks are tennic acid,

ferrous sulphate crystals, gallic acid, oxalic acid, concentrated hydrochloric

acid, phenol, ink blue dye and distilled water which are mixed in fixed

proportion by weight as per procedure to give the required ink[12].

Fountain Pen Inks

Since iron-gall ink contains acids, it can not be used in fountain pens

and it also contains insoluble type particles that may cause clogging in

fountain pens. It has been replaced by solutions of synthetic dyes, which do

not have any suspension and are free from acids. However, they are not fast

to light hence are not permanent. Furthermore, they are soluble in water and

some other solvents and therefore, spread on being wet. This defect is

removed by the use of certain substantive dyes, which on drying are fixed

to the paper fibre. For permanence of the writing, some iron salts are added

to the ink.

In the modern fountain pen ink, there are several other substances,

like humectants, which means those substances which promote retention of

moisture. Some fungicides or algicides are also added to prevent

microbiological growth. Organic corrosion inhibitors are also added to

protect the metal components of the pen[13].

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Ball Point Inks

The ball point mechanism will work badly with an iron-gall ink, not

only on account of the muddiness which may develop with this kind of ink

but also because of its acidity. Inks of such pens is prepared by mixing

basic dye in fatty acid solution like oleic acid or acidic resins such as the

phthalate. Besides the basic dye, neutral dyes dissolved in suitable solvents

are also used. Solvents normally employed are low viscosity chemicals, for

example benzyl alcohol or glycol. Various synthetic resins are used as

thickening agents. Usually, ball pen inks are water-resistant but yield to

alcohol, acetone, dichloroethylene, choloroform etc.

Felt Tip Pen Inks

There is another variety of modern pen, known as felt-tip pen. Inks

of such pens are based on alcohol in which dyes – both anionic and

cationic, are used. There are other types of inks as well which are prepared

with alcohol or toluene – soluble resin as binding medium.

Indian Ink

Indian ink is a water – proof ink, normally black but sometimes

coloured also. It is prepared with dispersion of carbon black in a colloidal

solution of shellac, in which some glue is also added. These days, shellac is

replaced by synthetic resins. To get coloured Indian ink, dyes are used

instead of carbon black.

Printing Inks

Printing inks are prepared to meet the needs of printing presses.

Usually, it is more viscous, dense and less soluble than the normal writing

ink. They are prepared with pigments mixed in a varnish base. The

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proportion of the varnish oil is 70 – 80%. Boiled linseed oil, which is a

drying oil solidifying on oxidation is generally used as the binder. There are

different types of pigments or dyes mixed with oil to prepare the ink. Black

ink is prepared generally with lamp black or amorphous carbon. For white

ink, zinc oxide, titanium oxide, or aluminum oxide is used. Yellow inks are

prepared with chrome yellow or zinc chromate. For blue, ultramarine or

Prussian blue are used. For red coloured inks, vermillion, scarlet chrome

and madder were the usual materials.

Printing inks are more or less permanent and do not fade or flake.

Stamping Ink

Stamping ink is of a special type and is used to stamp seal on paper.

In earlier days, oil based carbon ink was in use to fix the seal on paper.

However, now a days, it is prepared by mixing solutions of a nionic or

cationic dyes in water/ ethylene glycol. There are also oil based stamping

inks in which fatty acids and oils are used as binders. Pigments or fat

soluble dyes are mixed with oils to produce the ink[14].

Typewriter Ribbon Ink

The typewriter ribbons are impregnated with carbon black and fat.

This type of ribbon was used in typewriter for the first time in 1900 A.D.

But advancement in typewriter technique has also influenced the

development of ribbon technology and today two major types of ribbons,

i.e. woven and foil ribbons are widely used. Woven ribbons are

impregnated either with carbon black or pigments or basic dyes in non-

drying oils whereas the dye is employed in transferable plastic layer or

wax[15].

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Pencil

There are many documents written with pencil also. Many of the

diaries written by the Indian poet Rabindra Nath Tagore are in pencil.

In ancient India, burnt tamarind twigs were used for making sketches

on paper. But the most popular material used now is graphite. It is an oil

shiny black substance which when rolled on paper leaves a mark on it. In

the beginning, graphite was used only in the form of a small stone. Later,

they were prepared into small squares and were then wrapped with a string

to form pencils. Still later, the graphite stick was inserted in the wooden

cover in which a groove was cut.

As the requirement for graphite increased, some other materials were

blended with graphite to reduce its consumption. These days, refined

graphite powder is mixed with clay and water and fixed in a kiln. By

varying the clay content, the hardness of the pencil lead is controlled. The

paste of graphite powder, clay and water is partially dried in the form of

putty and then forced through a device to manufacture the lead of desired

diameter. In the end, the lead is fired at about 10370C. Finally it is

impregnated with natural waxes to impart additional smoothness.

Pigments

Another material which is of considerable importance in

deterioration of paper is the pigment. Pigments of various types have been

used to paint on paper. They were also used on manuscripts either for

decorating the margins or at least to draw a line around the text. Sometimes,

manuscripts are also illustrated with paintings. Pigments are either of

mineral origin or artificially produced. Sometimes, vegetable dyes or

animal dyes have also been employed for painting. The pigment verdigris

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has a very damaging affect in paper. First of all it chars the paper and

ultimately, the paper is so much weakened in the areas where verdigris is

used, that holes are pierced in those places. Verdigis was a very common

pigment for painting in India and Iran.

4. History of Paper Making

Today paper has become a very common commodity used

extensively for writing and printing. However, this was not so all the time.

There was a period in the history of man when writing was not known and

communication was only through speech. Speaking which has been a

medium of transmitting ideas, has existed almost from the beginning of the

civilization. Man evolved the technique of oral communication by the use

of sounds that conveyed a message to the other person. In India, vedas were

transmitted from generation to generation only through hearing and

speaking and hence they were also called Shruti (that which is heard).

The next phase of evolution of human civilization was followed by

first drawing and then writing. Examples of these drawings and paintings

can be seen in the rock-cut caves of Lascaux in France, Bhimbedka in

Madhya Pradesh, and hundreds of other caves in Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.

After the prehistoric drawings and paintings on the walls of the caves, man

started to use other portable materials, like clay, cylinders or tablets, stone,

wood, metals, pottery etc. Later he discovered that certain types of leaves

like the palm leaves, barks like Bhoja-patra, cloth, papyrus, and parchment

and vellum could be used for writing either by incising or inscribing the

characters on the material. However, there still existed a need for a writing

material that was transportable and flexible[16].

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The earliest paper known is supposed to have been invented in China

by Tsai – Lun about 105 A.D. In the British museum, there is a piece of

paper, taken from the Great Wall of China, which dates from about this

time. It quite closely resembles fairly modern hand-made paper in

appearance and the torn edge shows a rough hairy texture which suggests

that it had not deteriorated mechanically at the time it was formed. The

early Chinese papers were made by stamping or beating hamp rags, ropes,

fish nets, and linen rags in mortars with water until a smooth paste of fibres

was obtained. This paste, diluted to a suitable consistency, was poured on to

linen fabric stretched on a wooden framework. When the greater part of the

water had filtered through, leaving a thin layer of wet matted fibers on the

fabric, the frame with the wet mat on it was allowed to dry in the sun. The

mat of fiber was then stripped from the fabric and cut to size and flattered.

Later, the linen fabric was replaced by bamboo strips held together by silk

threads, giving the first laid papers. This process closely resembles the

modern ‘hand –made’ technique, the chief difference being in the modern

practice of stripping the wet, newly formed sheet of paper from the mould –

the so called “couching” – in order to economize in the number of moulds

in use.

Some hundred years later, the invention spread from China, moving

east to Japan, south to India and west to Arabia. From Arabia it was carried

to Baghdad, Egypt and Morocco, reaching Spain during the twelfth century.

About this time, the Italian learned the process in Palestine and brought it to

Italy. From Spain the invention spread to France, Holland, Germany and

the rest of the Europe. Very soon, the Dutch became famous as the makers

of the best paper in Europe.

The manufacture of paper in India remained, until comparatively

recently, at the same primitive level of its introduction from China. In

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Japan, on the other hand, the original crude process was progressively

improved and perfected so that today some of the most beautiful hand-made

papers come from Japan.

In 1490, paper-making was started in England by John Tate at

Stevenage in Hertfordshire. Soon after this, James Whatman achieved

renown for his drawing papers : Balston of Maidstone still makes paper

with Whatman’s old watermark. The developments about this time were

largely in response to the rapid development of printing and the increase in

the demands of the printing press. Hand-made paper kept pace with these

demands until about 1800 when the paper making industry must have felt

the severe strain of the insatiable appetite of the printing presses.

In the mid-eighteenth century, the “hollander” beating engine had

been invented. It replaced the old slow stamping and macerating process in

mortars by a rapid and mechanical process and must have given valuable

help and renewed vigour to an overstrained industry. About 1800, the paper

machine was invented and its use spread rapidly and continuously.

Until the period of machine – made paper, the raw material used

were almost entirely flax (linen) and hemp. Later, cotton and then esparto

replaced these materials. Esparto was used principally in Europe where it

became and remained much more popular than in the U.S.A. Later, still the

various mechanical and chemical wood pulps were introduced. Esparto was

first used in 1852 and Tilghmann invented the sulphite pulping process in

1866. The sulphite processes made available the abundant and quickly

replaceable pine woods.

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Modern Paper

Paper was always regarded as a durable material in the past. As

books were rare and therefore, valuable, their owners expected a long life

for them. The earliest books were made from papyrus, which is similar in

composition to paper and is known to have lasted two or three thousand

years under good conditions of storage. Modern paper is less durable than

the old and we may find reasons for this in the developments in paper-

making that have taken place through out the ages[17]. However, the

mechanical strength of paper depends largely on the length and strength of

the individual fibre. Length of fibre is important since short fibres can not

be made to interlock so completely as the longer and more flexible fibres.

Quality depends largely on the nature of the fibre. Some fibres respond to

treatment in the beater than other. Some readily become gelatinous while

beating and tend to give hard raftly papers. Other readily fray out at the

ends and these frayed ends give an excellent interlocking action and lead to

strong tough papers[18].

Fibres Used for Making Paper

The chief fibres in use today are cotton-flax (linen), hemp, esparto,

straw and wood. In the raw state, all except cotton are impure forms of

cellulose, usually lignocellulose, and need some form of chemical treatment

to liberate the fibre is the form most suitable for making a good quality

paper. All the natural fibres are tubes, often collapsed to flat ribbons, and

the thickness of the walls of the tube is of great importance to the paper

maker. Following raw materials are used in making paper :

CottonCotton fibres are obtained from old rags or new cotton waste from

the industry[19]. The cotton fibre is about 25 mm. long by about 0.25 mm.

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thick. It consists of a flattened tube with thin walls and is twisted into a

corkscrew – like shape. Paper made from it is soft, flexible and bulky. The

fibres do not normally pack together very closely, but owing to their

corkscrew form, they can interlock and give strength to the paper made

from them. The cotton fibre is a very adaptable fibre and much sought after

for making good quality paper[20].

Flax

This is the best fibre, i.e. one from the inner bark of the plant. It is

about 25 mm. long and by about 0.02 mm. thick. It is therefore thinner than

the cotton fibre and its tube has a thicker walls. It is stiffer and stronger

than cotton, has a rounded section and is knotted at intervals along its

length. Linen was used by the Chinese for the first paper to be made in 105

A.D. It is used today for the tissues and cigarette papers but not much for

other kinds of paper[21].

Hemp

Several kinds of hemp are used. Many of them come from waste

rope and cordage, some from crops grown especially for paper making. The

fibre is similar to flax and consists of thick walled tubes. It is used chiefly

for thin opaque papers with great strength[22].

Esparto or Alpha Grass

This harsh tough grass grows in north Africa and southern Spain.

The fibres are fine, cylindrical and smooth, 1.5 mm. long by 0.012 mm.

thick. They are too short to impart much strength to paper made from them

which is silky, bulky and has a good uniform surface. It is much in demand

in this country for making printing papers but is not much used in the USA,

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probably because of the high freight charges that would be incurred in

transporting it.

Straw

Straw fibre is somewhat similar to but rather shorter than, that from

esparto. It was not much used in England owing to the high cost of

collection and uncertain supply of straws. It is much more popular in

Holland for cheap paper and strawboard because its collection has been

well organized. The Second World War cut off the supply of esparto to

England, and straw had then to be used. Since that time, esparto has again

become freely available and paper-makers have turned from straw, which is

rather more troublesome to process, to the esparto for which their plant was

originally designed[23].

Wood

The fibres of wood are of two very different kinds, depending upon

the method used for pulping. For mechanical wood pulp the logs of timber

are simply ground to powder on grindstones liberally supplied with water.

The fibre is short and brittle and is only used for the cheapest papers.

Newsprint consists largely of this fibre but it needs a certain addition of

chemical wood pulp to give it even the limited strength required for a

newspaper. Chemical wood pulp have fairly long fibres, though much

shorter than those of cotton or linen, and are smooth and silky. The conifers

– spruces and pines – give a rather longer and stronger fibre than that from

the deciduous trees – poplar and beech. The three processes used in the

chemical pulping of woods are known as the sulphite, soda and sulphate

processes. These fibres between them supply the part of the raw material

for the modern paper mill[24].

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5. Properties of Paper

The only property of paper in olden times considered by the writers

of that period was smooth surface liable for fantastic writing and painting

without showing any feathering character. However, in modern times,

paper is considered to have following characteristics.

Weight of the Paper

Weight of the paper is an important factor as most of the paper is

sold on weight basis only. It is expressed as gram per unit area rather than

gram per unit volume. It is expressed as G.S.M. (Gram per Square Meter).

Strength of Paper

Strength of paper differs in different directions and behaviour of ink

is different on both the sides of paper. Not only with ink, but with aqua base

adhesives also, the paper responses differently in both the sides, and

directions. Keeping these facts in view, the terminology relating to paper is

being given which will be of immense help to a paper conservator.

Machine Direction

The direction of paper of board paralleled to the direction of flow of

the pulp stuff while the paper or board is under making is called machine

direction. Actually, because of flow of sieve, the cellulose fibres of pulp try

to set themselvers paralleled to the direction of flow of machine and

because of it, the tearing strength of a paper is always greater in this

direction than the cross direction.

Cross Direction

The direction perpendicular to the machine direction of the paper is

cross direction. In order to determine the machine direction of a paper, a

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straight line is drawn on the plane of the paper and a circular piece of about

5 cm. diameter is cut out of the sheet. While the circular piece is being cut,

it should be ascertained that the line drawn is carried by the circular piece.

Now this test piece is floated over water, and the direction of curl is noted.

The axis of curl will be paralleled to the machine direction of paper. Now it

is easy to know the cross direction which will perpendicular to machine

direction.

Wire Side

The side of the paper which remains in contact of the sieve made of

wires, during the making of the paper is known as wire side of the paper.

Top Side

The opposite side of the paper to the wire side is called top side of

the paper.

The wire side of the paper is determined by examining the paper

under oblique illumination, using a low power lens. The wire side of the

paper shows the mash like structure. If the structure is not visible clearly,

the test paper is made moistened with water or with dilute caustic soda

solution. This causes the fibre to swell and usually makes the mesh

structure more clearly visible.

Water Mark

To make a distinction of papers of different kinds. They are water

marked. Bond and Ledger papers are especially water marked by

incorporating words, “Bond Paper” and “Ledger Paper”. Water marked

papers also display authenticity for their originality. This is the reason that

these marks are sometimes impressed on the surface to the paper by using

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chemicals, oils, fluorescence under U.V. light. Original water mark in paper

is incorporated at the time of moulding of paper. However, distinction

between original water mark and impressed one can easily be made by

applying ether over the mark. If mark is artificial, that will disappear after

applying ether while original water mark will remain unaffected.

Breaking Length

Breaking length of a paper is defined as the length of a paper or

board strip of uniform width required to cause the strip to break under its

own weight, when the strip is suspended from one end. It is expressed in

metres.

Paper strip hanged from one end.

Mathematically, breaking length in metres is expressed as follows :

Breaking length (in metres)

Tensile strength in Kg.per cm. width of test strip X 100000

Substance in gram per square metre

Figure – 1 : Breaking Length of Paper

Tensile Strength

The resistance shown by the paper to direct tension is known as

tensile strength. It is defined as the force required to break a strip of paper

of specified length and width of 15 mm. For testing of this strength, the

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tools which are used, known as tensile testers. Tensile strength is reported

in Kilogram for 15 mm.

A relation between breaking length (in meters), tensile strength,

length and weight of strip exists and that is expressed as under :

Length of Strip (metre)Breaking length (m) = Tensile strength x

Weight of Strip (Kg).

It is significant to note that length of the test strip influences the

tensile strength. The standard strip length is 180 10 mm but different

lengths can be used depending upon the size of the sample paper.

Bag and wrapping paper of higher tensile strength are always

regarded as a quality paper. But higher tensile strength is an important

characteristic in newsprint and other papers also to be printed on a web

press.

Folding Endurance

The number of double folds in opposite directions at the same point

to which paper will endure before its tensile strength falls under specified

tension of one Kg. is called folding endurance. There are two instruments

commonly used for folding endurance, the scupper, and the Mit. Previous

one was developed by German Papers Engineers and the latter by the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Stiffness

Stiffness of paper is related to brightness, rattle and other less

definable paper qualities. Paper made from highly beaten stock (bond and

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glassine) have higher stiffness than papers made from lightly beaten stocks

(Toweling and filter papers). Paper made from pulps containing

hemicellulose in high amount (e.g. straw pulps) are stiffer than the paper

made from pulps containing less amount of hemicelloluse (e.g. alpha

pulps). Papers made from short fibres (straw, ground wood, chestnut) are

generally stiffer than paper made from long fibres. Addition of starch or

sodium silicate to the pulp furnish, increases stiffness.

Stiffness is very important factor in box boards, because the utility

of a box depends upon its ability to resist bending when filled. Stiffness is

desirable in some types of papers such as typing paper, playing cards,

where the paper must stand upright during use. On the other hand, hard,

stiffness is undesirable in some grades of paper such as tissues, toweling,

printing and label papers. To lower the stiffness plasticizers are added to

glassine.

Durability and Permanence of Paper

Durability and permanence of a paper are very important terms to be

known for a paper conservator and custodian of records. Durability of paper

is defined as the capacity of paper to withstand handling while permanence

as the capacity of the paper to withstand time. The paper, which is tough

and rattle does not give a guarantee that it will last without loosing its

strength for a long time. Some papers, as newsprint really shows a good

strength while it is new but it decays with faster speed in normal climatic

conditions. On the contrary, some grades of paper, neither discolour nor

loose their strength for a long period of time say 100 – 200 years. The best

example of this type of paper is hand made papers prepared in cottage

industry in middle ages. The paper showing good strength while it is fresh

and new but disintegrating within a short period of time, is known as

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durable paper. But the paper which is capable to retain its strengrth amid

the adverse climatic conditions and normal storage condition is termed as

permanent paper.

In other words, durability of a paper is a physical characteristic

while permanence the chemical one.

A paper of permanent nature may be durable but a durable paper

may not be permanent.

Composition of Paper of Permanent Nature

In general, the composition of paper of permanent value should have

following characteristics :

(a). Physical Characteristics

(i). Folding endurance - Not less than under 250 double folds one Kg. tension

(ii). Burst Factor- 25

(b). Chemical Characteristics

(i). Rag Contents - 100%

(ii). Alpha Cellulose contents - Not Less than 85%

(iii). Copper number - 2

(iv). Ash Content - 2% maximum

(v). Rosin Content - Not more than 1.5%

(vi). pH Value - Not less than 5.5

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Copper Number

The copper number is expressed in terms of the number of

milligrams of metallic copper which is reduced from cupric hydroxide to

cuprous oxide in Alkaline medium by a given weight of 100 gm. of

cellulose material. Copper number of unaged paper ranges between .01

to .2 but for practical purposes, it is considered zero. A completely decayed

or disintegrated paper has a copper number 300[25].

6. Paper Making Process

Paper making process can be divided into three parts :

1. Hand made process

2. Machine made process

3. Paper – making operation in Mill

Handmade Process

The handmade process involves following steps in paper making[26] :

I. Beating

II. Paper making operation

a. Moulding

i. Wooven

ii. Laid

iii. Metal-wire mould

b. Couching

c. Drying

III. Sizing

IV. Finishing

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I. Beating

Beating or stamping of the stock material to separate the fibre is the

first step in paper making. The original Chinese method of beating was to

place the material with some water in stone mortars and beating it by means

of pestles or mallets, which were operated by hand. The process has

remained almost the same with minor variations like fermenting the soaked

pulp for a few days before adding lime or soda-ash for easy separation of

the fibres. In some countries, wooden mortars, instead of stone ones were

used for pounding. In India, wherever the production was more, the pulp

was prepared in a large stone mill in which a heavy stone was rolled by a

bullock. After the pulp is ready, it is washed well with water.

II. Paper – making operation

a. Moulding

After beating and washing, the pulp is suspended in water filled in a

tub or small tank and scooped out in the form of sheets with the help of

moulds which are of several types.

i. The Woven Mould

The woven mould is a preliminary type of mould prepared by

stretching a piece of woven cloth over a rectangular bamboo

stretcher. The first mould of the Chinese was probably of this type.

The mould was inserted in the tank filled with the suspension of

fibres in water, perpendicular to the water surface and then lifting it

from one side, it was brought to a horizontal position. It is then taken

out of the tank, when a deposit of fibres is formed over the cloth. In

another method, the suspension is poured over the mould, the water

is drained, retaining a sheet of felted fibres over the cloth. Either

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way, the mould with its deposit of fibres was placed in the sun and

allowed to dry. After all the water had evaporated, the paper sheet

was removed from the mould and allowed to dry completely. In this

type of mould, there is a major drawback, the paper sheet must be

reasonably dry, before it can be removed from the mould, and

therefore a large number of moulds are required for making paper

sheets. In some improved versions of mould, this difficulty is

removed, for example by using laid mould or metal wire moulds.

ii. Laid Mould

The laid type of mould is prepared by placing thin strips of

rounded bamboo side by side and tying them together at regular

intervals with silk or flex thread or combs or horse hair.

With this type of mould, it is possible to remove the wet sheet

of paper, without drying. These types of moulds were very much in

use in India. This was a great advantage in technological terms,

because with one mould, it was possible to fabricate a large number

of paper sheets.

iii. Metal Wire Mould

In Europe, the bamboo strips tied with hair was substituted by

a metal wire net, since bamboo was not easily available there. The

technique of using the moulds remain the same.

b. Couching

When the laid mould was introduced, wet paper sheets were placed

one over the other, without using any inter-leaving cloth. In Europe, thin

felt is placed between two wet leaves which are soaked in a heap and

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pressed with a screw press to allow the water to drain and then the paper

sheets are removed for drying.

c. Drying

The next step in the process of making paper was the drying of the

paper sheet. In India, drying of wet paper sheets was done mostly by

brushing them against a smooth well, like that of marble or lime masonary.

In this way, the sheets were held flat and when removed from the wall were

smooth, particularly on the side which was towards the wall. In China, in

early days, the papers were dried on the mould itself. In Thailand, sheets

are spread flat on boards or on the ground.

III. Sizing

In order to make the paper less absorbent, to prevent ink from

running, sizing was necessary. Sizing means application of a solution like

gelatin or starch on paper. In India, handmade paper was sized by applying

starch paste with brush. In some countries, the paper is dipped in solution.

IV. Finishing

For writing to be fine and smoothening of the paper surface is also

essential. In India, this is achieved by burnishing with an agate stone of

horn. A very shiny and smooth surface is obtained by this procedure.

Normally, burnishing is done only on one side of the paper, but since the

paper sheet rests against a smooth and hard board, the other side also

acquires a shine. By burnishing, the paper not only gets a shine, its pores

also get clogged and it becomes excellent for writing as well as for making

paintings in which fine lines are necessary.

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In Europe, smoothening of paper at least after the 17 th Century was

done with the help of a pressing hammer or by wooden glazing rolls which

gave the paper a uniform surface. In this machine, there are two large

rollers, through which the paper was passed[27].

Machine Made Process

In machine made process, the various steps are :

I. Pulp – making

II. Bleaching

III. Paper making

IV. Sizing

V. Filling

I. Pulp Making

With the invention of printing, there was an ever increasing demand

for paper. To meet this demand, a proper machine was invented, and since

plenty of raw material was required wood pulp was used. In the machine,

the process of sheet formation, drying and finishing is in one continuous

operation. Previously, only cotton rags were used as raw material.

However, soon after this supply was found insufficient and there was a

search for an alternative material. In today’s paper making, the main source

of cellulose fibres is wood pulp. It began to be used for this purpose since

the 19th Century. Some other sources are grass straw, bamboo etc. All these

materials contain besides cellulose, lignery binding materials and many

substances, which are carbohydrates, but do not possess the fibrous

properties of cellulose. In order to make the paper, it is necessary to

separate the lignery and most of the hammy substances from the fibres.

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This is achieved with the help of chemical digestion and bleaching. There

are several processes for this operation. The chemical wood pulp is

prepared by digesting wood with a cooking or pulping liquor at a

temperature of about 140 – 1800 c under pressure.

The oldest method for preparing wood pulp is possibly the soda

process in which the wood chips are boiled with a solution of caustic soda.

Then came the acid sulphate process in which the cooking liquour

contained calcium, sodium or ammonium bisulphite with plenty of

sulphurous acid. This process gave rise to several problems, particularly on

account of excess acid, which made the paper very weak. Therefore, some

modifications were done in this process. In the modified bisulphite process,

the liquor is less acidic and the chemical is magnesium or sodium

bisulphite.

In another method known as Neutral Sulphite Semi Chemical

(NSSC) process, the cooking liquor contains sodium sulphite plus sodium

bicarbonate. Thus, the solution is slightly alkaline.

Now-a-days, most of the paper is produced by what is known as the

sulphate or Kraft process in which the chemicals used are caustic soda and

sodium sulphite. Sodium sulphate is added from time to time to makeup for

the loss of the chemicals, and it is thus known as the sulphate process

II. Bleaching

By the process of chemical pulping, all the lignin is partially

removed and the colour of the pulp is therefore slightly tar or brown, which

is removed by the process of bleaching. The most important finishing

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chemicals are chlorine, hypochlorites, chlorine dioxide and hydrogen

peroxide. These chemicals are normally used in one of several sequences to

conserve the chemical and to lessen the degradation of cellulose and other

ingredients present in the pulp. There are other intermediate steps of

washing and alkaline extraction.

When extra pure pulp containing alpha cellulose is required,

treatment with hot dilute caustic soda solution is carried out. Even cotton is

sometimes used for making paper by machine, but only to a very limited

extent. Only when a superior quality paper is required, for example for

ledger, drawing, etc. cotton is used. Sometimes, cotton fibres are mixed

with purified wood pulp to bring down the cost. Cotton materials are

purified for paper making with lime or soda ash followed by bleaching.

It would be obvious from the above account, that normally wood-

pulp is much inferior in quality to the pulp used earlier for making paper by

hand. This is so not only due to low cellulose content in the pulp, but also

because of the various chemical processes through which the pulp has to

pass, before it is suitable for making paper. Thus, generally speaking, in the

machine made paper, fibre length is short and there is also the presence of

acidic remains, either from the cooking liquor or from the bleaching

solution. This is one of the main reasons for the less durable nature of the

19th and 20th century papers as compared to the papers of earlier periods.

Modern paper becomes acidic and brittle very soon, resulting in the loss of

strength.

Paper is also produced from pulp prepared from wood by

mechanical users without the use of chemicals. The pulp is made by

grinding peeled logs of wood against a rotating abrasive stone under a

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stream of water or by grinding chips in a grinding stone mill. However, the

mechanical pulp contains all the components of the wood from which it is

made, except what is removed by water.

III. Paper Making Operation in Mills

The paper machine in a mill has a complex mechanism for

performing all the steps of sheet formation, pressing and drying. Basically,

the principle is the same as that of hand made paper.

There are some differences also, for example in paper mills, the

paper goes through a process known as calendering. In calendering the

paper is passed through horizontal cast iron rolls with chilled hardened

surface. By calendering, the smoothness and gloss of the paper surface is

increased.

IV. Sizing

For sizing the paper, the material normally used consists of rosin

dissolved in an alkali. Alum is then added to precipitate compounds of

aluminium and rosin which are absorbed by the paper fibres. However,

alum also acidifies the paper (pH 4.5 – 5) affecting its durability.

Sometimes starch, glue and wax emulsions are also used as sizing

materials. These days, emulsions of synthetic resins are used instead of

natural rosin.

V. Filling

In machine made paper, we also find the use of fillers which are

added to paper pulp to make it white, less transluscent and fit for printing.

Some of the common fillers are kaolin, barium sulphate, titanium white,

chalk, gypsum, magnesium silicate etc.[28].

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7. Factors for Deterioration of Paper

Paper materials including manuscripts, documents, books and

paintings are all subject to various forms of deterioration. Initially, the

paper may be strong and white, but in due course of time, on account of

physical, chemical and biological factors, their properties undergo change

and they deteriorate and get damaged.

There are various types of damages, which may be found in paper

documents. They may be listed as :

i. With age, the paper may become weak, sometimes it gets so

weak that it is broken into pieces.

ii. There may be colour alteration in it and it may get yellowed.

iii. Dust and dirt may be present on the surface.

iv. Insects of various types may damage the document.

v. Fungi may be actively present or might have damaged the paper

in the past.

vi. The document may have got stained by various means, for

example, there may be water stains, fungus stains, oil stains, ink

stains or simply dirt stains.

vii. Water may have affected the paper at some time, and besides

staining, it may have made it limp.

viii. In prolonged contact with water, it may become soggy.

ix. The sizing materials may have deteriorated, making the paper

loose or soft.

x. The document may not be complete, and some part may be

missing.

xi. If the paper is kept folded, it may have become weak or may

have broken at the creases.

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Thus deterioration of paper takes place due to various agencies

which may be grouped as[29] :

Biological,

Physical, and

Chemical

Enemies of Library Wealth

Enemies responsible for decay Enemies responsible for biodeterio-ration and physical damage

Environmental Atmospheric Acidityfactors such as polluting fact-heat, light, etc. ors such as aci-

dic gases, water vapours, solid particulates etc.

Biodeterioration I Biodeterioration Intrinsiccaused by insects caused by elements dangersand animals of plants

Figure – 2Biological Factors

In tropical countries, the danger of damage to books by termites,

cockroaches, silverfish, moths and other insects always exist[30]. It is a

common experience in recent rooms and repositories and in the places

where climate is hot and moisturous that sometimes, specially in rainy

season, quite a few insects are found hidden in the pages of books, files and

in the dark and neglected corners of the room. If one has dealt with old

collection of books or files, they might have come across many volumes

whose pages bear irregular pinholes near the spine which are difficult to be

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contrived. In the tropical and sub-tropical regions as in India and other parts

of world, such damages are commonly caused by the insects, and they are

such enemies who do physical harm to records and may be termed as

records bug. The species of such insects can be divided in following two

main groups :

(a). Zoological agents

(b). Botanical agents

(a). Zoological Agents

Silverfish

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The silverfish, lepisma saccharina has received many names,

viz., silver-moth, sugar louse, sugar-fish, fish-moth, and slicker are

some of them. Occasionally, they have been confused with the

bookworms. It is wingless, carrot shaped insect and is known as

“bristled fair” also. It feeds on starch, photographic gelatin and glue

which are available over the surface of the sized or coated paper and

photographic prints. In physical structure, it is hardly about one cm. in

length but slim and almost silvery in colour. In shape and movement it

much resembles to fish and hence getting the name silverfish.

A temperature range between 160C to 230C and relative

humidity above 55% provide favourable conditions for its growth and

multiplication. To get at glue, they damage the bindings of books,

especially when they are of leather, ordinary cloth, or rayon fabric,

they eat gum from postage stamps, envelope flaps, and date labels;

they gnaw holes in papers, prints, photographs, catalogue cards and

cardboard boxes. Although, most active at night, they may be

encountered at their work of destruction during the day in dark places

such as drawers of desks.

Cockroaches

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Cockroaches are said to have appeared in the Silurian age long

before even the stegosaurus, the diplodocus and the pterodactyl, but,

whereas these other horrors became extinct aeons ago, the cockroach

has persisted and multiplied, therefore, all librarians and housewives

in warm countries are quite familiar with it. This insect, known also as

“steambug” is found all over the world. The brownish tan or black or

tea coloured shiny, flat and winged insect occurs in various species

and commonly found in cities where climate remains hot and

moistened. In such cities, this insect can be seen in toilets, which are

not generally washed with acids and chemicals like phenol. In

libraries, they are attracted by the adhesive used to stick cloth or

buckram to the binding board, by the starch stiffening added to some

binding cloths, by other pastes and glues employed in binding, and by

certain dyes. Their flattened bodies allow them to hide by day behind

skirting-boards beneath floors, and in crannies and dark corners of all

kind. As soon as it is dark, they emerge from their hiding places, find

their way to books, and start gnawing and sucking the book covers. In

addition to gnawing books, they emit a dark ink like liquid which

defaces the pages of books and anything else across which they

scuttle. In addition to the damage they do to book covers, cockroaches

are suspected of spreading leprosy, poliomyelitis, cholera, typhoid

fever and dysentery.

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Beetles (Bookworms)

Bookworms have been notorious ever since the making of

books began. They have attacked palm leaf manuscripts in India.

Aristotle mentioned them as a pest; in modern times their attacks have

been so spectacular as to constitute plagues. They are said to be

capable of eating arsenic and lead – anything except cast iron. This

‘worm’ is actually the larva of a beetle or rather it may be the larva of

anyone of one hundred and sixty species of beetles. The eggs are laid

on the edges of books and the larvae when they hatch, soon burrow

into the books, riddling them with tiny tunnels. Most of these

bookworms are small dark brown or reddish brown beetles. They fly

into libraries through open or unscreened windows or crawl in below

ill-fitting doors. Beetles can easily digest cellulose, and therefore for

their food they attack the pages of books or files which are rich source

of their food.

Book Lice (Psocoptera)

Psocids or book lice are small grey or pale yellow insects with

soft bodies and jaws well developed for the purpose of chewing. They

may some times be found among older, little used volumes that have

become damp and it is alleged that they injure the bindings of such

books by eating the paste or glue. It seems more likely that they feed

on the micro-fungi which form on book bindings under damp

conditions of storage. But it has been experienced that book lice are

not noticed in the books, which are constantly used. They are very

small so do very little damage to books. However, leather objects are

generally damaged by these insects.

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Moths

The occurrence of this moth is reported from South Eastern

Asian countries like India, Australia and Sri Lanka. It also occurs in

Western European countries and North America. The moths, which

are brown in colour, are commonly known as “House Moths” and

feed on glue and starch. So this insect generally attacks bound books

and some time loose sheets also. The attack by moths is generally

followed due to poor storage conditions. Sometimes cocoons are

found on the shelves in bad infestation.

Cricket

In the tropical regions, this insect is found very active and

every year in India, a considerable chunk of foodgrains, after

harvesting of Rabi crop, is eaten by this insect. Its attack is not limited

to the crop only, but is extended to the pages of files and books also.

In the libraries and record rooms where storage conditions are better

and records are constantly used, the presence of this insect is almost

negligible. But, where records, after housing once, are left dump, the

open surface of files, edges of documents are cut into pieces by this

insect. Most of the collections, not in frequent use, are generally

attacked by this insect and thus, document get damaged.

Rats and Rodents

Rodents like rats are another great enemies of paper objects.

Rats are a major threat to all types of books, photographs,

manuscripts, textiles and other organic materials as they tear them

into small pieces .

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Termites

Termites are often called white ants, but they are neither ants

nor white. There are known to be 1,861 species of them, they have

been on earth for more than two hundred million years, as compared

with man’s one million years. Though Africa is their headquarters

but they exist in all warm countries. The food of termites includes

grass, humus, dried plants, timber, wood-work of buildings, other

furnitures, library books, files, photographs, valuable pictures and

frames and catalogue cards and cabinets. If they invade a library in

force, they can do irreparable damage in a single night.

There are two categories of termites namely wood dwellers

and ground dwellers. The latter group can be further classified in

three sub-groups :

i. Subterranean termites

ii. Mound building termites and

iii. Carton nest building termites.

Subterranean termites are responsible for causing damage to

buildings, books and manuscripts or any other objects or organic

nature. The main shelter or abode of this insect rests under the

ground. They reach to their food indirectly by burrowing through the

earth and buildings covered runways.

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The galleries of subterranean termites follow the grain of

wood, which they secretly and silently eat away and thus the serious

damage is done quite much before their presence is noticed. One of

the important requirements for the existence of termites is the need

of higher percentage of humidity. Concrete, bricks, marbles, stones

and other hard substances which are un-penetrable for termites are

by passed over by granular earth like shelter tubes.

The objects mostly attacked by the termites are wood, any

other article made of paper, and any material which is rich in

cellulose. Wood and paper both contain a large percentage of

cellulose. Besides, pulp products, paste boards, rolls of cloth and

leather are also rich source of food material required by termites.

Another important habit of termites is that they hate some metals

like zinc and copper and their compounds and show their disliking to

downward slopes, exposed points, edges, dryness and bright light.

If the books and manuscripts get infested by termites, they

can be destroyed and damaged in no time. They move from one

place to other through earthen channels which they construct on the

walls which are often sure indication of the presence of termites[31].

(b). Botanical Agents (Micro-organisms)

Micro-organisms specially bacteria and bacteria like

organisms are of very early origin. They existed some 3.5 – 4 billion

years ago. Micro-organisms have the natural capacity to multiply

very fast, this is due to the simplicity of their structure and the

fastness with which they can absorb the nutrients. Another important

property of micro-organisms is the capacity of their spores to travel

ling distance in air or water and their presence in all types of

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feasibilities. They can survive in all kinds of environments not only

in the atmosphere but also on earth and under water. They even

develop resistance to chemicals, which are toxic to them. Therefore,

most of them are instrumental in the decay of materials including

library and archival objects. As such, the first step, to deal with

microorganisms are to know their nature and their reproduction

habits.

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Fungi

Fungi are the most notorious of living things, occurring

wherever there is organic matter upon which they can subsist. Most

are too small to be seen with the naked eye. These plants are quite

diverse in structure, but all lack chlorophyll, the green colouring

matter of the plants. They are either parasites, living on and

absorbing food from other living plants, or saprophytes which live

on dead or decaying organic matter. The difference between fungi

and plants of higher order is physiological resulting from those food

habits. Green plants absorb carbon di-oxide from the air and with the

aid of their chlorophyll in the presence of light and moisture, covert

it into carbohydrates for tissue building and growth. Since fungi

have no chlorophyll, they must get their carbohydrates from other

organic matter. Another distinguishing characteristic of these plants

is that they grow much better in darkness than they do in light[32].

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Most of fungi grow between the temperature 00C and 350C,

but optimum temperature lies in the range of 200C to 300C.

Development of fungi takes place by the germination of a conidium

or spore of fungus on a suitable matter. They start to germinate in

wet conditions. Spore wall bursts and a germ-tube develops. With

time, this germ-tube grows further and takes the form of a hypha.

The body of fungus is composed of these hyphae, resembling like

branding threads and called mycelium. The growth of more fungi

may also take place if any part of the mycelium is transferred to a

subject strata[33]. Fungi prefer an acid medium for growth. That is

why the records in the repositories where dust particles are layered

up, are attacked by fungus during rainy season. Dust particles

actually absorb the moisture from air. Acidic gases, present in the air

mixed with moisture are also got absorbed with the dust particles. So

they provide the acidic medium and act as nucleus for growth of

fungus, whose spores are found present in atmosphere. For

expansion, fungus gets the material to form new cells from paper

which is rich in cellulose. Cellulose in paper products and cloth book

cover, glue in bookbindings and wooden shelves and collagen in

leather provides sufficient nourishment to fungi.

Mould and mildew are interchangeable term and can be

recognised by the progeny masses (colonies) of spores formed on the

surface of materials. Dampness sustains the growth of mildew. The

molds damagial to paper material can also cause fading of certain

inks. It is difficult to restore the writing faded by this agency[34].

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Usually, fungi grow rapidly in moist places such as

basements and rooms without ventilation. Rooms, which are not

opened for long periods, develop a misty odour, which is indicative

of fungal growth. Good ventilation is very necessary for prevention

of fungus. Fungus may grow even in air-conditioned rooms, which

are without adequate circulation of air.

There is very characteristic difference between the damage

caused to the paper by acidity and that caused by fungus. While the

fungi make the paper soft and weak, it may still be possible to

handle it and fold it without causing any damage. On the other hand

with acidity, the paper may become so fragile and brittle, that it may

break into pieces on mere touching.

The action of fungus may sometimes be very slow, requiring

from several months to several years before its presence or the real

damage caused by it is detected. The appearance of colour is not the

only indication for the growth and the presence of fungus, since

there are several varieties of fungi, which produce little or no colour.

While there are others which produce a great amount of colour with

almost no growth. The intensity of the color imparted by fungi is

also influenced by the acids produced by them. The loss in the

strength of the paper may in fact be the only indication of the

damage by fungus. Due to the effect of fungus various adhesives like

starch glue and paste may break down and get converted into other

materials, resulting in the loss of the sizing of the paper, making it

soft and absorbent. If the effect of fungus continues, the paper may

be reduced to pulp.

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Fungus also affects leather and other materials of the binding.

It may grow on inks, particularly those which have a component of

gum or glue and also iron gall ink which are specially susceptible to

fungus. Owing to the attack of fungus, the inks may fade, sometimes

almost completely. Modern researches on the fungal devastation

have brought to our notice the fact that resistivity of paper against

fungi depends upon the chemical treatment given to it at the process

of manufacture. A paper with pH range of 5.5 to 6 is extremely

resistant to mildew. Machine made pulp are more susceptible to

fungal attack than handmade rag paper. Unsized paper, because of

their high hygroscopic character are much more vulnerable than

sized paper. Likewise papers bleached with chlorine are susceptible

while calendered papers because of being smoother and less

hygroscopic, are resistant to molds. Certain gelatines promote the

mold attack whereas some resins oppose it.

Foxing

The growth of brown spots on paper of all types is very

common. This phenomenon in the conservation literature is referred

to as foxing. It is now commonly believed that the foxing stains are

the result of the effect of the organic acids produced by the fungi and

also in some cases due to the effect of chemical action of iron

impurities in the paper. It is not necessary that the moisture must be

present in great quantities for spots to grow. The extent of foxing

spots present in the paper depends on the impurities present in it. It

has also been observed that papers of the earlier periods, for example

of the 14th or 15th centuries, which contain almost pure cellulose, are

less affected than the papers of the 18th or 19th centuries.

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Yeast

Other micro-organisms like yeasts may also cause

deterioration of paper materials. Ascomycetes is a group which

belongs to this class. Yeast cell walls contain chitin as well as fat.

One group of yeast may cause reddish colouration of paper

materials. There are some varieties like canadida which destroy

leather and animal glue.

AlgaeIn fact, algae have very little role to play in the deterioration

of materials. However, sometimes they have been detected on

subjects, which receive maximum sunlight. Normally, they are to be

found on the surface of buildings, stones, etc. and are of not much

consequence to paper.

Effect of Micro-Organisms on Materials

(a). Effect on Paper

Some micro-organisms are found only accidentally on paper

and do not cause any harm to it. Some of them may be attracted to

the paper because of the presence of some nutrients like oils, dust,

adhesives or similar other materials. The micro-organisms present on

the paper, for whatever reason, may not only stain the paper but also

consume the cellulose and weaken the fibres completely and

perforate the sheet to a great extent. Thus, micro-organisms have a

double action, namely discolouring and weakening of material. A

colony of fungus may contain both species, namely the ones which

produce colour and the ones which decompose the cellulose.

(b). Effect on Adhesives

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Biological agents may also destroy adhesives like gum,

animal glue or even synthetic products used for paper manufacture

or for their repair. Starch paste is one of the oldest and cheapest

adhesive used for paper objects. Starch is produced from wheat,

barley or rice. Whatever may be the substance, which attracts fungus

will ultimately affect the paper. Starch adhesives are also affected by

microbial enzymes like amylase when this happens, the paper not

only becomes weak but the spines of books and binding loosen their

strength too.

Animal glue solutions have been used for sizing old and for

the repair of paper. However, in the modern methods of

manufacturing paper, they are rarely used. Animal glue is largely

used for book binding, and the spines of manuscripts and books are

specially susceptible to the growth of micro-organisms

As compared to the adhesive of vegetable or animal glue,

synthetic adhesives are more resistant to degradation by micro-

organisms.

(c). Effect on Ink

Writing ink, which contains glue or gum is also attacked by

micro-organisms, particularly by fungus. Iron-gall ink too is effected

by some micro-organisms. It has been found that 0.1% solution of

O-phenyl or phenol inhibits completely the growth of ink

decomposing fungus.

(a). Effect on Paints

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Different types of paints like water colours, pastels, crayons

prepared by mixing a binding medium like gum or animal glue with

pigments were used to paint upon parchment, palm leaf, paper and

other writing materials. All such types of paints are susceptible to

attack by fungi and other micro-organisms. Sometimes, it is

observed that paintings prepared with water colour and postel fade

completely due to the effect of fungus.

Micro-organisms affect the paints and varnishes in three

distinct types of damages :

i. The paint film is broken down mechanically because

the binding medium is destroyed.

ii. The paint colour may be altered on account of

metabolic products of microorganisms, such as

hydrogen sulfide.

iii. Enzymes produced by microorganisms may digest the

materials of the paint.

Paint materials contain different types of organic substances

like natural vegetable oils, fatty acids, sugars, honey, gum, glue, etc.

all of which are excellent nutrients for fungi. Dust particles, which

are present on the paper manuscripts and the paintings, also have

great effect on the growth of fungus. In fact, water absorbed by

paper is more instrumental in the growth of fungus than the actual

relative humidity present in the atmosphere. Sometimes,

condensation of moisture on the paper may give rise to the rapid

growth[35].

Physical Factors

151

Constituents of physical surroundings are basically responsible for

defining the climate of a region. Frequent change – apart from the

individual effect of a constituent elements of climate, is concerned to the

Library world, so far as their preservation is concerned. A vast difference in

day and night temperature in tropical and sub-tropical regions induces the

rapid decay of organic materials. It is noticed that with time, paper gets

physically weak and brittle. The main cause of physical deterioration are

light, heat, moisture and handling. While light, heat and moisture bring

about photochemical changes or oxidative changes in paper, mishandling or

neglect may cause mechanical damage. On account of these factors, the

paper may become yellow and may get progressively brittle, breaking down

by even the slightest touch.

(i). Heat

The degradation caused by heat and temperature is almost the

same as temperature is nothing but the measurement of quantum of

heat. It can be said that heat adversely affects the fibres of cloth,

paper and other allied materials that are organic in nature. The

general effect of heat on materials of archivo-library wealth may be

summarised to the extent that it accelerates the process of

deterioration, mould growth, dries out adhesives, causes

embrittlement of paper, leaves skins and barks of all kinds and

results in buckling of film and tape. Precisely, the heat has more

degrading influences on cellulose than acids and oxidising agents.

Cellulose dried in excessively high temperatures looses flexibility

and hygroscopicity because of dehydration. The loss of

hygroscopicity and smelling ability on heating can be understood by

increased hydrogen bonding between adjacent cellulose molecules or

152

by forming the chemical linkage between adjacent cellulose

molecules.

Obviously, the heat and the moisture are the climatic factors,

which play a dangerous role in weakening the life of paper, books

and allied materials and so in order to protect them from decay, they

should be provided with suitable temperature and humidity.

(ii). Light and Its Effect

Light is another factor which causes damage to the paper and

allied material. The disaster caused by this physical agent is two

fold: firstly, it destroys the strength of all the information carriers

organic in nature, i.e. paper, leather, film, etc. by setting up a process

called photochemical deterioration and secondly, it fades up the ink

and colours. Before detailing the disastrous effect of light over the

material, it is important to be familiar with the types of light and its

nature.

The orthodox explanation of light is an aid with the help of

which an object can be seen. But scientifically, light is a form of

energy, radiated from every illuminant source, which propagates in

waveform. Light waves are termed to be electromagnetic in nature.

White light is composed of various wavelengths, each associated

with different colours. Sunlight is the purest form of white light and

composed of visible and invisible regions, ultraviolet and infra red

are very prominent from the stand point of conservation of archivo-

library material.

The Ultraviolet Region

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This region is divided into two regions called ‘near’ and ‘far’

two regions and whole the region lies between wavelengths 136 Ao

to 4000 Ao.

The Visible Region

A range between wavelengths 4000 Ao to 8000 Ao is termed

as visible region, which is also known as white light region. This

region is composed of seven colours namely Violet, Indigo, Blue,

Green, Yellow, Orange and Red. These seven colours in the age of

Rigveda represented seven horses, carrying sun-ridden chariot.

Obviously, it indicates that the sages of that time had the deep

knowledge of solar system and physics.

The Infra-Red Region

This region is also known as Heat-Ray region. Roughly, this

region is located between the wavelengths 8000 Ao to 4 x 106 Ao.

Actually, some portion of this region overlaps with the Hertzian

region which occupies the place extreme to the Infra-Red region.

The most fundamental characteristic of UV rays is that they

are penetrative because of their shorter wavelength. Another

characteristic is that they are observed by most of the substances and

cause luminescence. Ultra-violet rays are generally treated as the

destructive source for archives and library materials.

Taking into account the source of origin of light, it can be

divided into two main groups, Natural and Artificial. The sun is the

main source of natural light in the solar family, while various

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sources of artificial light are available and they can be divided in

Incandescent and Fluorescent light[36].

Light, produced by something to white hot, as filament

resisting an electric current in a glow lamp or burning of any fuel,

falls under the category of incandescent light. This category of light

is free from ultra-violet radiations while fluorescent light is

associated with it. Ultra-violet light is radiated by absorption of

electricity by fluorescent materials. It is brighter in nature. All the

brighter lights are found associated with the ultra-violet radiations.

The light emitted by the mercury tube or mercury bulbs is the best

known example of fluorescent light.

Researches carried out in the field, reveal the fact that the

association of ultra-violet radiation with light, decides its damaging

character. Obviously, the day light and tube lights are more

dangerous for records and materials of libraries than incandescent

light produced by the glowing of bulbs etc.

Ultra-violet rays and other rich light sources are particularly

destructive. Ultra-violet radiation upto 360 nm causes loss of

strength and oxidation of cellulose. The rate of deterioration when

exposed to radiation below 360 nm is very rapid. It is also observed

that the effect of light on paper is enhanced in the presence of acidity

and is very much dependent on the type of material the paper is

made of. The photochemical stability of papers is related to the

nature and origin of the materials used in their manufacture and it

declines in the following order : new rag refined sulphide paper, old

rag, soda sulphite and newsprint. However, the phenomenon is quite

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complex and is influenced by the presence of materials like glue,

resins, alum, iron, lignin and other substances. Other materials which

are used in book-making like binding materials, cord, cloth, leather,

various types of plastics, adhesives etc. are also deteriorated by light.

Dyes and inks often fade due to the effect of light.

Sometimes, the writing may disappear completely on prolonged

exposure to light. In this respect, carbon-ink is far superior to other

types of inks[37].

Physical Embrittlement Caused by Light

To understand precisely the action of light for physical

deterioration of cellulose material, it is essential to know the

structure of cellulose fibre, which is the polymer of Beta glucose

monomer. Millions of monomers when link up in a straight form, a

cellulose fibre is formed, as shown in the Figure – 7. Naturally, there

exists a minor gap between the two monomers.

Light propagates either in waveform or photons as shown in

Figure – 8.

When a document is exposed to light, visible to invisible, it

falls over the documentary materials. Irrespective of their form,

wavy or photons. It strikes the gap between monomers also apart

from other regions of fibres as shown in Figure–9.

If this attack continuously happens to continue for years

together, the bond between the monomers is weakened and because

of that cellulose fibre breaks into pieces and as a result, texture of

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paper or cloth becomes loose and over all strength of paper sheet is

got reduced or embrittlement of paper occurs. This action of light

over cellulose fibre will be very similar to the example quoted

below.

If a rope is tied between two pegs A and B as shown in Figure

–10 and a particular point C on it is striked by a rod repeatedly for a

long time, it will result in weakening the rope at point C. Ultimately,

a time will come when the rope will break from this point[38].

In case of light, cellulose fibres are ropes and rays of light are

rods, which are striking the rope like cellulose at various points. As

stated above, if light is falling over the material for a long time, it

will result in loosening the texture of paper and ultimately

weakening its strength.

Beta glucose unit

Alpha cellulose fibre o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o

Gap between two monomers (glycosytic bound)

Figure – 7Structure of Cellulose Fibre

Light propagates either in wavy form or in the form of photons as

shown below :

Source of Light

Photons

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Photonic Form of light

Figure – 8Wavy and Photonic Form of Light

o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-o-oWavy Form Photonic Form

Figure – 9Display of light falling over the document

Rod

Peg A C Peg B

Rope

Figure – 10Showing Rope striking by rod.

Moisture Content (Humidity)

The moisture content of paper also plays an important role in

its stability. Low humidity causes paper to dry out and become

brittle, while on the other hand, with high moisture content, the

paper becomes limp and soggy. High humidity also encourages the

growth of micro-organisms.

A temperature of 200 – 240C and relative humidity of 55% are

most effective for preservation of paper records. However, this type

of climate must be maintained for all the 24 hours, and throughout

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the year. Even a poor quality paper may survive long, if kept in

controlled climate[39].

Chemical Deterioration

It is very difficult to make a distinction between physical and

chemical deterioration of paper. It is only for understanding the

phenomenon that certain types of deterioration for example caused by light,

heat and humidity have been included under physical deterioration.

Although it is very well known that these agencies also cause chemical

action like photochemical action, oxidation, hydrolysis, etc. Under the

heading chemical deterioration are included those actions which brought

about by the chemicals present in the paper or in the atmosphere[40].

Atmospheric Polluting Factors

Atmosphere is represented by various gases, mineral and dust

particulates, smokes and moisture. These representatives of atmosphere

differ in quantum from place to place. Similarly, fine dust particles are

mostly available in every type of atmosphere but particles of geological

origin and chemical nature join the atmosphere of the regions where various

factories vibrate, volcanoes burst and quarrying functions. Similarly, the

internal atmosphere of modern archives and libraries where modern means

of storage and preserving materials are used, but if proper norms of their

safe use are not practised upon is represented by totally new gases. Most of

these are disastrous for the longevity of documentary wealth[41].

All pollutants may be grouped as follows :

(1). Gas Pollutants

(a). Exterior gas Pollutants

(b). Interior active gas pollutants

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(2). Solid Particulates

Exterior Gas Pollutants

Normally, the following gases are present in atmosphere :

i. Nitrogen

ii. Sulpher dioxide and Carbon monoxide

iii. Carbon dioxide

iv. Oxygen

v. Ammonia

vi. Ozone

vii. Hydrogen Sulphide

viii. Noble Gases

Oxides of Nitrogen

Oxides of nitrogen are formed on heating air to high

temperature as in the case of flames, and lighting. Oils, gases, wood

and coal used for combustion in engines, furnaces and boilers also

produce oxides of nitrogen. Besides, cellulose nitrate base films in

archives and libraries form the basis to generate these oxides.

Sulpher dioxide

Sulpher dioxide is mostly formed by the combustion of oils,

coal and pyrites. It is needless to mention that these combustible

materials are largely used as fuel and as source of energy for running

industries and various types of transport means. The remarkable

characteristics of oxides of nitrogen and sulpher dioxide are that they

dissolve readily in water and form respective acids. Nitrogen oxide

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forms nitrous as well as nitric acid whereas sulphur dioxide forms

sulphuric acid.

Because of affinity to water particles of these gases, in

presence of excess of humidity or moisture, mix-up with moisture

homogenously and absorbed by the wood, paper, textiles and leather

objects being hydroscopic in nature. In unwashed and uncontrolled

internal atmosphere of Archives, Libraries and Museums or any

other place where materials of this nature are housed, this process

continues and the concentration of these acids reaches to an alarming

stage resulting in acidifying the documentary wealth. Sulphuric acid

is a very strong and non-volatile liquid and remains within the

material for indefinite time damaging the fibres of various nature

converting them to powder.

Oxygen

Perhaps, it would be surprising to learn that oxygen which is

known to most of us as life sustaining agent, promotes disintegrating

of paper materials. But, it is a time–tested fact and to give a strong

base to this belief, an example is being very often cited of Asiaminor

where various palm leaf collections and paper scrolls, recovered

were found fresh and young. In other words, no change of sign

caused by the age was noticed on them though they have passed

through a long period of almost 200 years. Actually, these palm leaf

manuscripts and scrolls on the walls of caves were kept buried in the

holes sealed with mud or concrete, barricading the transfusion of air.

So whatever, oxygen was present in the hole was consumed by the

reaction taking place with cellulose material of palm leaves and

paper scrolls and thereafter, for the want of oxygen and any other

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agents actively reacting with the material, resulted in ceasing the

process of decay completely. The secret behind the sign of aging,

appearing over organic materials is the chemical change. When this

change is very slow or almost nil, the change of face value will

almost remain stationary. In other words, no sign of change caused

by the age or time will be noticed. Taking this fact into account, an

equipment has been designed and manufactured by the scientists of

National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi to preserve the original

copy of Constitution of India. Not only this, now a days, aluminium

pouches have also been designed and manufactured to preserve the

master negatives of microforms and they are rendering satisfactory

results at present.

Ammonia

Presence of ammonia is generally experienced near poor

sanitation. This gas, being soluble in water, gives alkaline solution.

Like other acidic gases if it is also absorbed by paper materials, it

results in forming salts with other gases inducing the accumulation

of the salts and subsequently contributing localized acidity. Besides,

Ammonium hydroxide is responsible to affect certain inks adversely.

Hydrogen Sulphide

This gas is generally produced by the biodegradation of the

proteins containing sulpher. Its weak acidic character though does

not affect organic materials seriously, yet it is very effective in

disfiguring the images over microforms and paintings. Presence of

lead in some paintings as compound of lead make basis for various

colours, respectively form silver sulphide and lead sulphide

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compounds by reacting with hydrogen sulphide. Since these

compounds are black in colour and they cause disfiguring the image

surface.

Ozone

Ozone gas which is formed by the interaction of oxygen in

presence of electric sparks, discharges ultraviolet light. It is though

unstable, yet as a strong oxidizer it has capacity to force a change in

many organic materials. Photocopying machines are also a good

source of producing ozone within the library.

Smokes

The atmosphere of industrial cities is generally full of several

kinds of smokes, which are formed by the incomplete combustion of

fuels such as oil, coal, wood, gas and rubbish etc. Though smoke

particles of black colour are essentially carbon and chemically inert,

yet the particles that are surrounded by oily and dry substances and

can be quite acidic.

These particles usually get deposited over the edges, and

surface of books, volumes, files that are exposed to open surface

forming a thick layer with the passage of time and thus discolouring

the pages. Because of smoke, the colour of pages of books and

sheets of manuscripts become brown, or dark brown depending upon

the thickness of layer of smoke deposited over them.

Interior Active Gas Pollutants

Researches conducted on the enemies of library materials

have revealed the fact that archives and libraries making use of

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modern aids for scientific conservation of documentary wealth are in

the grip of a new problems which are created by these materials as

they generate disastrous gases in subsequent times. These polluting

agents, popularly termed as internal active gas pollutants, are

complex in nature than the exterior gas agents. Some of such agents

like nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide are common to exterior

agents but (1) formic acid (Methanoic), (2) Acetic acid (Ethanoic),

(3) Proponoic, (4) Butonoic and (5) Hydrochloric acid are quite new

which damage archives and the other materials of organic nature

finding place in archives, libraries and museum.

All the interior polluting agents are acidic in nature and are

generated by the materials used for storage and reinforcement of

archives including adhesives and also by new formals of archival

materials.

Dust Particles (Solid Particulates)

In addition to various external and internal pollutants, the

presence of solid particulates is also noticed in the atmosphere,

specially the atmosphere of tropical and sub-tropical regions, is often

represented by fine dust particles of silicon and soil of geological

origin. But atmosphere of the areas where volcanoes bursts, where

various factories vibrate and quarrying functions, particles of lime

and minerals, cement also join the other solid particulates present in

the atmosphere making the density of solid particles thicker. These

solid particles along with other aerosols are carried to long distances

by fast winds and storms and they settle indiscriminately over

various objects, such as files, books, volumes and leather objects. A

layer of such particles can easily be noticed over the material, which

are not in constant use. While rolling the finger on the surface or

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edges of it, brownish or black dirt will come over the finger and

simultaneously, trace of finger over the surface or edges where the

finger was rolled will come to exist. If this process of dust

accumulation continues for a long time, the later on deposited

particles increases layer by layer and that causes not only

discolouration to the surface but also affects the legibility of writing.

Secondly, the rate of absorption of moisture is accelerated by the

dust particles which provide a suitable base for the growth of micro-

organisms such as fungus[42].

Acidity

Acidity is a major cause for damaging the strength of various

kinds of records[43]. Cellulose is attacked by acid causing the paper to

become fragile, brittle and discoloured. These changes will take

place even if the climatic conditions are ideal. However, high

temperature and relative humidity as they occur in tropical climate,

will accelerate these reactions considerably.

Acidic gases, smokes and dust present in the atmosphere,

acidic inks or pigments may also degrade the paper.

Sulpher dioxide produced by industrial units and nitrogen

oxides emitted by automobiles are major causes of chemical

deterioration of paper. Sulpher dioxide is converted into sulphuric

acid by the action of traces of iron and copper present in paper.

Sulpher dioxide deteriorates even high cellulose paper. It has been

seen that storage of paper documents in closed cupboards is very

effective in preventing damage on account of acidic gases present in

the air.

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In the process of manufacture of paper, certain chemicals like

alum-rosin used for sizing and chlorine used in the bleaching process

remain in the paper, causing degradation at a later stage. The

oxidizable carbohydrates present in chemically purified wood fibres

also contribute to the degradation of paper. Ground wood pulp

contains lignins and complex organic compounds which decompose

to form a number of components, several of which are acidic. These

components discolour the paper and make it brittle[44].

Browning of Paper

It has been observed by several conservators that the ground

wood prints and black boards of the mats undergo yellowing or

browning in the areas of the window opening and that this browning

occurred in all the prints. This happens in spite of the fact that the

documents are kept in mats made of acid free boards, which are

stored in boxes and store rooms climatically controlled at a relative

humidity of 50–55% and temperature of about 180C. It was noticed

that the phenomenon occurred mostly with soft-sized cardboards,

normally used in some museums. Mats made of hard sized boards do

not suffer from this type of alteration. Research in this area

conducted by Hofenk de Graaff shows that the browning (oxidation)

of the paper in the window opening is a result of water evaporation

of the paper surface. It has been shown that the browning of the

paper results from degradation of cellulose as the wet dry interface

due to the evaporation of water. Since there is an absorption and

desorption of water by the paper in the window opening, browning

in that area occurs. It was also observed that the degree of browning

increases with the frequency of changes in the relative humidity.

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This type of browning can be controlled or at least minimised by

placing a sheet of tissue paper, between the window–cut and the

print[45].

Action of Inks

Quite often it is noticed that paper based documents,

manuscripts and drawings written with iron-gall ink get damaged

due to corrosion by ink[46]. The paper deteriorates on account of the

nature of iron-gall ink, resulting in mechanical deterioration of the

paper and ultimately charring of the paper. First of all before the

actual corrosion of paper, the writing gets fudgy and all around the

letters, brownish edges are formed. On the reverse side, ink

discolours the paper to brown. Sometimes, the effect of the ink also

migrates to the adjoining paper. High humidity further causes the

reaction of the ink. It is presumed that the discolouration of the paper

may be on account of the oxidation of cellulose, or on account of the

formation of iron hydroxide due to the oxidation of iron ions.

It is recognised that iron-gall inks are highly acidic, pH values

ranging from 2 to 3.7. The most common metal salt used for

producing iron-gall inks or for adding to carbon inks was ferrous

sulphate. Ferrous sulphate reacts with gallotannic acid to produce

iron-gallo-tannates and sulphuric acid. The excess ferrous sulphate is

converted to ferric oxide and sulphuric acid. A similar reaction will

take place in the case of carbon ink to which ferrous sulphate is

added.

If the nature of the ink was acidic, it was reasonable to

presume that deterioration due to ink could mainly be on account of

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acid hydrolysis. It has however been noticed that de-acidification

does retard the process of deterioration but does not stop it

completely. On the contrary, sometimes, aqueous de-acidification

results in the increase in the corrosion due to ink by helping in the

migration of iron (II) ions to the paper. It was therefore, summarised

that acidity of ink was not the only cause of paper deterioration. It

has also been shown that the lignin free papers degrade faster than

the lignin containing paper, it is presumed that lignin acts as an anti-

oxidant because of its property of oxidizing faster than cellulose and

forming stable radicals. It would therefore appear that the iron-gall

ink also has an oxidative process which degrades papers[47].

Action of Pigments

Certain pigments cause very serious damage to paper. This

type of deterioration is often caused by green copper-based pigments

such as verdigris. The effect of the green pigment percolates through

the sheet, usually causing the paper to become brown and finally,

destroying the painted area completely.

Besides the destructive action of green pigments, copper

alloys usually brass that have been used to imitate gilding, also cause

damage to paper. The mechanism of the chemical reaction between

the copper alloys and paper is not fully understood and is a subject

for future research.

Human Beings

The discussion over archival enemies will remain incomplete

unless the damage caused by the human beings is taken into account.

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Because of mishandling, mismanagement and lack of archival

importance, the valuable records in archives and books in libraries

are forced for their immature death[48]. Continuous use of a book or a

manuscript causes them to become weak sometimes, paper develops

tears or its corners get damaged and lost. Careless handling results in

the crumpling of paper. Creases are produced, if the paper remains

folded for long. It may even be torn at the creases, if it is kept in that

condition for long. Rolled papers, if presses hard, will get crumpled

and may be torn.

Intrinsic Dangers

Land sliding, earthquake, floods etc. are such severe dangers,

which pose documentary wealth a serious risk and are termed to be

intrinsic dangers. For proper preservation of documentary wealth,

custodians or archivists should take every care to save the materials

from these dangers.

Fire

Fire is another enemy which does not leave anything but

charcoal and ash. Therefore, there is an urgent need to plan anti-fire

strategies in libraries if information in the form of archives and

books is to be preserved[49].

8. Preventive Conservation

Present day conservation is characterized by a conceptual approach

underlying the solution to problems aimed at ensuring the preservation of

library stock and elaborating appropriate specifications. Generalization and

analysis of phenomena leading to transformation in the system of

conservation have induced reflections, search for the cause and effect[50].

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These causes call for urgent steps in conservation. The conservators’

task is to determine the strategy of document preservation for the nearest

and the most remote future under normal conditions and permanent

operational readiness and resourcefulness in emergency conditions.

In conservation of documents, two aspects are involved, namely : (i)

Preventive conservation, and (ii) curative treatments. Both aspects are

important for proper maintenance of paper documents. Preventive measures

are the techniques or aids which help in arresting the fast rate of decay and

damage of library wealth by various enemies of records. Curative measures

on the other hand are the activities which are applied to protect the records

against the enemies which have set on for physical damage of such

wealth[51].

Actually, hazards to record materials are caused by two ways, decay

and physical damage. In the process of decay, which is governed by the

physical and the chemical agencies, no sign of damage is visualised in some

grades of papers, while in some poor quality of papers, made of ground

wood pulp, the same can be seen as discolouration by experienced

conservators. In case of decay of certain record materials, though nothing is

observed as a sign of their weakening except discolouration but forces

acting as decay agencies constantly and silently continue their work to

disintegrate and loosen the texture of record base materials. It is significant

to mention that because of decay information carriers not only loose

strength but also loose their flexibility.

Physical damage to record materials is caused mostly by micro and

macro living organisms such as insects, fungus, rodent, fire, intrinsic

dangers and human being leaving scars over the information carriers which

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can be seen by unaided eye in the form of holes, tunnels, fed surface, mark

of tear, curling from the sides and corners etc. Hence, if documentary

wealth is to be preserved for posterity for a longer period, they should be

prevented from last decay besides being subjected to timely curative

measures if they are being infected by any of the agencies.

In other words, to protect the documentary wealth against the

physical and chemical hazards and other intrinsic dangers, a special

planning, right from the selection of site for the functional library building

is needed so that the adverse affect of atmosphere and environment is

negated and growth of insects and micro-organisms over the material may

be prevented.

The essential elements of preventive conservation are :

1. Scientific storage

2. Requirement of library Building

3. Ideal storage conditions

4. Control of insects.

1.1. Scientific Storage

Storage of documentary wealth, in any form, i.e. documents and

microforms, on scientific pattern over and in specific storage equipments, is

an important factor for preventive conservation. For scientific storage, first

and foremost requirement is suitable building and then storage

equipments[52].

1.2 Requirement of Library Building

Design of Buildings

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Buildings not designed with security in mind may be marvels of art

and architecture, but if they are insecure, they lack an essential quality of

the good public building. The architecture of a building can be a boon or

bane to a potential thief, mugger, purse snatcher or library materials thief.

Security provisions are an expensive afterthought. The cost of altering

buildings to repair security deficiencies is generally huge. Security must be

given considerable priority in the design of libraries and archival

buildings[53].

The role of building for conservation of documentary wealth is so

important that negligence of certain provisions required for a suitable

library building will not only hamper the preservation of records but also

restrict activities to be carried out for the purpose as well.

It will be worthwhile to say that ‘Building’ is a basic tool for

preventive conservation of documentary wealth and while considering the

case of building, we come across with two prominent categories, i.e.

adopted and purposely built. In case of previous category of buildings,

some changes are must to be incorporated suiting to aids towards

preventive conservation guaranteeing security and safety of documentary

wealth, while in later, some facts mentioned below if considered well and

taken into practice, definitely they will facilitate the task of conservation.

These facts are :

Suitable Site or Location

Right selection of a site for the construction of library building will

lighten the load of preserving the records in one hand and on the other

minimise the risk of ravages. From this view point every record holding

agency will have to consider the following points :

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1. It is needless to mention that flood may bring irrecoverable loss to the

library materials and therefore in order to avoid the risk from this loss, a

site selected for the building should neither be on the bank of any rivers,

big canal nor over the low land where rain water stores. Evidences are

there that some times floods have brought unexpected loss to the

property in the nearby regions of water carrying veins called nalahs.

2. In some areas, termites are found very active. If it is so, that area should

preferably be eschewed to be selected for archival and library building.

Because of any reasons, if exigency to have an Archival building over

such sites arises, the character of building should emerge as termite –

proof, which is possible only by making use of modern technology and

materials available for the construction of building.

3. In hilly regions, if exigency of establishing an archive or library strikes,

definitely the site chosen for the purpose should either be in the safest

zone, free from land sliding or should have the least chances of it.

4. A land made up of subsoil, damp land and to be effective of heavy seas,

should also be avoided to have an archival building.

5. Though earthquake may happen at any time and in any part of the

world, if it so, then the wisest step would be to avoid to have a building

in such areas.

6. Apart from above, sites near causing intrinsic dangers, such as sites

located near the installations of high fire or explosive risk (petrol tanks,

gasometers, explosive depots) air fields, major railway and bus centres

should rigorously be avoided.

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However, a site near universities and learning institutions, museums,

well connected with transport means, surrounded with green vegetation and

prevailing with colour and peace, free from chaotic noise, is regarded as the

best site for archival and research oriented library buildings[54].

General Requirements of Library Building Promoting Preventive norms to Records

1. The entire rung of building should be such that it faces North and South.

2. All around the building, there should be sufficient space to carry out fire

fighting activities without any obstruction at the time of any fire

accident in the building or nearby any other building.

3. To suppress the effect of air pollutants, the surrounding areas of

building should be well vegetated.

4. A building should be equipped with all modern facilities required for

detecting, controlling and fighting fire.

5. A building should have a well ventilation system and capable enough to

prevent the entry of outdoor ultra – violet rays and air pollutants.

6. Floor height of a building should allow easy access by staff to the

documents placed on shelves without the use of stools, ladders etc.

General floor height recommended by European conservators varies

from 2.10 to 2.15 m. But more than this height facilitating an open

space above the racks in tropical and subtropical countries will be

promotive of preservation norms.

7. Load bearing capacity for library building is of special consideration.

The floor of the library storage should be able to support a weight of 15

to 20 quintals per square meter per storey when cantilever system of

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shelving is deployed. This per square meter weight per floor reaches as

much as 60 quintals in case of compactus shelving system.

8. The suitable area for a strong room should run between 150 to 200

square meters. Fire resisting walls, ceiling doors, provision of fire

scapes in a building to be used for archives and library materials are of

dire need from the view point of modern techniques of preserving

documentary wealth.

9. The care, maintenance and management of the building must always be

designed and directed as the priority to the minimum intervention into

the integrity of the material it holds[55].

1.3. Ideal Storage Conditions

For the longevity of library wealth, as a preventive conservation

tool, maintenance of ideal storage conditions which involve the control of

fluctuating climate, and maintenance of heat and humidity at the optimum

ranges is desirable[56].

Control of Climate and Environment

The climatic condition of the place where manuscripts and books are

stored has a great effect on them. They are affected by humidity and

temperature and also due to variations in them. Water, in the liquid form as

well as in the vapour form, accelerates the chemical process of

deterioration. In moist atmosphere, paper becomes limp and looses its

crispness. Furthermore, there is a rapid growth of insects and

microorganisms like fungi in high humidity. Paper is hygroscopic and

therefore increases in size when there is increase in humidity and shrink

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when the humidity decreases. This type of variation in the humidity

condition causes strain on the objects[57].

Control of Humidity

In Indian subcontinent, in summer, humidity goes down to 20 per

cent while in rainy season, in some parts of the country, it goes beyond 180

% and both these stages are alarming one, not only from the view point of

preservation, but also from the view point of health. Coastal areas generally

face the problem raised by high humidity.

Obviously, to control the humidity at conducive range for record

material is a must and for that two distinct manual methods :

Humiditification of stack areas in summer and de-humidification in rainy

season and winter are to be deployed[58].

Monitoring of Climate

In order to control the humidity, it becomes necessary to measure the

temperature of a place. It is done by using thermometers. If it is desired to

know the maximum temperature attained during the day, a special type of

thermometer, called Maximum and Minimum Thermometer is used. A very

simple method of measuring relative humidity is by the wet and dry bulb

thermometer. In this instrument, there are two thermometer, with one of its

bulb covered with a cotton wick, while the other end is dipped in a

receptacle containing water. The water rises upto the wick and keeps the

bulb of the thermometer moist. An improvement on the wet and dry bulb

thermometer is whirling hygrometer. There are also direct reading

instruments like the dial type hair hygrometer, which however is not very

reliable.

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The hygrometers or thermometers read temperature and relative

humidity only at the particular moment when the reading is recorded. It

does not give an idea of temperature and relative humidity for all the 24

hours. To overcome this disadvantage, “Thermohygrograph” is used. It a

self-recording hygrometer which operates round the clock. A graph paper

marked for temperature – records on one half and for relative humidity on

the other half, is fixed on a cylinder which revolves by a clock device. The

cylinder alongwith the graph keeps moving day and night. There are two

pens in the instrument fixed to a bimetallic coil for temperature reading and

the other to a bundle of hygroscopic fibres to measure relative humidity.

After calibrating the equipment, when the cylinder is started, the pens,

properly marked are set in a manner that they touch the graph paper. The

pens move up or down according to the temperature or relative himidity

condition. As the cylinder rotates, the pens leave a mark on the graph and

record the temperature and relative humidity. Thus, a record of the relative

humidity and temperature are obtained on the graph on a time scale.

Climate Monitoring Policy

In a museum or a library, where a record of temperature and relative

humidity is to be kept for the safety of the objects and documents, it is not

enough that they are measured in one or two rooms only, once or twice in a

day. The important consideration is to record how the climate differs or

varies during the day and during the different months of the year. A long-

term study lasting for at least one year, with the help of a

thermohygrograph has to be undertaken. Manuscripts, which are very

sensitive to temperature and relative humidity, are kept in the areas having

the most stable humidity.

Climate Control

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For most effective preservation of documents, climate should be

controlled within limits. Needless to say that climate of a building can best

be controlled through air conditioning. The normal standard for maintaining

relative humidity is between 45 – 60% and for temperature between 20 to

240 C. Within this limit, the norms can be selected, depending on the

climatic conditions outside the museum or the library. In humid climates,

for instance, RH can be controlled at 55 % or more, but it must be kept

below 65 %. For dry climates, normal limit of about 45 % is permissible. In

the same manner, the temperature for hot climate may be set at the higher

limit of 24 0 C. On the other hand, in cold climate, it may be maintained at

24 0 C.

An important principle of air conditioning is that constant

temperature and relative humidity are maintained throughout the 24 hours

of the day and throughout the year, which means that the air conditioning

must work day and night. Quite often, in many libraries, the air

conditioning plant is operated during office hours and is switched off

afterwards. This is a very dangerous practice and should never be allowed.

It would introduce artificial variation of the climatic conditions, prevailing

during the day when the air conditioning is on, and at night when the plant

is switched off. Although air conditioning is excellent for climate control

and is recommended if institution can afford it, but most often it is not

feasible on account of high cost, not only of the equipment but also of

running it. Therefore, in such situations, it is wise to use chemical and

mechanical methods to control the humidity[59].

Chemical Method

This method involves the use of anhydride calcium chloride and

silica gel. Normally two types of silica gels are found. But one of them

which is white in colour, transparent, granular amorphous structure and

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contains 7 – 10 per cent water is not suitable for the purpose of reducing

water vapour contents. It has chemical formula Si .O2 x H2 O. The other

type of silica gel which is used as water absorbent almost had light bluish

colour in dry state and turns to light pink on absorption of moisture or water

vapour. Silica gel can be reactivated by indirect heating upto 120–160 0 C,

until it regains white bluish colour. On heating silica gel for reconditioning,

its water content should not be reduced less than 7 – 10 per cent. A

modified form of silica gel marketed under the trade name “Art Sorb” sold

by Fuji – Davison Chemicals Ltd. of Japan is more effective. Another

chemical also marketed by Japan under the trade name of “Nikka Pallets”

has found to be equally effective, as humidity buffering agent. Silica gel is

preferred for de-humidification of the closed space as it has tremendous

surface area. For use in closed space, it may be kept in perforated

containers, in windows, ventilators and other places where from moistured

air is supposed to enter. On placing gel in such places, it should be ensured

to cover maximum possible area. Besides, it should be kept in shallow

containers, at various points of closed space where from humidity is to be

reduced. Requirement of silica gel, actually depends upon the percentage of

humidity present in the air. However, normally 2 – 3 gms. of this

compound will suffice to de-humidify a closed space of 25 m3 [60].

Mechanical Method

For dehumidification nowadays mechanical dehumidifiers are

available and they can be used as per convenience. For reducing the level of

humidity in a closed space, a dehumidifier is used. In using dehumidifier,

there is a danger that the relative humidity may go down very low. That

must be avoided. Humidity in closed rooms can be increased with the help

of portable humidifiers. Some simple devices like placing pots of plants or

Khus curtains, which are kept wet, are useful devices[61].

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Control of Light

Paper documents are also very sensitive to light. When exposed to

light for long duration, paper becomes brittle. Any writing or painting on it,

gets dim and quite often it completely fades out. There are three sources of

light, namely sunlight, fluorescent tubes and tungsten bulbs. The rays

emitted by a source of light normally contain visible radiation, as well as

other radiation like ultra-violet and infra-red. Damage to paper is caused by

the visible rays as well as by ultra-violet rays.

Control Methods

The effect of light on paper can be controlled by taking the

following precautions:

1. Reduce the intensity of light falling upon the object.

2. Expose the objects to the light only for a short period of time.

3. Filter out photochemically active radiation like ultra-violet rays

from the light.

The recommended level of light for paper paintings is 15 lux. For

normal paper documents, the light intensity can be increased to about 150

lux. If important paper documents are on display, they should be put to

view for a short period. Curtains can be used on showcases to display such

objects, which are opened only when a visitor wants to see them. Another

device is the use of time switches which shut off automatically after a brief

period of time.

Ultra-violet radiations can be eliminated from light by using an

ultra-violet absorbent filter. These filters are manufactured by adding ultra-

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violet absorbing chemicals to acrylic sheets or films. Such sheets or films

should be fixed in front of the light source. Ultra-violet absorbent films can

be applied on glass panes to absorb ultra-violet rays present in the sunlight.

Flash Light for Photography

For photocopy of documents, intensive light should never be used.

Electronic flash is safer to paper materials then tungsten lamps, because the

duration of exposure to electronic flash is very small. The lighting groups

of the ICOM committee for conservations have approved the following

precautions for the use of photocopy of art objects by electronic flash[62].

1. Not more than two sources of flash should be used.

2. Total energy from both light sources should not exceed 1400

joules (watts/ seconds).

3. The light source should be more than 3 meter from the object.

4. The flash light should be covered with a filter which can absorb

all radiations of wave-length shorter than 380 nm.

5. There should not be more than one flash exposure per minute.

Planning Anti-Light Strategies

It is a well-known fact that sun is the bounting source of light of

various forms, i.e. visible, ultra-violet and infra red radiations etc.

Therefore, in planning strategies against light, all efforts have to be taken so

as to avoid direct entry of light in the building specially in the areas holding

precious collections of archives and books.

Following precautions can be taken to control the light.

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a. To barricade the entry of ultraviolet rays from outside, the first

requirement is that the windows and ventilators which are the

best known sources to allow the entry of light rays, should be

minimum in number facing East and West. And it is possible if

the entire rung of building faces North and South.

b. Scientifically, it has been proved that certain colours viz. red,

black, yellow, blue, green are good absorbent of ultraviolet light.

The ancient Indian people had a custom to wrap religious books

and manuscripts in cloth of either red or yellow colour. Actually,

these two colours have nothing to take with religion but it seems

that people of that period were familiar with the fact that the

these two colours keep the documentary wealth safe against

ravages. And it is true also as now the fact that these two colours

not only absorb ultraviolet light, but also discourage various

insects, has been proved scientifically. Obviously, if glasses of

windows and ventilators are coloured with any of the colours

mentioned above, a good chunk of ultraviolet radiations may be

prevented from entry.

Planned Internal Lighting

Internal lighting in the building is essential for proper illumination of

space and for that artificial sources of light such as fluorescent lights and

glow bulbs are deployed. Glow bulbs making use of filamentous wire are

incandescent source of light and are free from ultraviolet radiations while

light emitted by fluorescent lights is associated with it. But for proper

illumination of areas, fluorescent lights deployed in the area will produce

ultraviolet light in direct proportionality. Therefore, to minimize the

quantum of ultraviolet lights, efforts should be to achieve proper

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illumination by deploying less number of fluorescent lights and that can be

done by making use of paints on the walls. But it should be ensure that

paints to be used for the purpose are free from any such contaminant which

may prove if subsequent grave risk for documentary wealth housed in the

area. Anyway, tube lights installed in stack area or in the areas used for

storage should be fitted with glass shelves capable of absorbing ultraviolet

radiations[63].

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Preventive Care Against Living Organisms

Insects, particularly in tropical countries like India, are possibly the

greatest enemies of manuscripts, books and documents. All paper materials

are damaged by book-worms, cockroach, silver fish or termites.

For the librarian faced with the necessity of protecting the library

from the jaws of many thousands of species of insects, it is necessary to

know which is the best type of chemical warfare to wage. He must become

first an entomologist, so that he may gain appreciation of the life habits and

food preferences of his insect enemies, and then a chemist, so that he may

understand the properties, and possibly the dangers, of the poisons with

which he hopes to kill them[64].

Control of Insects

The design of the building in which paper documents are kept plays

an important part in the prevention of insect attack. It is preferable to use

insect proof materials like sheet for the construction of a building. The

foundation should be treated with chemicals for the control of insects.

There are several chemicals which do not terminate the insect but repel

them and are known as repellents[65].

Role of Plants as Disinfectant and Insect Repellent

Sources of the past throw sufficient light upon the fact that problems

of insects to devour documentary wealth is old one and those days various

herbs and plant leaves were used to protect bark and palm leave

manuscripts against the onslaught of insects. Ghorabach (a herb), Pandry, a

type of grass, neem tree leaves are a few examples of this type.

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Not only the leaves of neem, but its bark and oil also have been vary

popular among the Indian rural masses for their medicinal values. Neem oil

which is also known as ‘mergosa oil’ (bitter in taste) is still being used as

insecticide and as antibiotic. In the decade of 90, the role of neem leaves to

protect material of textile and paper was put on test on scientific lines and

the results obtained were quite satisfactory. It is the presence of

‘quarantine’ in neem which acts as antifungal and antibacterial agent.

Dried neem leaves in shadow are kept inter-leaved with textile and

in a container like box or any storage equipment containing books,

manuscripts and documents which are to be preserved against fungus and

insects. Since fresh leaves stain the material and therefore their use is

avoidable. Leaves dried in sun and damped atmosphere, generally suffer

from the loss of repelling as well as antibacterial character, therefore, for

effective results leaves dried in shadow are preferably used. The archives

and libraries which are storing their wealth in the form of Bastas and in

carton boxes, they may use it conveniently by putting some dried leaves in

them on the bottom, middle and upper levels. After a period of six months,

these leaves should be replaced by freshly prepared lot of leaves.

Besides, various insecticides, pesticides, fungicides and insect

repellents are now available which can conveniently be used in modern

archival building and libraries at various levels i.e. at reinforcement level

and storage level.

Use of Insecticides and Pesticides at Restoration Level

Needless to say that most of the record materials are defiled by the

insects because of the availability of starch, glue, gum and gelatin over

them which are of their food value. Hence, it is imperative to take steps

preventing the growth of organisms and discourage the insects to touch the

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materials if really they are to be protected from ravages against insects. And

for the purpose, through the ages, various chemicals such as copper

sulphate, cederwood oil, cayenne pepper, colocyrsth, buck bean, alum and

wild chestnut were used from time to time as insecticides with adhesives.

Besides, some chemicals such as white Arsenic, Corrosive sublimate,

borax, naphthalene, camphor, carbolic acid, formaldehyde were used as

surface coater on the finished books. The selection of any such chemical

(insecticides, pesticides, fumigant, insect repellent etc.) is guided by

following points :

a. Efficacy against the biological species to be eliminated.

b. Effect of the chemicals on paper.

c. Their toxicity to man.

Obviously, there are a very few chemicals, which can be used

to disinfect books and documents. The treatment must be done when

infection is actually present. Also, all precautions must be taken to

ensure that the chemicals are completely safe to the worker,

conservators as well as to the users of the documents.

Mercuric chloride and alum could no longer be used as insecticide as

they were not only found dangerous for the lives of working staff but also

they were visualised the promoter of record perishment.

Though, copper sulphate, commonly known as Nila-Thotha is a

good insecticide and fungicide and the same was vastly used in Indian

libraries with starch paste but visualisation as one of the acidity

contributory sources to record material, it was dropped from further use.

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Now-a-days 2–3 percent formalin or .3 per cent sodium penta

chlorophonate by weight of starch is used with starch paste to protect the

record materials against insects and animals like rodents. Similarly, one per

cent phenol is used with glue.

Formalin keeps binding properties of the paste in cold climates while

in hot, it brings about suppression. But antifungal and insecticidal

properties of formalin are retained irrespective of any climates.

In unmonitored repositories, it has been detected as a source for

producing formic acid fumes which are dangerous for records as well as

working staff therein.

Use of Insecticides, Fungicides etc. at Storage Level

To maintain insect free zone in repository of library where valuable

archives and books are housed, the use of some insect repellents and

insecticides has been found satisfactory.

Spray of Insecticides

The transition period of the regions, marked by various seasons, as

in India, South-East, South-West Asian countries and in most of the African

countries, is conducive for the growth and propagation of various micro-

organisms and insects. For dis-infection, insecticides are sprayed on the

walls and not directly over the records as these may not only stain them but

may also rapidimise the rate of decay. DDT was once being used for this

purpose but recent discoveries have found it carcinogenic and therefore it

has now been banned for further uses.

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Fog of pip or any other suitable insecticide has also been found very

effective to kill cells of microorganisms and insects. It has capacity to enter

the inter-spices of books, volumes and files and thus to eradicate the insects

hidden therein[66].

Since it is not possible to treat each object in a large collection,

cupboards, shelves, drawers, etc are always treated with liquid insecticides.

An insecticide like pyrethrum in powder form is dusted on the shelves.

Insects which come in its contact are destroyed[67]. It is beneficial to place

naphthalene bricks in archival records. Bricks of specific size say 5’ x 2.5”

x 2” of this material have been envisaged and they are suitably placed in

stack areas. About the placement, normally they are kept maintaining a gap

of two metres between the two bricks in every dimension. However,

formation of fumes is affected by the atmospheric temperature and

therefore we can not stick to this distance in every season and at every

place. In a region where atmospheric temperature normally stays at 23 – 300

C, this gap is suitable while at temperature below and above it, this distance

may respectively be decreased or increased to 1 meter and 2.5 meters

depending on the conditions[68].

A very common insect attracted by paper documents is silverfish.

Some specially prepared insecticidal paper/ boards are placed in the storage

cupboards at the back of the books and documents.

Cockroach, a common insect attacking books can be controlled with

the use of “Baygon Bait”. It is sold in a power form and is sprinkled on the

floor where cockroaches are likely to come. Cockroach walking on the

powder is knocked off.

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Fumigation Chamber

Fumigation and insecticidal treatment have been used to control

insects in museums and libraries[69]. Insecticides can be used either as a

fumigant or in the form of a solution. For the use of fumigants, a

fumigation chamber is needed. It can be constructed of wood or sheet with

tight fitting doors and one or two shelves. An improved variety of

fumigation chamber is the one inside which vacuum can be created. The

books are placed inside the chamber, the door is tightly closed and the

vacuum pump is switched on, to evaculate the air from inside. When the

desired vacuum level is reached, the vacuum outlet tap as well as the

exhaust outlet are closed. The fumigation gas is introduced into the

chamber and the inlet tap is closed. After the treatment is completed, the

exhaust fan is started to drive out the gas from inside. At this stage, the door

of the chamber is opened and the object aired for sometime before placing

them on the shelves.

Ethylene oxide was the most popular fumigant for controlling fungi

and insects on art objects, including paper documents. Ethylene oxide being

as gas does not leave any ill-effect on the material. However, it has several

disadvantages and in some countries, it is totally banned[70]. First of all, the

gas is extremely poisonous and must be used only in special air-tight

chambers. Furthermore, it is explosive and has to be mixed with carbon-

dioxide to dilute its action. It has also been feared that ethylene oxide is

carcinogenic and therefore could be extremely dangerous for conservators.

As far as the effect of ethylene oxide on paper is concerned, it has been

found that it does not affect the aging of paper. Fumigation has one major

drawbacks : its effect does not last long and therefore the process has to be

repeated at periodic intervals.

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Deep-Freezing Method for Eradication of Insects

Deep-freezing technique has been used for curing infestation of

insects found in books. This is a non-toxic method for eradication of

insects. For this treatment, a special freezing equipment is required. The

books are placed inside the freezer. The door of the freezer is closed and

then it is switched on. The books are kept inside the chamber for about 72

hours and then removed. At the end, the books are kept on the shelves.

When the books are removed from the freezer, there is condensation of the

moisture on the bags. It takes about 36 hours for the moisture content to

evaporate[71].

Low Oxygen Atmosphere

A new technology using low oxygen levels has been introduced for

the control of insects. It has been shown that good insect control can be

achieved with low relative humidity (30 – 40%) and low oxygen levels

(below 2%)[72]. Low oxygen level can be obtained by replacing oxygen with

an inert gas, like nitrogen introduced in a hermetically sealed cupboard or

display case. It has been demonstrated by researchers that a nitrogen

atmosphere can control the life cycle of insects like D. melanogaster[73]. For

this treatment, a vacuum fumigation chamber or even plastic bag in which

nitrogen is introduced are effective to kill the insects. Nitrogen mixed with

carbon-dioxide can be used to decrease the duration of the treatment and

improve the efficiency of the treatment[74].

Fungus

The most important microorganism of importance in paper

conservation is fungus. Normally, fungi are aerobic, which means needing

air for their growth. There are, however, some species, which do not require

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any air and are anaerobic. Finding a suitable climate, they grow on paper

objects like manuscripts and books very quickly.

For prevention of fungi, humidity control is best method. If air-

conditioning is not possible, there should be enough ventilation and air-

flow inside the room. Cleanliness is another factor for the control of their

growth. All books, manuscripts and paintings should be taken down from

the shelves periodically and cleaned with a soft brush or vacuum pump of

low vacuum.

Disinfecting the store room where manuscripts and books are kept

will be beneficial. Normally, a 10% solution of thymol in rectified spirit is

used. The solution is sprayed in the room with a fine spray gun. Precautions

must be taken against fire because rectified spirit is inflammable.

Fumigation of manuscripts, books and documents with thymol is

also recommended for the control of fungus.

Dis-infection of paper materials can also be achieved by wrapping

them in fungicidal papers and keeping them inside polythene bags for about

one week. The fungicidal paper is prepared by treating blotting paper with a

1% p-chloro-m-cresol solution or 1% phenyl mercuric acetate solution and

then drying them.

Control of Termites

Termites are very deadly insects, not only for paper but for all types

of organic materials. There are two types of termites, namely subterranean

termites and drywood termites. The subterranean termites make their nest in

the earth and even when some of them go out, they maintain a link with the

earth. On the other hand, the drywood termites live in wood and do not

191

have any link with the soil. While constructing a new building, insecticides

like DDT, BHC or dieldrin is added to the foundation soil. This action

creates a type of chemical barrier between the found and the building

structure. Sometimes, a physical barrier is introduced. A physical barrier is

created between the soil and the structure of the building by using metallic

termite-shields over the foundation walls[75].

In those buildings, in which termite proofing was not done before

the construction of the building, it is advisable to treat it later on. For this

purpose, holes of about 10 cms. apart depth are drilled 50 cms. apart at the

junction of the floor and the walls.

An insecticide solution is forced into these holes, till no more is

absorbed. Chemicals are also injected into the soil through the cracks,

which might be present in the floor and the walls.

Termites may also attack interior woodwork. All wooden structures,

which might have been damaged by termites, should be replaced and the

remaining wood should be treated with an insecticidal solution. Any object,

which is infested by termites should immediately be fumigated and

cleaned[76].

Rodents

In order to counteract the hazards of rodents in a library, following

steps may be adopted :

1. Like other insects and animals, rodents also are attracted by the

food items, and therefore, non-availability of these items will

certainly discourage rodents’ entry in the repository and for the

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purpose, as a matter of policy, no edibles should be allowed in

the library.

2. No granary or storehouse should be allowed to function nearby

the archives and library building and in the campus.

3. All the holes in the repository as well as in the other parts of

archives and library building should be covered with cement and

concrete.

4. All the outlets in the building facilitating entry of rodents from

outside including pipes and windows should be covered with

metals gauzes.

5. Push-pull type doors in the repository should be fitted so that

they may shut automatically after the use. This will negate the

possible entry of rodents from the other parts of the building.

If in spite of all these precautionary measures, rodents have got entry

in the repository through any source, the plan to kill them or trap is the only

alternative to get rid of them and for that baits and poisons like zinc

phosphide, barium carbonate, warfarin and arsenic oxide with food

materials may be used effectively. Now-a-days electronic equipments

which generate electro-magnetic waves of wave length causing irritation to

this animal and compel to escape from the area are available and can be

deployed in repositories. However, for elimination of rats from a closed

space, poisons like 4-5% zinc phosphide, and arsenic oxide in addition to

poisons mentioned above in suitable baits bases (Bread, floor, and cheese)

are safely used in archives and in libraries[77].

Control of Atmospheric Pollution

Pollution in the atmosphere is also a major hazard for deterioration

of books and manuscripts. Air contains many types of gases like sulpher

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dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen sulphide produced by industries,

motor vehicles, train engines, etc. Another major contaminant in Indian

cities, particularly in dry area like Rajasthan is dust.

Control of Pollution

The safest way of removing polluting gases from the atmosphere of

the room where books are kept, is to pass the air through a filter of

activated carbon or through water-spray. This type of treatment can be done

if there is air conditioning in the building. Simple measures like wrapping

the books and manuscripts in cloth or placing them in book boxes reduces

the effect of pollution to a great extent. The books kept inside closed

cupboards will be better protected than those, which are kept outside.

Documents kept inside folders are safer than those, which are kept in

open[78].

Dust-free Storage Area

In order to achieve the goal, careful and meticulous planning against

dust is indispensable and for that building should be so designed as to

barricades the entry of dust to a maximum extent without affecting the

other requirements of the ideal storage area. But in spite of these provisions

dust will get place in stacks as records are self dust creating objects. And

therefore, removal of dust from the floor, shelves and from the record

materials is must and for that, planning on scientific lines is needed.

1. To minimise the entry of dust from the surrounding, all the

possible entry points such as windows, ventilators should be

fitted with wire meshes and glasses. Use of curtains in windows

and doors would be extra benefit in obstructing the dust entry.

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However, the provision of these all the things is not going to

prove for any help unless they are used properly.

2. To expel out the accumulated dust from all possible points of a

stack area, use of vacuum cleaner has been found very effective

as it sucks dust particles and allow them to settle in a bag and

thus giving no chance to float them in space. Use of wet jute

tissues and cloth for wiping floor and racks shelves are the best

manual means to maintain a dust free zone in stack area.

Proper Air Circulation

Stagnant air in stack areas can give rise to form stagnant air pockets

within the area which induces growth of insects and fungus. Therefore,

from the view point of preservation, it should be ensured that no stagnant

pocket within the stack is formed. And for the purpose, proper ventilation

in the stack areas is essential which can be achieved by cross ventilation

and circulating the air in the area by using fans, exhausts and air

circulators[79].

1.4. Prevention of Physical Damage

Physical damage is caused to books and documents due to

mishandling or improper storage. Precautions have to be observed while

turning over the pages or carrying the documents from one place to the

other. It must always be ensured that while opening the manuscripts or the

books, the pages are not torn or corners are not damaged. They should

never be folded otherwise creases will be formed and they may even be torn

at the folds. For carrying a large number of books and manuscripts from

one place to another, trolleys should be used, they should not be taken in

hands, lest they may fall down and may get damaged. If the documents are

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too weak, they should not be used unless they have been consolidated and

conserved. For rare and valuable manuscripts, microfilms should be

available and normally only microfilms should be used by readers and

scholars, barring in some very exceptional cases[80].

How we handle and use a book contributes to its longevity. If a book

will not lay flat, do not use force to open it further. The covers should

always be supported when the book is open.

Many books are damaged by the habit of pulling the books off the

shelf from the top to the spine. It is a much better practice to push two

adjoining books inward and remove the book by holding the spine. Place

similar sized books, vertically next to each other on the shelf, packing them

neither too loosely or tightly.

The use of paper clips, folding down pages, and marking pens to

make notations should be discouraged.

The practice of using rubber bands or string to tie up a book should

be avoided because they often cut into brittle pages and damage fragile

covers. An excellent way to protect fragile books is with a box that is

custom made to the dimensions of the book. Books with dry flaking leather

covers can be wrapped in paper or polyster jackets to keep the fragments

from transferring to hands adjoining books or the rest of the pages.

Books also get damaged during the process of collaing cataloguing,

accessing and stamping. Therefore, proper care should be taken when

books are going through all these processes. Recording and accessioning

and cataloguing offer the hazards to books if not properly carried out. Some

record should certainly be made as to date of receipt, source, cost and these

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notes may perhaps be added in offensively and inconspicuously. Though

library practice tends increasingly to minimize the amount of such

information, entered in the book itself. Some owners content themselves

with a pencil note on the fly leaf or other blank page, on a margin of a leaf,

on a book plate. With most books, however, it is safe to say that the less the

marking the less the danger of harm. So far stamping is concerned, it should

be applied to the verso of the leaf instead of the title page of the book. This

will serve the purpose equally well.

Life on the ShelvesIt may be recalled that originally, books were designed not to stand

upright but to lie flat on their sides, the ideal position. Vertical shelving is a

space saving compromise. Because weight of the paper in a book shelved

upright normally pulls away from the spine, it is desirable that books be

supported by one another, on shelves reasonably filled, or by means of

book supports. If, however, the shelves are too full, it means rubbing and

friction and when books are forced in or removed. Of on the other hand the

shelf is not full enough, the books will lean to one side or the other, and the

binding will be harmed. Hence, there is no more insidious or harmful

enemy of books than the practice of letting them sag on the shelves. If there

are pamphlets or paperbound volumes among the lot their life is certainly

neither long not merry unless they are properly supported.

Large book should be stored on shelves deep enough to hold them

safely or shelves fitted with proper supports, where the volumes can also

support one another and not sag. Similar special treatment should be

accorded to miniature books, which if shelved with normal – sized books

failed to give the larger volumes needed support and are themselves in

danger of being abused and browbeaten by their neighbours.

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Books in Exhibition Cases

When books are displayed in exhibition cases, care should be taken

that the pleasure they provide is not also occasion for serious damage.

Above all, direct sunlight should not be allowed to fall on them. The pages

exposed to view should be changed now and then, to equalize the harm

from exposure. The cases should be dust proof and if they are, the books

are in effect protected by the stable condition of the air. A greater danger

arises when the cases are illuminated by electricity with its accompanying

heat. Leather bound books are particularly liable to damage in the

exhibition case. Such harm can be reduced somewhat by oiling the bindings

before and after placing them on exhibition and at intervals if they remain

there any length of time[81].

Books and manuscripts are also damaged if not properly stored. For

preservation of archives, books, manuscripts and other allied materials of

organic nature, not only the scientific storage is desirable, but also the

storage materials of quality are highly essential. The quality of the boxes in

which the documents are stored assumes a great importance. Preservation

of the material will also be governed by the quality of the archival box.

They are supposed to protect the documents from the damaging effect of

light, dust, mechanical damage and other similar factors of deterioration. It

is necessary that archival boxes should be made of acid-free or buffered

mildly alkaline cardboard, so that the documents stored inside are not

damaged. Experiments were conducted by Hanus et.al. and on the basis of

measurement of pH, folding endurance, tearing resistance, tensile test, etc.

it was concluded by them that the aging rate of paper samples stored in

acid-free box. (Hanus et.al., 1995). Apart from the use of stable materials

for making containers, it is also important that documents are kept in them

properly. They should neither be overstuffed nor should there be too much

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vacant space, which would allow the documents to slump and curl. All

documents must be fully protected and supported by the container in a

manner that the edges of the documents are not torn. To full the vacant

space in a box, special boards of corrugated sheets are prepared to fit the

empty space. Before the documents are stored in boxes or in file covers, it

should be ensured that all metal clips, rubber bands, coloured tapes etc. are

removed.

Materials used for the construction of boxes and file covers should

be tested in a paper laboratory to ensure that they adhere to archival

specifications. Cloth tapes should be white or coloured with a dye that does

not bleed.

Preparation of the Documents

Before storing the documents in a contained, they should be properly

prepared by eliminating all types of foreign materials like plastic covers,

staples, paper clips, newspaper coverings, brown wrapping papers,

envelopes, etc. The document should also be cleaned with a soft brush to

remove all loose dust.

Storing Method

Storage in Bastas

Storage in Bundles

Matting of paper documents

Portfolio for documents

Cloth wrapper

Slip Book case

Manuscript Box

Storage in container

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Storage in Bastas

In this form, the books, files and manuscripts etc. are wrapped in

thick cotton, cloth or wrapping material of any type, protects the documents

from the ravages of dust and humidity. However, this method of storage is

not fit for long term storage because curling of documents in the long run

starts. It happens because of the un-uniform external pressure is displayed

over them. Secondly, week documents get damaged from the sides and

corners at the time of their displacement from one place to another which is

very frequent in archives because of search cases and also for attending

cleaning task in the stacks. Any way, if this method is to be used for

storage, in the first instance, files and loose document sheets to be stored

should be placed in between two hard sheets/ boards of quality and then

entire assembly should be tied in the cloth. Cloth used for storage in the

form of Bastas should be thick, coloured (red, yellow, green) and free from

sizing materials and acidic contents.

Storage in Bundles

Storage of archives in the form of bundles has now emerged as the

best way for their proper conservation. For the purpose, files and loose

records are tied in between two specific plywood boards.

In general, for normal size of files, 5th ply board larger than the size

of the files having four grooves two in each longer side as shown in figure

are used :

But archives of the plywood boards may run from 5 to 8 ply,

depending on the size and bulk of the manuscripts or documents to be tied

between. Things to be noted is that a ply should be strong enough to bear

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the load of the record material tied between at the time of their handling on

shifting. The bundles are tied by the rope known as log-line passing through

the grooves. Equal distribution of pressure is must to keep the records flat

and unstrained because any strain into play, silently and constantly weakens

the fibres of documentary base.

Matting of Paper Documents

Paper documents and paintings are kept between two mat-boards to

protect them from binding or getting abraded. The best method to protect

small documents and paintings on paper is to fix them between hinged mats

of all-rag mount boards, with a window cutout in the top mat, for allowing

the document to be seen, while keeping it securely in place.

Portfolio for Documents

Single documents should always be separated from each other by

soft tissue paper, and stored in special portfolios prepared of good quality

materials.

There are two main parts in this type of portfolio, used for storing

individual documents and small manuscripts. These are :

i. An outer cover of thick acid free mount board.

ii. A folded paper envelope for keeping the documents.

First of all two board 6 mm bigger in dimensions than the document

are cut out. The two boards are joined together with a cloth tape or good

quality book-binding cloth.

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An envelope of 3 mm bigger than the size of the documents is cut

out.

The envelope is joined to the board with an adhesive used only at the

edges.

The document is placed inside the envelope and its flaps are folded

over the document.

The name of the document or documents is written on a label and

pasted over the outer cover.

Cloth Wrapper

The traditional Indian custom of storing manuscripts was to place

two boards on either side of the manuscripts and wrap it with a piece of

cloth. This piece of cloth is normally square, at one corner of which a

length of ribbon is stitched. After keeping the document, along with the

boards on either side, on the square cloth, the three corners of the cloth

cover are folded over the document to make a neat bundle. In the end, the

corner with the ribbon is also folded and the ribbon is tightly tied over the

manuscript. The cloth used for this purpose was normally dyed red or

sometimes yellow.

This type of storing of manuscripts has much merit to be

recommended for general usage. First of all, it is very simple and cheap. It

keeps the manuscript covered from all sides and fully pressed. In some of

the Indian libraries, particularly traditional ones, it is still in use.

Slip Book Case

The slip book case is enclosed on all the sides, except on one side,

but does not open like a box. The manuscript can be slipped inside from the

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open side. It is useful for those books and manuscripts which are in good

physical condition.

Those manuscripts and books, which are fragile and highly

damaged, should not be stored in such book cases. For them, a proper box

should be prepared.

Thus purpose of the containers such as these is to provide physical

protection to the document, manuscript or the book. It also protects the

objects from coming in contact with other contaminated material. Keeping

the documents in a container or portfolio does not mean that its treatment is

not required. If there is acidity, insects or any other defects, they must be

eliminated.

Manuscript Box

a. The boxes had to provide sufficient pressure to the manuscripts.

The pressure would help to ensure that the conserved

manuscripts would not cockle again and the absorbent nature of

the materials to be used in box constructiobn, whether of wood or

millboard, would help to even out changes in environmental

conditions in the room[82]. For important documents and

manuscripts, an enclosed box should be constructed

Storage Containers

Storage of archives in any form in carton boxes is one of the best

storage systems provided material of carton boxes is free from acid and

other unwanted elements causing damage to records. A carton box, is a

barrier against dust and rodents but it may cause stagnancy of air which is

undesirable from view point of preventive conservation of documents as it

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fosters the growth of microorganisms and insects. Therefore, a carton box

should be so designed which facilitates free passage of air and for the

purpose a carton box should bear pin holes.

An ideal record container should be characterized by (a) proper

design, facilitating (i) easy handling in both closed and opened positions,

(ii) maximum utilisation of space of container, (iii) reasonably smooth

interior permitting easy movement of records, (iv) smooth exterior; (b) fire

resistant character and ability to protect to contents against fire; (c)

imperviousness to dirt and dust; (d) lowness in cost; (e) light in weight; and

(f) durable and permanent.

Type of Containers

All over world, three types of containers are used in majority :

a. Press Board Containers

b. Sheet-metal Containers

c. Foil-clad press board containers.

First two types of containers were not found suitable as they did not

put barrier against fire. The foil-clad press board container is nowadays

widely being used in America with satisfactory results.

The documents, manuscripts for storage, should be kept flat in the

box. Sufficient space should be there to handle the records. Obviously, the

size of the box should be larger than the size of a document/ manuscripts to

be stored.

The board suitable for making of the boxes should be made of single

ply, hard pressed at pH range not below 6. Milboards of high quality

display these characteristics[83].

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Standards for Permanent Records

It is now recognized world wide that the quality of books, records

and other documents is so enormous that unless some improvement is

introduced in the quality of paper on which the documents are printed or

written upon and also quality of storage materials is improved, it would be

impossible to preserve what is being produced today. Some standards have

been suggested by Hofenk de Graaff. They are mentioned below :

Composition and Cemical Requirements

1. Paper must be made from cotton or linen pulp fully bleached

wood pulp or a mixture of both. It must be totally free of

unbleached wood pulp or ground wood.

2. pH of paper must range between 7.5 to 9.5 measured by the cold

extraction method.

3. The paper must contain an alkaline buffer of calcium or

magnesium carbonate, minimum 2 % of the oven dry weight of

the paper, calculated as calcium carbonate.

4. The sizing of the paper must be neutral and should not contain

alum or alum-rosin.

Physical Requirements

1. The weight per sq.meter should be according to the requirement

of the document.

2. The average internal tearing resistance in each direction shall be

not less than 60 gms.

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3. The minimum folding endurance, taking average of both

directions should not be less than 150 permanence.

4. After accelerated aging for 72 hrs at 1050C the internal tearing

strength and folding endurance must be at least 80 %.

Standards for Folders

Besides the suggested specifications for permanent papers,

specifications have also been suggested for file folders for storage. They are

as follows:

Composition and Chemical Requirements

1. Paper must be free of unbleached wood pulp or ground wood

(0.1%).

2. The pH of the cold extract of the paper must be between 7.5 –

9.5.

3. The paper must contain an alkaline buffer of calcium or

magnesium carbonate, at least 2 % of the weight of the paper.

4. The sizing of the paper must be neutral and should not contain

alum of alum rosin.

Physical Requirements

1. Weight per sq.meter is according to the need.

2. It should be white or of a light colour. If coloured, it should be water

resistant.

3. The internal resistance of the paper should be minimum 130 gms.

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4. The minimum folding endurance, taking average of both directions,

should not be less than 300.

Permanence

After accelerated aging, the internal tearing resistance and folding

endurance must be at least 80 %[84].

FireFire is one of the greatest enemies posing danger for archivo library

materials. Other enemies of the records take some time to disrupt and

destroy the documentary wealth available in various forms, but fire takes no

time in doing so.

The nature of material housed in libraries is mostly inflammable and

even a neglected spark; may completely burn the house. Therefore, it is

essential to take care of documentary wealth of unique nature from fire, if

these are to be preserved for posterity.

While planning, strategies for prevention of fire in the archives and

libraries it is must to find out possible sources which may cause outbreak of

fire and such sources are nothing but smoking practices and short

circuiting. So first and foremost activity for prevention of any incident of

fire is the complete prohibiting of smoking practices in archival and library

buildings, specially in the areas where valuable documentary assets are

housing. Secondly, a special wiring system negating short-circuiting should

be adopted. Thirdly, all the possible points helping to cause short-circuiting

in the electrical wiring should be discouraged to make into practice.

Fourthly, sufficient fire fighting aids should be stockpiled in the vicinity of

respective buildings to meet any challenge of fire.

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In order to control and combat it, following measures have to be

adopted in library buildings :

a. Sectional Wiring System

b. Detection of Fire

c. Fire Fighting aids, and

d. Evacuation.

Sectional Wiring System

In this system, whole of the stack space, housing valuable archives,

photographs records and books etc. is divided into small sections each

having of an independent wiring and operative system. The arrangement

will help in controlling the spread of fire. The area of such sections should

not exceed 200 sq. meters. Use of electric dempers is helpful in controlling

the outbreak of fire. Doors and partition material are to be conveniently

made fire proof by making use of fire resistant paints and other materials

abundantly available nowadays.

Detection of Fire

Timely detection of fire facilities is effective control of it. It is a fact

to be kept in mind. Fire involves smokes, heat and light and all the three

ingredients have been used for the detection of fire. Detectors making use

of smoke, heat and flame are known respectively as smoke detector, heat

detector and optical detector. But while deciding the appropriate fire

detectors to be installed in archives and libraries, it should be borne in mind

that fire occurring in library is generally slow to outbreak and to spread

since files tightly packed in bundles and cardboard boxes filled with

documents are not likely to burst into flames quickly. Secondly, library

material in the incipient stage, generates a large quantity of smoke,

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followed by lights and heat. For this reason, fire detection system making

use of smoke and combustion gases are more appropriate than those which

works on ambient temperature rise. The significance of all the detection

systems is that they raise alarm just after the outbreak of fire and the

indicator panel of the system shows the location of place where fire has

broken.

Fire Fighting [Control]

Because of any reasons, if fire outbreaks and the same is detected,

the next important step is to control and combat it. For production of fire,

three elements are essential viz.

1. Combustible substance,

2. Presence of elements supporting combustion (air mixed with

oxygen) and heating agents, and

3. Absence of any of the elements, will certainly result in non-

production of fire.

Obviously, a fire can be ceased, if any of the element is trapped or

removed. Taking these facts into account, fire extinguishing aids have been

devised which are mentioned here :

1. Soda Acid Type Fire Extinguishers

Soda-acid type fire extinguishers, contain sulfuric acid and sodium

carbonate. At the moment of use, handle of extinguisher is stroke against a

hard surface, helping in mixing up the above constituent chemicals, which

react together to form carbon-dioxide and water. Due to the pressure of

carbon-dioxide gas in the extinguisher a powerful stream of liquid along

with gas comes out through a tube and extinguishes the fire. This type of

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extinguisher on the one hand helps in combating the fire, but on the other

risks the safety of records because of presence of water and acid, which

may damage the record materials if they fall over them. Therefore, use of

this type of fire extinguisher is not safe, so far as preservation of records is

concerned.

2. Foam Type Fire Extinguisher

The working of foam type fire extinguisher is based on principle to

cut off the supply of atmospheric air to the burning substances. In

construction, foam type fire killers are very near to soda-acid type fire

extinguishers. The only difference is that in place of sulfuric acid, in foam

type extinguishers, solution of aluminum sulphate is taken and a little

amount of turkey red oil is mixed with sodium bicarbonate solution.

Aluminum sulphate produces sulfuric acid on hydrolysis which reacts with

sodium bicarbonate and these produce carbon-dioxide. The process of

reaction starts when the handle of extinguisher is pressed against hard

surface. Because of presence of turkey oil, a stable foam of carbon-dioxide

comes out of the extinguisher with great pressure and forms a layer, cutting

the contact of burning substances to the atmospheric air. Like soda type fire

extinguishers, foam type extinguishers are also not useful for archives and

libraries because of the presence of water and acid.

3. Carbon Tetrachloride Type Fire Extinguisher

This type of fire extinguisher work on the principle of cutting the

contact of burning substance to the oxygen of atmospheric air. Carbon

tetrachloride which is an organic liquid readily converts into its vapours

which are heavier than air. Secondly, this substances does not burn. On

pumping carbon tetrachloride from the extinguisher to the fire affected

place, if converts into vapours. Vapours being heavier than air settle down

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on the burning material and cut off the air supply resulting in extinguishing

the fire. These extinguishers are very useful for combating fire caused by

electricity.

4. Carbon-dioxide type Fire Extinguisher

Carbon-dioxide is a gas which does not help combustion. By

reducing the percentage of oxygen in the fire affected area, it helps in

combating the fire since carbon-dioxide does not affect the documentary

wealth adversely during the process of combating fire and after it, it is ideal

fire fighting means for archives and libraries.

5. Powder type fire Extinguisher

Powders of non-combustible nature are available nowadays. When

these powders are poured over the fire hit substances, they deposit on

burning objects and cut off the contact of fire from the surrounding and

result in ceasing of fire. This system is not much suitable for fighting fire in

archives and libraries.

6. Aqua based fire Extinguisher – Water Filled

Deployment of these extinguisher in archives and libraries may

cause soilage of paper wealth by wetting them. In case of archives,

document written with water soluble inks, will disfigure, smudge and spoil

if water falls over them. Keeping this fact in view, an archives and library

should not depend on using water to combat fire incident.

Evacuation

Removal of combustible materials preferably documentary wealth

including carton boxes etc. from fire hit area to a safer place is known as

evacuation. This process not only helps in controlling the fire but also

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guarantees safety of records and books etc. against fire hazards. Keeping

this in view, the archives or library building should be provisioned with

such areas where materials may be retired after the breakup of fire. Besides,

provisions of exits in stack areas will prove to be of extra help in

evacuation.

Besides few more points to be kept in view in this respect :

1. All the windows and ventilators should be covered with metal

grills and wire mesh, which will help in checking the fire

incidents planned by enemies from outside the building.

2. For effective control of fire, checking of all fire fighting

equipments and detectors etc. should be made periodically.

3. Main power switch board should be installed in a convenient

place in the out sphere of the building so that at the event of any

fire incidents, electric supply may be cut off for immediate

control of fire[85].

9. Curative Conservation

Before undertaking any conservation treatment, it is essential to

examine the object thoroughly, to ascertain firstly its nature, then to identify

the type of damage and thereafter prescribe treatment to be given to the

object. Only after detailed examination, it will be ascertained whether a

treatment is required or not[86].

Objectives of Examination :

The objective of the examination is to ascertain :

1. Nature of the material

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2. Extent and type of damage

3. Type of ink

4. Condition of the paint

5. Acidity

6. Presence of old repairs

7. Numbering of papers

Nature of the Material

The conservator should first of all ascertain whether the

manuscript is written on paper or on some other material. In case it

is written on paper, it is useful to have an idea of the nature of the

paper. The examiner should also try to see whether the sizing is still

present in the paper or it has been destroyed.

Extent and Type of Damage

The main purpose of the examination of the paper document

is to ascertain the extent of deterioration or damage that has taken

place. Thus, the examiner should observe :

i. whether the manuscript is strong or has become weak ?

ii. whether it is soiled or possesses any dirt ?

iii. whether it is yellowed ?

iv. damage by insects or the presence of insects should also be

recognized

v. presence of fungi or damage by them should be noted

vi. any stains, and the nature of stains should be detected. Stains

may be caused by contact with water, oil, grease, ink or paint

etc.

vii. whether it has been affected by water at some time ?

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viii. whether it has become soggy ?

ix. condition of the sizing material should be ascertained

x. whether it is broken in pieces or is liable to break when

touched or handled ?

xi. if there are any missing parts ?

xii. whether it is folded and broken at the crease ?

xiii. whether there are any old repairs or strips, hiding the writing?

xiv. if there are any wrinkles in the paper ?

The examiner should always make detailed notes of all the

observations, preferably in a proforma. It is also a good idea to add

the graphic as well as photographic documentation of the extent of

damage.

Type of Ink

The next step in the examination is to note whether the ink is

soluble in water or not. While examining the ink, it should also be

noted whether the ink has faded or altered and whether it has charred

or damaged the paper in any manner. It should also be observed

whether it has seeped into the fibres and has affected the other side.

The charring of paper is a clear symptom of the acidic nature of the

ink employed.

Nature of the Paint

Certain pigments especially verdigris, have a damaging effect

on paper. In the early stage, paper becomes brownish at the back of

the pigment, where it has been applied. In the next stage, the paper is

completely charred, holes are produced in those areas and paper in

those portions fall off. The solubility of the paint in water as well as

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in some organic solvents like ethyl alcohol, toluene, acetone, etc.

should also be examined.

Another point to be noted in illustrated manuscripts is the

flaking of the pigments. Minute cracks may also be present in the

paint, and quite often these defects are not visible with the naked eye

and therefore examination with the stereomicroscope preferably with

an arrangement for viewing on a television monitor is most

beneficial.

Acidity

Acidity is the most potent damaging factor for paper and

therefore it is absolutely necessary to test for its presence or absence.

Acidity in paper may be determined by measuring the pH of the

extract of a portion of the manuscript in water. pH reading is taken

with a pH meter; a pH of 6.2 or lower is an indication of the

presence of acidity in paper. Another method to test the acidity is the

use of blue litmus paper. The document to be examined is moistured

with a drop of distilled water, blue litmus paper strip is laid over it

and slightly pressed with a glass rod. If the blue colour of the strip

turns red or pink, it is an indication of the presence of acid. After this

test, the moistured spot on the document should be dabbed with

ethyl alcohol to prevent the formation of water stain. pH paper strips

give better results then litmus paper. Since different colours develop

in the pH paper strip at different pH values, an indication of the pH

value is obtained by noting the colour developed.

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Presence of Old Repairs

At the time of examination, it has to be checked whether any

old repairs are still present or not. If they have been done using right

type of material or if no damage has taken place on their account, it

may not be necessary to remove them. However, if there are any

patches of paper or glue tapes or sellotapes, they are most dangerous

and do not conform to good conservation practice, and in such cases,

the old repairs may have to be removed. Sometimes, the materials of

the old repair produce a stain on the painting or they themselves turn

acidic, while the original document may still be non-acidic. In such a

case, old repair should be removed.

Numbering

If the document has a single sheet, there is no difficulty of

numbering. On the other hand, if it is a manuscript having several

leaves, whether in loose form or in a bound form, numbering of the

leaves should be invariably checked. It should be examined whether

all the leaves are present or some of the pages are missing. Whether

they are in an order or are jumbled up and mixed. In case there is

any discrepancy, or the numbers of some pages have been lost, the

entire manuscript may have to be renumbered. Renumbering may be

done in the centre or in the right hand corner of the bottom of each

leaf. Renumbering is done with soft pencil so that it can be erased if

necessary. In case there are any broken sheets, they should also be

numbered giving a sub-number of the relevant pages.

Pattern of Examination

While conducting the examination, it is quite useful to divide the

document at least in three horizontal parts. This division is only imaginary

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and not the actual physical division of the object. These three divisions may

be described as upper part, central part and lower part. Thus, the

observations are described in each segment separately[87].

Restoration aspects for minor deterioration

Restoration is most frequently needed in a conservation job. Repair

is only one part of the whole process of restoration i.e. examination,

fumigation, cleaning of de-acidification, sizing and repair or reinforcement

process. The method of repairs or any kind of treatment must be undertaken

with an awareness of the risks involved. So it should be undertaken only by

an experienced conservator. Documents, paper paintings, manuscripts and

books have intrinsic and individual values. So the principles for repairing

the paper should be observed as below :

Intrinsic Evidence

The process of repairing should do noting to remove,

diminish, falsify or obscure in any way, the documents intrinsic

evidence of its age, authenticity provenance and history.

Legibility

Repair material applied over areas of damaged text should not

unduly impair the text’s legibility.

Holes

Evidential holes should not be repaired unless they weaken

the fabric of the document.

Flexibility and thickness

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The repaired part of the document including the actual joints

should as far as possible be as flexible as the undamaged part and

not thicker than necessary, particularly if the leaves are bound

together.

Reversibility

The whole method of the restoration should be reversible. If

not possible, the object should be saved at any cost even

irreversibility.

Materials

The amount of new material and adhesive used in any repair

should be kept to the minimum. Paper should be light and of

adequate strength. Excess of new material may be trimmed off,

provided that sufficient evidence is left of the extent of repair.

Before going to start any conservation, first thing is to apply

cleaning method. Cleaning often forms an important part of the

stabilizing process because dirt on the object can be a potent source

of deterioration.

Dirt can be classified into two categories :

1. Foreign Matter : The matter which is not the part of the

original but has later become mixed with it i.e. soot (carbon

particles), grease, adhesives and filling from old repair.

Sometimes, strains are penetrate into the paper fibre, i.e. oil stain,

blood stain, rust stain, tea or coffee stain, fungus stain and due to

acidic paper. It is also called stain.

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2. Product of alteration : Some original material may change in

appearance or substance. It has formed through a chemical

combination of the original material with chemicals from the

environmental such as gases in the air or salts in solution from

the soil or by sea (a chemical reaction occurs between the dirt

and the object).

Conservator should be able to remove material which is in the wrong

place without removing the original material which is in right place.

Type of Cleaning

There are so many cleaning processes, which depend on the

condition of the object to neutralize them i.e.

1. Mechanical Cleaning/ Dry Cleaning

Dusting and polishing.

Picking methods for removing solid layers.

Cleaning with erasers.

Cleaning with mini vacuum cleaner but blower is not

recommended.

2. Aqueous Cleaning

Dampening of the object.

Spray or brush.

Immersion in water bath.

Floating on a water bath.

Cleaning with wet blotter between the poly thene sheet.

3. Non – Aqueous Cleaning

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Quality of Adhesives

An adhesive used in document repair work should have the

following qualities :

pH value should be within the range of 6 to 9

It should be free from hygroscopic material which means that it

does not absorb moisture from atmosphere.

The adhesive should be colourless and not liable to subsequent

discolouration.

The adhesive should be easily removable without damage to

document.

The adhesive should not shrink excessively on drying.

It should not affect any colouring matter on the document.

Quality of New Paper

Repair paper should be chosen to suit the paper to be repaired and its

condition and future use. It should be checked for its suitability before

repair.

All repair papers should be within the range of 6 to 9 pH.

The paper should be lignin-free without any mechanical wood

fibre.

The texture and felt mark should be compatible with the original.

The thickness of new paper should be compatible with the

original, preferably slightly thinner.

The flexibility of paper should be maintained as that of the

original one[88].

De-acidification of Documents

The one of the main causes of deterioration of paper object is the

presence of acidity in them. The acid residue in paper at the manufacturing

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stage causes its deterioration at a rapid pace. Therefore, removal of acidity,

or de-acidification as the process is called, is of utmost importance for

conservation of paper. Any other treatment like lamination, relining,

binding etc. is of no value, if the paper documents have not been de-

acidified.

Sources of paper acidity

Acidity in paper can come by any one of the following ways :

i. from sulpher dioxide present in the atmosphere which is

converted to sulphuric acid in the presence of moisture.

ii. from the chemicals like bleaching solutions used in the

manufacture of paper.

iii. from carboxyl groups produced by oxidation of cellulose

brought about by the process of bleaching at the time of

manufacture of the paper or during conservation treatment.

iv. from the partial or total hydrolysis of the alum (potassium

aluminum sulphate) mixed into the paper either alone or with

gelatin, at the time of manufacture of paper.

v. Alum (Aluminum sulphate) used in Rosin-alum sizing of

paper from 1807 onwards. Partially hydrolyzed alum attaches

itself to the cellulose and can not be readily removed.

The exact source of acidity can be known only after the particular

document is examined by the conservator. Oxidation, which takes place on

account of the presence of metallic ions, produces local discolouration, for

example foxing, which sometimes may affect the entire document. Presence

of fungi also indicate an acidic paper.

Consideration for de-acidification

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Some of the important requirements of de-acidification are as

follows :

i. the process ideally should not only de-acidify but should also

leave a buffering chemical in the paper which will prevent

them from becoming acidic again, even when it is stored in an

acidic atmosphere.

ii. pH value of about eight is most suitable for permanent paper.

iii. De-acidification treatment should not affect paper, ink, dye,

or the pigment in any manner.

iv. The de-acidification treatment should be able to remove acids

present in the paper. This requirement is unfortunately not

met by some of the non-aqueous and vapour phase de-

acidification systems.

v. If there is any chemical remaining in the paper, it should be

neutral or slightly alkaline. It should also be ensured that the

remaining alkalinity should not be very high otherwise it will

also oxidise cellulose.

vi. The process of de-acidification should not leave any stain or

film on the surface of the document. Sometimes, some de-

acidification processes leave a white film on the surface.

vii. The entire thickness of the paper should be de-acidified and

not only the surface. The de-acidification solution should

penetrate the document completely in a short period of time.

viii. The entire paper must be neutralized uniformly and not in

patches.

ix. At the end of the document, the paper should have a pH of 7 –

8.

x. The paper should have an alkaline reserve equivalent to 2%

calcium carbonate for maximum permanence.

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xi. The de-acidification treatment should not impart any type of

smell in the document. The paper or the leather binding

should not discolour by the de-acidification treatment.

xii. The treated paper should be non-toxic to humans.

xiii. The treatment should be economically viable[89].

De-acidification processes

Several processes have been introduced to effectively neutralize the

acidity in paper and arrest its deterioration action. Methods may be

categorized under the following headings :

1. Aqueous De-acidification

a. Calcium hydroxide solution followed by treatment with calcium

bicarbonate.

b. Solution of magnesium bicarbonate.

c. Dilute solution of sodium carboxy methyl cellulose.

2. Non-aqueous De-acidification

a. Solution of barium hydroxide in methyl alcohol.

b. Magnesium methoxide in methyl fluorinated hydrocarbon

solvent.

c. Magnesium acetate – polyvinyl acetate solution.

3. Vapour Phase De-acidification

a. Ammonium hydroxide.

b. Morpholine

c. Cyclohexylamine carbonate.

d. Diethyl Zinc.

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4. Solid Phase De-acidification

Magnesium acetate in Polyvinyl Acetic Film.

Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. There

are documents and manuscripts for which aqueous solutions can not be

used at all, for instance when the ink or the paint is soluble in water. There

may be many cases in which non-aqueous methods can not be used[90].

Aqueous De-acidification Methods

Some aqueous de-acidification methods have been used for the

removal of acidity from paper documents. Water based neutralized methods

have a great advantage which supersedes other techniques because water

itself is a very good solvent of acids present in the paper and can remove

them.

There are two main aqueous de-acidification methods :

1. Calcium Hydroxide – Calcium bicarbonate process

2. Magnesium bicarbonate process

1. Calcium Hydroxide – Calcium bicarbonate Process

This probably is the most popular and easy de-acidification process.

In this method, there are two steps. The first step after washing is

immersing of the document for 15 minutes in a saturated solution of

calcium hydroxide, which is lime. Lumps of lime are soaked in water and

allowed to stand overnight or more. Some amount of lime passes into

solution till it becomes saturated. The concentration of the saturated

solution is about 0.15 %. After taking out the document from this solution,

it is placed in a second solution of 0.15 % calcium bicarbonate solution.

The object is immersed in the solution for 15 – 20 minutes. At this stage,

224

the calcium hydroxide still remaining in the paper is converted to calcium

carbonate filling the pores of the paper and as a result acts as buffer against

future acidity.

At the end of the reaction, calcium carbonate is precipitated on the

fibres of the paper. Any acidity for example produced by sulphur dioxide of

the atmosphere reacts with calcium carbonate to neutralize the acid.

2. Magnesium bicarbonate Process

Another process using magnesium bicarbonate which is a single

solution technique was recommended by W.H. Barrow. In this technique,

the paper is immersed in a bath of 0.2 % solution of magnesium

bicarbonate in water. Magnesium bicarbonate is alkaline and neutralize the

acidity present in the paper. Excess magnesium bicarbonate remaining in

the paper in contact with carbondioxide of the atmosphere is converted to

magnesium carbonate, which gets deposited in the fibres of the paper and

acts as a buffering agent to neutralize acidity which might develop in

future. After immersing magnesium bicarbonate in this solution, the

document is removed from the bath and is dried in air.

Non-aqueous De-acidification Processes

In non-aqueous de-acidification treatment an organic solvent with a

neutralization chemical is used. The organic solvent would normally not

affect the ink or pigment. Since organic solvent evaporates quickly,

generally cockling or distortion of paper does not take place. Several

chemicals like barium hydroxide, magnesium acetate, magnesium

methoxide and cyclohexylamine have been used for neutralization.

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Barium Hydroxide Process

A method involving a solution of barium hydroxide in methyl

alcohol for the de-acidification of paper documents, written with water

soluble inks was developed by Baynes – Cope of the British Museum

Conservation Laboratory. The method is also useful for neutralizing fragile

documents which can not be treated by water based solutions. In this

method, a solution of barium hydroxide is prepared by dissolving 1.86 gms.

of barium hydroxide octahydrate in 100 ml of methyl alcohol. The

document is either immersed in the solution taken in a tray, or the solution

is brushed or sprayed on the paper. After treatment the document is dried in

the air. The barium hydroxide solution neutralizes the acidity and the

remaining part is converted to barium carbonate by the action of carbon

dioxide present in the atmosphere. The barium carbonate remains in the

paper fibres and acts as buffer to nullify the acidity developed in future.

While using the solution of barium hydroxide in methyl alcohol, utmost

care is necessary because methyl alcohol is highly inflammable and also

toxic.

This non-aqueous de-acidification process has been frequently used

in the laboratories of the National Museum, National Research Laboratory

for Conservation of Cultural Property, Lucknow and also the INTACH

Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow.

Magnesium Acetate Process

A method was developed using magnesium acetate dissolved in

polyvinyl acetate organic solvent. The solution is 4-6%. It is reported that

entire books may be treated by this method. The book is immersed in the

solution, removed from it and kept so that the solution is drained off. Air is

directed towards the books to dry them. Polyvinyl butyral also imparts

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some strength to the paper because it acts as a sizing. However, it is feared

that the resin may have some long term ill effect. In any case, the document

becomes slightly stiff.

Vapour Phase De-acidification

Since wet treatment as well as organic solvent treatment sometimes

affects susceptible type of inks, dyes and pigments, a need was felt for the

development of gaseous or vapour phase de-acidification systems, which

obviously have certain advantages. Since the document is not to be treated

by any solvent, the ink and dyes are not effected by or damaged in any

manner. Also gases penetrate the object more thoroughly than the water

solutions or solvents.

Ammonium Hydroxide

A very interesting vapour phase de-acidification method was

proposed by Mr. Y.P. Kathpalia of the National Archives of India. This

method is based on the use of ammonium hydroxide. The manuscripts,

documents and books needing de-acidification are exposed to ammonia

vapours in a sealed chamber. Ammonium hydroxide diluted (1 : 10) is

taken in a glass bowl and kept inside the chamber. The ammonia vapours

are produced inside and they neutralize the acidity in the paper after an

exposure of about 24 hours. The process does not affect the paper or the

water-soluble inks or pigments in any manner. It was observed that the pH

of treated papers was raised to 6.8 and 7.2 and no deposit of any type was

found on the surface of the paper. The process was used in the National

Archives, New Delhi and some laboratories in the U.S.S.R.

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Morpholine

Walker introduced a vapour phase de-acidification method useful for

books based on impregnation with a mixture of morpholine vapour and

water vapour. In this process, the books or manuscripts which are to be

deacidified are placed in an air-tight chamber and most of the air is

removed from the chamber with a vacuum pump to bring down the pressure

inside to 0.5 to 1.0 torr. A mixture of morpholine vapour and water vapour

is introduced in the chamber for about 10 minutes. The morpholine vapours

are alkaline and they completely penetrate the documents. Whatever

morpholine vapour remains inside is exhausted and thereafter air is

admitted in the chamber to remove the remaining gas. The morpholine from

the chamber is absorbed in a water bath and then taken down to the drain so

that free morpholine does not enter the room. It is reported that the process

is effective in de-acidifying the documents. However, there are some

drawbacks in the system. First of all, morpholine has a very strong foul

smell. More importantly, sometimes morpholine changes pyroxylin and

leather book bindings. It is observed that the colour of leather binding is

considerably darkened. Also certain types of paper get yellowed[91].

The Repair, Restoration and Mending of Books

After cleaning, washing and de-acidification, manuscripts require

some restoration and repair work, which may consist of flattening, resizing,

minor or major repairs to impart strength to the document. Those

documents, which have become extremely brittle, may need major repairs.

For any repair work, there are certain pre-requisites which are

mentioned below :

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1. The original quality of the paper document or the manuscripts,

including its texture, nature of written material and painting

should not be altered in any manner.

2. The repair must be aesthetically pleasing.

3. The repaired portion should be easily visible.

4. The writing or the painting should not be damaged in any

manner.

5. It should be possible to remove the repair without damage to the

original.

6. All chemicals and materials employed for restoration work

should be durable and permanent, chemically as well as

physically.

7. The economics of the process should also be worked out so that

it does not become unduly costly[92].

Steps of Repair

i. Flattening

ii. Resizing

iii. Minor Repairs

iv. Reinforcement of paper

Flattening

In this process, any folds, wrinkles or distortions in the documents

are removed before undertaking any repair work. Very often wrinkles and

folds are formed in paper documents. If the fold is removed beforehand, the

eventuality of this break may be avoided.

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Flattening Process

The paper is opened with care and spread on a plastic net fitted on a

wooden stretcher. The document is placed in a special humidification

cabinet. The humidity inside the chamber is increased by introducing cool

steam. The relative humidity is maintained at about 90% for some time.

Normally 30 minutes to 45 minutes will suffice. The documents which at

this stage are thoroughly damp are removed from the humidity chamber.

They are placed individually between blotting papers and pressed with

slightly hot iron, till all folds, creases and wrinkles are flattened. Iron

should not be brought in direct contact with the paper document.

Sometimes, there is a tendency to apply water on the folds only. This

tendency should not be used, otherwise the paper may get stained.

Another method for flattening paper documents, the ink of which

does not bleed, is used at the Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow,

NRLC, Lucknow and also at National Museum, New Delhi. In this process,

the document is wetted in water bath, or with a moist brush placed on a

smooth flat surface, and folds removed with a stiff flat brush and then

allowed to dry. At this stage, strips of a strong white paper are pasted on the

edges of the document, half with of which covers the document and the

other half comes on the table or the surface on which the document is

placed. However, this process of flattening is possible only if the margin in

the document is not of great importance and can be sacrificed.

In another technique, the document is placed on a piece of polythene

sheet and moistened with a brush. The relaxed object is covered with

another piece of polythene and pressed with a sponge. Separately, a

‘terylene’ cloth is pasted and spread flat over an acrylic sheet with a thin

paste. The document with the covering polythene film is transferred over

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the ‘terylene’ cloth and flattened with a sponge. The covering polythene

sheet is removed and the document allowed to dry. The document is held in

position by the terylene cloth and so there is no need to apply the strips on

the document edges to hold them on the table top. Thus, in this process, the

edges are not damaged.

Resizing

Sometimes on account of the action of water or fungi, paper

becomes weak due to the decay of the sizing material. Paper becomes limp

and loses its crispness. When the sizing of the paper is lost, it gets easily

stained and is further damaged. Resizing is necessary after the document

has been cleaned, washed or de-acidified, a process in which the sizing

material is also lost. Before sizing is carried out, the ink of the manuscript

must be tested with water. Any ink, which bleeds with water, has to be

protected by the application of a solution of 3% polyvinyl acetate in

sulpher-free toluene or a solution of cellulose film in acetone. Such

documents have to be sized very carefully and with great care.

The papers which are highly brittle can not be resized without some

damage.

Resizing Process

a. Natural Sizing Materials

1. Glue

A 2.5 % solution of glue in water has been used as a sizing

solution. The solution heated to about 45 0 C is applied on the paper

to be resized or the paper sheet is passed through the hot glue

solution and after the excess solution is drained off, it is hung up to

dry.

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2. Gelatin

A 3% solution of pure gelatin has also been used for sizing. A

clear solution is prepared by gently heating gelatin in the required

quantity of water. The solution after staining through muslin cloth is

used hot at a temperature between 43–45 0 C. The paper sheet is

passed through the gelatin bath and hung up to dry on a cord.

3. Parchment Pieces

Pieces of parchment are also used to prepare the sizing

solution. The application method is the same as far the gelatin.

a. Synthetic Sizing Materials

In certain cases when the paper document is too weak to be treated

with water or if ink is susceptible to water, certain synthetic chemicals can

be used as a size. The idea is that these synthetic chemicals dissolve in

organic solvents and do not effect the ink.

Some of the synthetic chemicals useful for sizing are mentioned

below :

i. Methyle Cellulose

Unlike glue and gelatin, methyl cellulose is soluble in cold water. It

is also soluble in some organic solvents such as dimethyl formamide and

dimethyl sulphoxide. A 1% solution in a solvent according to need is

applied on the document with a stiff flat brush. One great advantage of

methyl cellulose is its resistance to the growth of fungus.

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ii. Soluble Nylon

A form of Nylon called methyl methoxynylon has been found useful

for sizing paper. This chemical is soluble in methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol

or methylated spirit, hence the name ‘soluble nylon’. A 1.5% solution is

sprayed or brushed on to the document. Work must be carried out in a fume

cupboard or in a room in which effective exhaust fans are fitted.

iii. Polyvinyl Alcohol

Polyvinyl alcohol has also been used for sizing of paper.

iv. Methyl Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose

1% solution of Methyl Hydroxy ethyl cellulose dissolved in water

has also been used as a sizing material. It possesses some very desirable

properties.

It has been suggested that sizing and de-acidification may be done in

one step rather than in two steps. It gives excellent results. In fact it has

been found that simultaneous sizing and de-acidification improves the

mechanical strength of paper. The tensile strength of paper sometimes

becomes two or even four times its initial value[93].

Minor Repairs

Some documents which are only slightly damaged may need only

minor repairs. For instance sometimes there may be a small tear on a corner

missing or small holes in the sheet, for example insect holes or some

missing parts which can be easily repaired without requiring any special

equipment. Such small damages can be restored readily by minor repairs[94].

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a. Mending of Tears

Torn pages probably mark the first injury to a book, and they may be

mended in any of the following ways :

If the tear does not affect the printing, cut a strip of thin but tough

paper half an inch wide, a little longer than the tear. Cover the strip with

paste and then lay it carefully on the paper over the tear, being sure to see

that both edges of the tear have been brought together evenly. The strip

should project slightly beyond the tear on the sound side of the paper and

slightly beyond the edge also; trim the overhang along the edge with a pair

of shears or scissors. A good way to paste mending strips is to spread the

paste evenly on a piece of glass and lay the strip on it. Lift the strip and

enough paste should adhere to it just enough, not too much or too little.

When the tear extends into the print, put a small bit of paste on the torn

edge and place them together. Then take a piece of soft mending tissue and

rub it gently over the tear in a way to make the tissue adhere to the torn

edges. Then put the paper into the book press or under a weight until it is

dry. Tear off the superfluous tissue, taking care always to pull towards the

tear from both sides. The delicate, soft fibres of the tissues act as binder,

and when the task has been well done, it is almost impossible to see how

the mend has been accomplished. Impregnated tissue paper strips can also

be used for repair of tears in documents. The impregnated tissue paper is

prepared by applying a mixture of polyvinyl acetate emulsion, water and

ethyl alcohol. To prepare the sheet, it is placed over a glass plate and the

solution is applied over the paper either by spray or with a brush. The tissue

paper is then allowed to dry. After it is dried, the glass plate along with the

tissue paper is kept in water for a few minutes. After which the tissue paper

can be easily peeled off the glass plate and hung on a cord to dry.

Whenever a tear is to be repaired, this impregnated tissue is cut and applied

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on the tear and pressed with a slightly warm iron, first of all covering the

tissue with silicon paper. The impregnating adhesive softens with heat and

gets attached to the document. Whenever necessary, the repair can be

undone with a dab of ethyl alcohol[95].

Repairing Corners

A page that has been dogeared and lost a corner, can be repaired in

following ways :

i. Cut out a piece of handmade paper of a similar thickness as

the original.

ii. Slightly reduce the thickness of the document as well as of

the repair paper at the edges to be joined[96].

iii. Apply a thin paste on the edge of the document.

iv. Place the repair paper in position and press[97].

Filling Holes

The small holes in a document are filled with paper fibres. The paper

for preparing the fibre suspension is selected carefully, so that it matches

with that of the original. For this operation of filling the holes, a light table

in which light is passed through the frosted glass is useful. A small strip of

tissue paper is placed on a glass sheet, made wet and a drop of paste is also

applied on that spot. The paper fibres are separated with the help of a

scalpel from the strips and mixed with the paste on the glass and a few

fibres are taken out with a tweezer and filled inside the hole. More fibres

are filled in till it reaches slightly above the level of document. The volume

of the filled fibres decreases on drying. When it is semi dried, the filled in

hole is smoothened from both the sides with a spatula and allowed to dry.

In the same manner, other holes in the document are also filled in[98].

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A machine known as Leaf-Casting machine has been developed for

filling small holes and torn edges at a rapid speed [99]. Depending upon the

size of the machine, several sheets can be repaired in one operation. The

basic principle of leaf casting is sucking paper pulp suspension through the

document placed over the bed of the machine, thereby filling holes in the

document[100]. The first experiment in leaf casting as a mechanical method

of infilling missing areas in damaged papers were carried out by Nyuksha

in late 1950s[101].

Reinforcement of Weak Paper

A document, which has become fragile or brittle due to different

causes is to be reinforced physically so that it is strengthened for study,

storage or display. In such a case, minor repairs will not suffice[102].

Preparation of the Document before Reinforcement

A document is reinforced only when it has lost its strength and no

other technique will succeed. Before reinforcing, all the steps of cleaning,

removal of stains, de-acidification etc. are completed. The document is then

thoroughly examined for any patches of old repair, which might have been

used earlier for repair of any tears or holes. The old repairs are generally of

the following types :

1. Small strips to mend the tears

2. Sellotape to repair torn document

3. Cellulose acetate foil lamination

4. Chiffon repair

Such repairs are removed by using suitable solvents. Sellotape can

be removed with the application of dicholoro ethylene. The solvent is

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applied on the strip and an attempt is made to seep it below the sellotape.

When it is loosened, it is lifted off with a pointed tweezer. Although it is

said that cellulose acetate lamination is reversible, in practice, removal of

old cellulose acetate foils, poses several problems. For removal of cellulose

acetate, the document is placed in the acetone bath in an enamel tray. By

this treatment, the cellulose acetate becomes like a gel and sticky but is not

completely dissolved out of paper.

A technique of removing cellulose acetate foil has been evolved at

the Indian Conservation Institute, Lucknow. In this technique, acetone is

first of all chilled in a refrigerator, and then poured in a enamel tray. The

document is placed in cool acetone. At low temperature, the evaporation of

acetone is retarded. In cool acetone, cellulose acetate is not dissolved but

gets separated from the document and can be lifted almost like a leaf. Using

this method, very good results have been achieved in a number of cases. It

is now in regular use at ICI. For removal of chiffon from a document, the

document is moistened by applying water with a flat brush. The brush must

be barely humid and not too humid. In recent times, enzymes have been

used in many laboratories for removal of old repairs by reacting with

adhesive of the repair[103]. Enzymes are natural proteins having a capacity to

act as catalyst in many chemical reactions[104].

Reinforcement by Full Lining

Those documents which have writing only on one side of the paper

and the other side is blank can be reinforced by lining a tissue paper from

the back, using a paste. A good tissue paper is used for this purpose[105].

Napalese tissue paper or Japanese tissue paper have been found of great use

for lining. They have certain characteristics which other papers do not

possess. If they are not available, hand-made rag paper which should have a

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good spreading power can be used. In India, a tissue paper prepared with

banana fibres has been developed which is as good as Japanese tissue

paper[106].

Both Sides Lamination by Pasting

A paper document that has become very fragile and has writing on

both the sides can only be reinforced by pasting a very thin Japanese tissue

paper or chiffon on both sides of the paper to give it a support[107]. In India,

a transparent paper called “Kela Paper’ of 9 GSM has been produced which

is equally good. The objective of this procedure is to provide as transparent

support to the document as possible. Success of the lamination will mostly

depend on the quality of the Japanese tissue paper or chiffon. It also

depends on the skill of the restorer. This technique of repair should be used

only when the document can not be saved by any other method, because

there is some loss of transparency and certainly of the texture of the

paper[108].

Inlay Process

Those documents which are otherwise strong and are written on both

sides are repaired by the process known as “Inlaying” which means framing

of the document in new sheets of handmade paper. The method is also used

in those cases in which the edges have been damaged and it is required to

bring some uniformity to the documents[109].

Lamination with Cellulose Acetate

Sometimes, paper documents which are written on both sides and are

in a bad state may be repaired by laminating between two sheets of a

synthetic film. This technique, once very popular, is slowly being given up,

because long term effect of this film has not been found to be beneficial.

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The film mostly used for lamination is cellulose acetate film of 23 micron

thickness and Japanese tissue paper of 9 GSM. The film is fixed to the

document with heat applied in a laminating machine or by acetone

lamination[110].

Encapsulation

Encapsulation of documents is now widely used. It can however be

used for unbound documents to which it provides a very good physical

protection. It is carried out without any expensive equipment, although for

neat results, a polyester sealing machine is now available. This treatment is

stable, causing no damage to the document.

In this process, the document is placed between two polyester sheets,

which keep the manuscript in position with electrostatic charge of the

polyster. The edges of the envelope are sealed by using either a double-

sided adhesive tape or with the polyster sealing machines[111].

Paper – Splitting Technique

Another method which has been suggested and is in use in Germany

is known as paper-splitting[112]. In this method, the paper is split into two, a

very thin tissue paper is inserted in between to reinforce the sheet in the

middle. Since tissue paper is inserted into the middle of the two layers of

the paper, it is not visible on either side of the document. Thus, it is

different than the other techniques. If there are any missing areas, the

method can be combined with leaf casting[113].

Removal of Backings

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Sometimes, it becomes necessary to remove a board or a paper

earlier used as support for a document. There may be several reasons for

the removal of the paper or board used as backing. Some of these are :

1. Alteration in the original documents through transfer of

deteriorating agencies from the poor quality board or paper.

2. Too weak mount-board incapable of supporting the original

document any more.

3. The supporting board gets deformed.

4. When the repair of the original document is possible only by

removing the supporting board and relining with a new one.

5. When the characteristics of the board and the original documents

are dissimilar.

Removal Technique

The process of removal can be categorised as :

Mechanical

Using Solvents

Using Steam

Mechanical Methods

Mechanical method, if feasible is the best method because it does

not introduce any chemical in the documents. When the adhesive used for

pasting the document on the board becomes weak, mechanical process of

removal of the board works best. A spatula, preferably made of bamboo or

plastic, with a blunt point is inserted between the document and the mount-

board, simultaneously attempting to separate them. If there is no harm in

sacrificing the old mount-board, and if the board is composed of several

layers, it is better to remove the board layer by layer.

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By use of Solvents

Whenever, mechanical removal is not possible, or is too dangerous,

some solvents which will dissolve or swell the adhesive is introduced with

a dropper or with a cotton swab, while the board is being loosened from the

original document with the help of a spatula. The most common solvent is

water, which is always applied with a blotting paper or cotton swab. In

recent times, enzymes have been used to remove old backing papers and

boards. Before using enzyme solution their likely effect on inks, sizing and

pigments must be taken into account.

By Steam

Steam can also be used for removing backing boards. Its great

advantage is that the moisture – effect is very little. As a result wrinkling or

the risk of stain formation is minimized. Steam, hot or cold as the need may

be is directed at the back of the board. When it is slightly humidified,

removal is easier. An ultrasonic steam generator is extremely useful. The

ultrasonic steam generator can emit cold steam or hot steam if required. The

steam is directed towards the papers and when they are slightly loose, a

blunt plastic spatula is inserted inside, trying to loosen the paper. It should

be ensured that too much force is not applied, otherwise the document may

be torn. If the old repair is not affected by cold steam, hot steam can be

tried[114].

10. CONSERVATION/ PRESERVATION ACTIVITIES AT NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

Conservation of organic materials, which are bound to decay with

the passage of time and exhaust because of use, has become an important

aspect of the modern society. Efforts are being made at international and

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national level to save the cultural property of the nation. Many

organizations and institutes have been developed to discuss the problems

related to conservation and to suggest techniques and measures to solve the

problem. At international level, UNESCO, ICCROM, AIC (American

Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works), IIC

(International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works) are

engaged in saving the cultural property of the nations. These organizations

are doing commendable job by providing training and conducting

workshops in conservation. They also provide financial assistance to the

institutions which are not self sufficient in saving their cultural heritage on

their own. The activities of such organizations and institutes have been

described here in the following paragraphs.

1. UNESCO

UNESCO was established in November 1954 with headquarters in

Paris. It is financed by contributions from members of the United Nations.

UNESCO operates through its sovereign body, the General Assembly and

by conferences, committees, publications, grants, scholarships and where

necessary by representatives of the Director General being appointed to

undertake missions abroad to advice, report and even to take executive

action within the terms of the contract.

In order to meet ever-increasing demands, UNESCO encouraged the

creation of two non-governmental organizations, first ICOM (The

International Council of Museum) which concentrates on the problems of

museums and galleries and more recently ICOMOS (The International

Council on Monuments and Sites), specializing in the matter of monuments

and sites of interest to architects, planners and engineers. These two non-

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governmental organizations are complementary to each other, each

promoting the interests of UNESCO.

UNESCO has become a kind of umbrella organization for all major

enterprises in the conservation of cultural property, but there were still

demands that UNESCO could not meet, problems involving technical

training, especially in the developing countries, establishment of regional

laboratories and setting up of permanent advisory panel of experienced

museum scientific experts in all types of conservation work. To overcome

these deficiencies, the solution found by UNESCO was to create an entirely

new organization modelled basically on its own structure.

Accordingly in 1959, a new institution was established viz. the

International Centre for the Study of Preservation and the Restoration of

Cultural Property. As this title was found to be much too cumbersome, the

centre was rechristened ICCROM, signifying, the International Centre for

Conservation, ROME. Following an agreement negotiated with the Italian

Government, the new centre was to be based in Rome and it came into

operation officially when five nations had joined to form the original

nucleus.

Its income was to come from any nations (already members of

UNESCO) who elected to become member, the annual donation for

membership amounting to 1% of their annual donation to UNESCO.

UNESCO itself giving additional financial support during the formative

years. The centre was managed by a Council – consisting of a number of

permanent members and other elected members. The permanent members

were representative from UNESCO, the Directors of ICOM and ICOMOS,

the Director of the Istituto centrale del Restauro in Rome and the Director

of IRPA in Brussels. The elected members were from the different

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countries adhering to the centre. The council met each year and arranged

the programme of work.

Apart from the regular growth in membership, the most important

event in the life of the centre took place in 1970 when the Government

generously offered new headquarters in a wing of the 17th century historic

building called Ospizio di San Michele, which lies on the south bank of the

Tiber. The centre is now housed in this wing[115].

2. ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property)

ICCROM is an inter-governmental organization with its

headquarters in Rome. It was created by UNESCO in 1956 at the 9 th

General Conference in New Delhi and established in Rome in 1959. It is

the only institution of its kind with a world-wide mandate dealing with the

conservation of all types of cultural heritage. It currently has 95 member

states and 53 worlds leading conservation institutions as Associate

members.

Collection Programme

Since its inception, ICCROM has been active in the field of

conservation of collections. In order to respond better to the growing and

diversified demands of its member states, for 2000-2005 ICCROM has built

a concentrated and strengthened collections programme. Museums, libraries

and archives have always faced the double challenge of conserving

collections for future generations while at the same time, making those

collections available for enjoyment and education of the community. The

collection programme will explore ways to reconcile these conflicting

priorities, highlighting the importance of an integrated approach to heritage

care.

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Structure

The programme is organized in five inter-related lines of action and

includes a regular review component.

1. Professional Development

With key institutions involved in mid-career training at national,

regional or international level, ICCROM will engage in formulating and

implementing education and training activities for professional

development.

2. Institutional Projects

The aim is to stimulate and support institutions to analyse,

experiment with and improve the way in which conservation is integrated in

their activities and services to the community.

3. Debates on Directions

The aim is to foster the development of appropriate new attitudes

and knowledge. Controversial fields at the current ‘margins’ of

conservation activity will be debated, through the web page, international

panels or publications.

4. Support Service

ICCROM will continue to provide ad hoc and tailored support to

institutional requests concerned with the implementation of integrated

conservation. The support will range from making reference materials

available to providing advice on specific problems, orientations and

guidance on specific research or project etc.

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5. Participating Building

ICCROM will support and advise its partners on their respective

strategies for integrated conservation. All networks (regional or thematic)

will be incorporated to ensure the growth of as many links and points of

contact worldwide as possible.

6. Biennial Review Process

Partners and people involved in the design and implementation of

collections programme will also participate in its regular review. The

review process will also involve beneficiaries.

ICCROM seeks to increase the awareness and support of

conservation of everyone from school children to decision makers in every

continent. It aspires through conservation, to make cultural heritage

meaningful and useful to the benefit of people in every part of the globe[116].

3. The American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (AIC)

AIC is the national membership organization of conservation

professionals dedicated to preserving the art and historic artifacts of our

cultural heritage for future generations. AIC advances the practice and

promotes the importance of the preservation of cultural property by

establishing and upholding professional standards and coordinating the

exchange of knowledge, research and publications[117]. AIC also publishes

directory for the use of AIC members.

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4. The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC, London)

The object is to provide a permanent organization to coordinate and

improve the knowledge methods and working standards needed to protect

and preserve and to maintain the condition and the integrity of any objects

or structures which because of their history, significance, rarity or

workmanship have a commonly accepted value and importance for the

common goal, to take any action conducive to the bettering of the condition

of Historic and Artistic works, to take any action necessary to further

understanding and controlling of the causes of deterioration of Historic and

Artistic works, to maintain standards in the practice of conservation and to

combat any influences which would tend to lower such standards, to

provide facilities for consultation and to supervise and direct the conduct of

activities of conservation, to provide facilities for the interchange of ideas

between the members of the Institute, to do all such other things as are

incidental or conducive to the attainment of the above objects[118].

5. Institute of Paper Conservation

Until the spring of 1976 no international specialist organization

existed to address the situation faced by conservator. At that time, British

paper conservators decided to respond by forming a paper group as a

section of the United Kingdom. Group of the International Institute for

Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. In December 1977, this

became the independent Institute of Paper Conservation, functioning as the

principal international body representing those concerned with paper and

related conservation matters and preserving close links with other

conservation organizations. Its intention is to provide a forum for the

exchange of information and ideas in the main field of paper conservation

and a focus for professional awareness that will be helpful to conservation

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craftsmen and scientists as well as to curators of cultural institutions,

collectors and commercial entities involved with conservation. Its annual

journal is the Paper Conservator.

6. The Cambridge 1980 Conference

Preceding the formation of the Institute of Paper Conservation, the

society of Archivists (a British body whose members belonged to the realm

of professional activists) formed a Technical Committee in 1959 which

concerned itself with conservation.

In 1973, the society instituted an In-Service Training Scheme for

Archive Conservators working within its member institutions. Since 1959,

the society has organized an annual meeting for archive conservators which

over the years has become the most important venue of any duration in the

British Isles for the exchange of information relating not solely to archives

but to a wide range of paper conservation matters. As the institute become

established as a functioning part of the conservation world, there was an

increasing volume of requests that it hold an international conference to

consolidate much that was being achieved. This International Conference

was held from Sept. 22 – 26, 1980 with over 500 participants from 38

countries[119].

Conservation Movement in India

India is one of those very few countries which took the initiative of

preserving her cultural heritage on a scientific basis at a very early date.

Today, there are several conservation laboratories and departments to look

after the nation’s cultural property, although it must be admitted that even

these are not sufficient in number.

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1. National Archives of India

National Archives of India at New Delhi is the premier institution in

the country for records storage and archival work. It has its genesis in the

Imperial Record Department (IRD) which was established in 1891 with its

main objective of maintaining the records of the Government of India. The

Imperial Record Department after independence, with increased scope and

responsibilities was reorganized in 1947 as National Archives of India[120].

Functions of National Archives of India

The main functions of NAI are :

1. To appraise the current and non-current records which are 25

years old of the Central Government Offices;

2. To acquire the public and private records of permanent and

historical importance.

3. To rehabilitate and restore the brittle records.

4. To prepare the reference media.

5. To render technical advice to the Central Government

Department and State Archives.

6. To keep contacts with the national and international archives

association.

Resources of National Archives of India

The NAI has in its custody mainly non-current records, which

include public records, private papers, maps, microfilms, and books. The

total holdings of the NAI are estimated to be around 1,10,000 bound

volumes, 6,00,000 loose documents, 18,000 maps and thousands of

authenticated copies of Bills passed by the various State Legislatures and

accepted by the President of India.

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The NAI has also embarked upon a major programme for obtaining

microfilm copies of documents of Indian interest from various repositories

the world over. These are acquired from a number of countries, viz., the

United States, USSR, Netherlands, France, Australia, Brazil, Federal

Republic of Germany and Czechoslovakia. These are acquired through

exchange agreements with individual archives as well as under cultural

exchange programmes of the Government of India with other countries.

There is also an ongoing exchange programme with individual archives and

libraries, such as the India office library etc. for exchange of microfilms.

Library

The library of the NAI emphasizes in its collection mainly on rare

books and documents. Many of these documents date back to the 18th

century. The collection of documents includes books, reports, parliamentary

papers, gazettes, etc. It has a rich collection of publications in various

languages. At present, the library has about 20,000 books and periodicals.

Some of the notable collections in the library are Fort William College

Collection (1,000 titles in Arabic and Persian), prescribed literature,

complete files of Persian and Urdu newspapers of early 19th century, British

Parliamentary Papers and the Bibliotheca India series. The library currently

subscribes to about 66 journals dealing mainly with modern history. The

library has embarked upon a major programme of acquiring backfiles of

Indian journals and newspapers. Some of the notable titles in its collection

are : Calcutta Gazette, Daily Gazette (1860), Journal of Asiatic Society of

Bengal (1844), Statistics at Large (1814), Calcutta Review (1844), Asiatic

Quarterly Review (1791) etc.

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Research and Reference Services

The NAI has provided a Research Room where bonafide research

scholars can sit and consult documents. Personnel assistance is provided in

this room to scholars for use of reference aids and in locating particular

records, etc.

Reprographic Services

The NAI realised the importance of photo-duplication in archival

work right from early 1950s. Hence, a reprographic unit was started. The

unit initially started mainly with microfilming equipment and later on

reprographic facilities were also added. Presently, it has one of the largest

and the best microfilming laboratory in the country. It has also set up a

mobile microfilm unit, which is normally used for microfilming valuable

and rare material which can not be brought physically to the NAI. This

facility is often used by various State Archives for meeting their needs also.

Conservation Laboratory

The NAI has built up an excellent conservation laboratory and other

allied facilities in the area of conservation, repairs and rehabilitation of

records. The laboratory undertakes the following activities over the years :

1. Conducting research in all areas connected with conservation.

Some of its notable achievements are the development of a

special process for manual lamination, the development of a new

process for repairing palm leaf in birch bark manuscripts. The

other major investigations of this Research Laboratory include

the modification of liquid – glue solutions with a view to

developing a better adhesive in binding. The de-acidification of

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documents written in water-soluble inks and the determination of

physical and chemical characteristics of indigenous paper.

2. Providing testing facilities to other organizations in the area of

testing various preservative materials like chiffon, hand made

paper, wax paper, acetate foils, etc. This facility has been utilised

by a number of outside organizations.

3. Providing technical service to a number of institutions and

individuals in respect of preservation and rehabilitation of

documents.

4. Providing technical information on various aspects of

conservation of cultural property against specific technical

inquiries received from individuals and institutions. A substantial

number of such queries are received each year, e.g. about thirty

queries were answered during 1981.

5. Collaborates in research with international agencies e.g. with

International Centre for the Study of the Preservation of Cultural

Property (Rome) and the International Council of Museums.

6. Collaborating with the Indian Standard Institution on various

items connected with the conservation of manuscripts and its

documentation.

7. Publication of a number of valuable studies in this area.

In addition to the conservation laboratory, the NAI has built up

excellent facilities which include installation of a modern hydraulic

lamination press capable of undertaking large scale repair of old and brittle

documents. It has also installed a vacuum fumigatorium chamber capable of

fumigating 300 cubic feet of records at a time, and the setting of a modern

society.

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School of Archival Studies

At the behest of the Indian Historical Records Commission, the

Government of India introduced in 1943 a training scheme at the NAI. The

training was originally envisaged as a combined Archival and Library

Course of two-year duration. The school aims at providing India and other

countries in Asia and Africa with trained personnel at the post-graduate

level to maintain their archive repositories, and record centres. The

programme covers the entire range of archive administration, record

management consultancy, techniques, reprography, information retrieval

system and other specialized topics unique to archives profession. The

school of Archival Studies is a premier institution for imparting training in

various disciplines of archival science. Besides students from India, some

students from African and Asian countries are also admitted for training

every year. It is financed by Government of India and is assisted by the

UNESCO. The school conducts the following courses :

1. For professionals :

i. One year Diploma Course in Archival Studies

ii. Short Term courses each of eight-week duration on Archival Administration, record management, conservation and reprography.

2. For sub-professionals – eight week course in servicing and repair of records.

This organization has turned out more than 2,000 archivists so far

who are serving various archival institutions in India and their respective

governments, such as Afghanistan, Burma, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia,

Phillipines, Nigeria, Kenya and Singapore.

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Promotional Activities

As a part of an ambitious programme for creating a sense of archival

awareness among people, the NAI has been organizing Archives Week and

a series of exhibition/ lectures, seminars, radio talks and panel discussions

are arranged on wide ranging subjects and open house days.

Archive Week

Since 1978, the NAI has been celebrating regularly National Archive

Week with a view to informing the general public of its activities. During

this week, an earnest effort is made to publicize widely the importance of

archives through seminars, symposia, workshops, panel discussions, film-

shows, TV and radio broadcasts, special brochures, souvenirs, and press-

interviews etc.

Publications

An elaborate publication programme was initiated and conceived by

the NAI as early as 1942 when Dr. Sen was the head of NAI. A twenty-year

programme for publishing a large number of valuable historical records was

approved by the Government of India. A large part of the publication

programme is executed in collaboration with other academic bodies in the

country[121].

2. Uttar Pradesh State Archives, Lucknow

State Archives was established on 2nd May, 1949 in Allahabad as

Central Records Office. However, it was shifted to Lucknow to the building

newly constructed for this purpose in July, 1973. At present, it is governed

by U.P. Government.

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Main Objectives

1. To determine the transfer of unpublished records of different

departments of U.P. Government which are not less than 30

years.

2. To determine the scientific conservation and use of transferred

records.

3. To help in the research work.

4. To provide required information to Government.

5. To provide photocopy facility for records of archives.

6. To procure the rare manuscripts and records from the possession

of individuals.

Record Room

State archives has a special record room which has about four lakhs

records and about 10 thousand volumes. These records are related to

different departments of Government like general administration, police,

forest, education, irrigation, home department, panchayati raj and

medicines. State Archives plays an important role by providing information

for research work and official purpose. These records are stored in carton

boxes.

Preservation of Records and Manuscripts

Preservation of records is a very important and necessary work.

Scientific techniques are being used for the preservation of old documents,

manuscripts, rare books and government records. All resources and

techniques are available in the state archive for the preservation of

documents. Handmade paper, tissue paper, chiffon and cellulose acetate

foils are used for the repair of mutilated documents. Lamination technique

is also being used for the reinforcing of weak and torn documents. Machine

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lamination and manual lamination both are available in the Archives.

Laminated sheets are waterproof, and hence it saves documents from mites

etc. Infected documents are fumigated in airtight fumigation chamber by

using thymol and paradie cholorobenzene. Vacuum fumigatorium has been

installed in State Archives for this purpose.

Laboratories

There is also a chemical laboratory in the State Archive. The

purpose of this laboratory is to cure the infected records and documents and

find solutions for deteriorated materials. This laboratory has all modern

equipments like fogging machine, hot oven, pH meter, thermohygrograph,

microscope, ultraviolet lamp and automatic sprayer.

Reprographic Unit

This unit prepares microfilm of very rare and important documents.

This helps in the preservation of archival information for more than 100

years with less cost and less time. It also helps in the easy handling of

information. There is also microfilm reader which helps readers in reading

the microfilm. This helps in the preservation of original records. Microfilms

of about 68,500 original records have been prepared. This microfilm

facility has been extended to research scholars in the country and also

outside the India. This reprography unit has made available microfilm of

about 7,500 records to research scholars. This reprography unit also helps

in the exchange of information between different agencies like National

Archives, New Delhi and India Office Library, London.

Library

This institute also has a very rich library. It has about 14 thousand

books, rare journals and official reports on Indian history and culture which

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helps research scholars in attaining facts and data. This library also has

books gifted by various Government Departments and autonomous bodies.

URDU Department

There is also Urdu Department which helps research scholars in their

research work regarding urdu language.

Private Archives

Besides official records, manuscripts records which are rare and in

the possession of individuals are purchased in form of gift and donation.

For this purpose, government has constituted a regional archival survey

committee which consists of experts of different subjects. This also serves

as an advisory committee to the Archive.

Documents which are procured from personnel possession includes :

personnel letters, manuscripts, rare books, photostate volume, photostate

documents, typed scripts, newspaper clippings, photographs, map album

and microfilm. These are as follows :

1. Personnel letters – 1119

2. Manuscripts – 60

3. Rare Books – 305

4. Photostate Volume – 17

5. Typed Script – 2

6. Photostate Documents – 73

7. Newspaper Clippings – 14

8. Photographs – 14

9. Map – 2

10. Album – 1

11. Microfilm – 2

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Research Room

This archive has also one research room with microfilm facility.

Here microfilms of rare documents is made available to research scholars.

These research scholars read the microfilms with the help of microfilm

reader.

National Archive Register

U.P. State Archive traces the important letters and documents in the

possession of individual through survey, and details of these records are

noted in the National Register meant for non-official documents.

Advisory Committee

For the proper and smooth functioning of State Archive,

Government has constituted one Advisory Committee under which U.P.

Regional Advisory Committee and Purchase Committee has been

constituted. The main work of this Committee is to procure important

manuscripts especially historical records and letters and documents written

by some very important persons.

U.P. State Archives Regional Units

1. Regional Archive, 53 Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Allahabad (1973).

2. Regional Archive, O/22–23, Shashtri Nagar, Kashi VidyaPeeth

Road, Varanasi (1976).

3. Regional Archive, 2 a – b – Mewila Compound, Nanital (1977).

4. Regional Archive, 44/ 3, E-C Road, Dehradun (1980).

5. Regional Archive, 40 COD Colony, New Shahganj, Agra (1980).

6. Manuscript Library, Block no. 9, 10, 11, 12, Bhaghamabari Awas

Yojana, Allahpur, Allahabad (1973).

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Training

State Archive provides training on Archive Arrangement and policy.

Publication of U.P. State Archives, Lucknow

1. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. I.

2. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. II.

3. A Calendar of Oriental Records, Vol. III.

4. A Catalogue of State Papers NWP, Part I, Judicial Series (1795–

1814)

5. An Alphabetical Index/ Persian, Arabic and Urdu Manuscripts in

the UP State Archives.

6. Administrative Reports of the Government Central Records

Office, U.P., Allahabad (1955–58)[122].

3. NRLC (National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Property), 1976

This institute was established in 1976. This is a UNDP project. The

advancement of science has resulted in the development of several

scientific aids for the technical study and conservation of cultural property.

In order to take full advantage of these methods, the Department of Culture,

the Government of India has established the National Research Laboratory

for Conservation of Cultural Property.

Objectives

i. Conduct research in the field of technical study of art,

archaeological, enthonographical and other cultural objects.

ii. Have research programmes for improvement of conservation

techniques.

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iii. Give advice to cultural institutions, conservation laboratories,

and others on problems of conservation.

iv. Provide technical assistance to institutions not having

conservation facilities of their own.

v. Impart training in various aspects of conservation.

Grant

NRLC receives assistance from UNDP and UNESCO.

Main Objectives

1. Research programmes

2. Technical studies – this includes physical, chemical, geological

and other types of analysis of art, archaeological, ethnographical

objects, like :

Ancient metal objects

Ceramics

Stones and other materials used for monuments

Wooden objects and structures

Wall Paintings

Paper, palm-leaf and birch bark manuscripts

Textiles

Ethnological materials

These studies are conducted to understand the technique of

fabrication and to trace the history of technology of various types

of materials.

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3. Improvement of conservation methods :

Many of the conservation techniques now in use are not

suitable for Indian materials and conditions. The attempt is to

improve these methods by constant research. Work is in progress

on metals, stone, woodwork, miniature paintings, palm-leaf and

birch bark manuscripts.

4. Bio-deterioration Studies

Bio-deterioration involves damage to materials by living

organisms like fungus and insects. Studies on the bio-

deterioration problems of museum objects and monuments have

been undertaken.

5. Technical Assistance and Advice

The laboratory gives, upon request, technical assistance to

institutions for preservation of their collections. This assistance

may be in various forms, such as technical advice by

correspondence, visit of experts, field studies, analysis of

materials at NRLC, treatment of important objects etc. NRLC

also assists in setting up new conservation laboratories and gives

technical support to them.

Training

The laboratory organizes the following training courses and

workshops :

i. 6 months training for specialization in conservation. This

course is conducted in collaboration with UNESCO (Ist Sept.

to 28th February).

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ii. 10 days Refresher Course for trained and experienced

conservators to make them familiar with recent developments

in conservation.

iii. 10 days workshop on ‘Care and maintenance of museum

objects’ for curators and others in charge of collections.

iv. Workshops on specific topics.

v. Informal training in scientific methods for examination.

Library and Documentation

NRLC has a specialized Library and Documentation services

unit devolved to all aspects of conservation. A computer has been

installed in the library. Microfilm reading facility is also available.

The library offers a documentation service to scholars and students.

It holds a collection of more than 9000 books, 1000 reprints and

subscribes to about 125 journals.

Publications

The laboratory has a programme of publishing books and

pamphlets dealing with preservation and conservation. Some of them

are available free to institutions upon request.

Regional Conservation Laboratory

A Regional Conservation Laboratory (a unit of NRLC) has

been set up in Mysore. It caters to the conservation needs of

Southern States.

Equipment Available with NRLC

Following equipments are available in NRLC :

i. Advanced analytical equipment like emission spectrograph.

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ii. X-ray Diffractrometer

iii. X-ray fluorescence spectrometer

iv. Metallurgical microscope

v. Infra-red spectrophotometer

vi. Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer

vii. UV-visible spectrophotometer, and

viii. Paper testing machines[123]

4. INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage)

The INTACH was established in 1985. Dr. O.P. Agarwal was

appointed as Honorary Advisor and Poonam Agarwal was appointed as the

Programme Coordinator. From the very beginning it was clear in their mind

that the INTACH’s organisation would act more as a catalytic agent to

promote various centres, rather than do only conservation. Formerly,

INTACH was known as INTACH Conservation Centre.

Grants

INTACH is supported by its parent body the INTACH and from

some of its other benefactors like the INTACH (UK). Trust, Ford

Foundation and NORAD.

Objectives

The main objectives of ICI were defined as follows :

i. Conservation of art objects of all types, like manuscripts,

paintings, textiles, murals and other artifacts.

ii. Training in preventive conservation as well as curative

conservation.

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iii. Technical Advice

iv. Publications.

Divisions

To fulfill these tasks, ICI now has the following divisions :

i. Paper Division

ii. Oil Paintings Division

iii. Wall Painting Division

iv. Textiles Division

v. Research and Analysis Division

vi. Photo Division

vii. Library

Attempt has been made to develop a network of conservation

centres.

Network of Centres

The first regional centre was set up in 1990 at New Delhi,

working under the guidance of well known restorer, Sukanta Basu. It

has been developed mainly as a centre of excellence for conservation

of oil paintings, but is equipped to take up restoration of all other

types of objects as well.

The next centre came up at Bangalore in 1993, with S.

Subbaraman, another noted conservator, as its Director. Its activities

are multifaceted to include restoration of different types of objects,

but mainly paintings.

ICI is an example of an institution which functions on a small

budget, meagre resources, very small staff, but with a large number

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of ambitious projects and activities, accomplished with the help of a

devoted staff.

Conservation of Art Objects

During these years, ICI has restored a large number of objects

received from varied institutions – governmental as well as non-

governmental including museums, Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi; State

Museum, Lucknow; Akhil Bhartiya Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow; Allahabad

Museum; State Archives, Lucknow; Raj Bhawan, Calcutta, Paropkari

Sabha, Ajmer; Patna Museum; Kala Bhawan, Shanti Niketan; Government

Arts College, Madras; Lok Kala Sangrahalays, Lucknow and so on.

Training

Training at ICI have taken the following forms :

1. Short duration workshops on care and maintenance of Arts

objects.

2. Training Programmes for formation of conservators.

3. Intensive individual training programmes.

4. Short term workshops on individual subjects.

Short term workshops on care and preservation of art objects have

been arranged at various locations in the country which included Madras,

Bangalore, Hyderabad, Guwahati, Calcutta, Pune, Trichirapally,

Chandigarh. There has been a very enthusiastic response for all these

workshops.

All the training programmes have been arranged with the support of

Ford Foundation.

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Benefactors of ICI

1. Govt. of India

2. INTACH (UK) Trust

3. Ford Foundation

4. NORAD (Norway)[124].

5. Vrindavan Research Institute (VRI)

The Vrindavan Research Institute was founded in 1968 by a public –

spirited philanthropist scholar, Dr. R.D. Gupta of the School of Indian and

African Studies, University of London. For about a decade since its

foundation, the Institute was financially supported and maintained through

the personal resources of Dr. R.D. Gupta. Susequently, realising the

significance of the aims and mission of the Institute and appreciating its

achievements, the Government of U.P. and the Central Government

provided recurring and ad-hoc grants for its activities. In addition, the

institute welcomes donations from individuals and institutions. It has thus

grown into a centre devoted to the cause of conservation and publication of

Indian culture in general and that of Braj in particular.

Activities

The primary aim of the Institute is to collect, preserve, study and

publish the manuscripts and other archival material and objects of folk arts

and Braj culture. The Institute is also a research centre affiliated to Agra

University for the award of Ph.D. in Hindi and Sanskrit. It is also

recognised as a museum of manuscripts and archival material by the

Museum Association of India. Fellowships are also awarded for research. It

organises lectures, seminars, exhibitions, film shows in India and abroad.

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Conservation Laboratory

Most of the manuscripts are found damaged, burnt or eaten by moth

and insects. The Institute has developed a laboratory for their conservation

and making them available for research purpose. The specialists conserve

the manuscripts by fumigation, ink fixation, de-acidification, lamination,

binding etc. through latest scientific methods.

This department organises workshops and seminars on manuscripts

conservation for creating awareness of preservation techniques among the

general people and manuscript holders.

Manuscript Library

VRI has a rich collection of about 30,000 manuscripts in Sanskrit,

Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Punjabi, 200 miniature paintings, images, coins,

portraits etc.

Reference Library

The VRI has a reference library for research scholars and students.

There are printed books on various subject, dictionaries, research articles,

thesis in the library Research scholars from India and abroad consult this

library for their research work.

Braj Culture Museum

The Braj Culture Museum is established to display rare, old and

important material, dresses, musical instruments, hand made paintings,

manuscripts written on palm and bamboo leaf etc.

Besides this, VRI has photography and microfilming unit. It makes

microfilms of rare manuscripts for Institute and provides them to the

research scholars.

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Publications

The VRI has published a number of bulletins and critical editions.

The catalogues of Sanskrit manuscripts in 5 volumes, Hindi in 2 volumes,

Punjabi, Bangla and Microfilmed manuscripts each in one volume have

also been published by the Institute from collection of library, others are to

be published[125].

6. Indian Association for the Study of Conservation of Cultural Property

The Indian Association for the Study of Conservation of Cultural

Property was formed in the year 1966. The association was established with

aim to provide a professional centre devoted to the cause of conservation

and study of cultural property including historic, archaeological,

anthropological, ethnological, artistic, archival and other material in

libraries, manuscripts, depositories and museums.

The association is mainly financed by membership dues. However,

occasional grants are received from the Government for the running of the

associations journal and holding of annual conferences.

Activities

The broad activities of the Association include : organization of

seminars and conferences, exhibitions and textures, supporting publication

work and taking professional issues and problems with the Government.

One of the major activities of the Association has been the

organizing of annual seminars and conferences. In each seminar various

aspects of conservation are discussed each year with a focus on one

theme[126].

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Association of Indian Archivists

The Association of Indian Archivists was established in 1977 with

the main aim of fulfilling the long felt need for a forum in India, where

specialists in the field of administration, management and preservation of

records could pool their expertise and help the various institutions and

organizations in safeguarding their records, not only as essential material

for their own reference, but also as a part of the country’s heritage.

The credit for bringing this association into being goes to Dr. P.

Basa, Dr. S.N. Prasad and Sri. S.A.I. Tirmize of National Archives and

several members namely Mr. J.K. Jain, T.S. Sinha, Dr. K.P. Srivastava and

M.L. Kachroo from the State Archives.

The membership of the Association consists of Institutional,

Individual, Associate and Memory Members.

Activities

One of the major activities of the Association has been organization

of seminars and workshops.

Active liaison of the Association has been established with number

of archival association in other countries. The Association has also been

admitted as a member of the section of Professional Associations of the

Indian Council of Archives.

Publication

In order to disseminate information and to provide a forum for

discussing the professional problems, the Association is bringing out two

serials. It brings out an annual journal entitled ‘Journal of Conservation of

269

Cultural Property in India’ since 1966. The Association also publishes an

annual newsletter entitled ‘Conservation of Cultural Property’ since 1977.

The Association keeps linkages with international professional

bodies in the areas such as International Centre for the study of

Conservation of Cultural Property, Rome etc.[127].

270

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2. Prajapati, C.L. Archivo Library Materials. (N. Delhi : Mittal publication, 1997), p. 3–6.

3. Ibid, p 8–9.

4. Ibid, p 6–8.

5. Ibid, p 11–21.

6. Langwell, W.H. The Conservation of books and documents. (London and New York : Pitman, 1957), p. 45.

7. Prajapati, op.cit., p. 21–22.

8. Ibid, p 25.

9. Ibid, p 26.

10. Ibid, p 54–56.

11. Ibid, p 56–63.

12. Ibid, p 67.

13. Agarwal, O.P. Conservation of books, manuscripts and paper documents. (Lucknow: INTACH, ICI, 1997), p. 18.

14. Ibid, p 19–20.

15. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 74.

16. Agarwal, op.cit., p. 3–4.

17. Langwell, op.cit, p. 1.

18. Ibid, p 67.

19. Agarwal, op.cit., p. 6.

271

20. Langwell, op.cit., p. 8.

21. Ibid, p. 8.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid, p 9.

24. Ibid, p 9–10.

25. Prajapati, op.cit., p 45–52.

26. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 7.

27. Ibid, p 8–12.

28. Ibid, p 12–15.

29. Ibid, p 25–29.

30. Plumbe, W.J. The Preservation of books in tropical and sub-tropical countries (London : Oxford University Press, 1964), p 1–3.

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61. Prajapati, op.cit, p. 128.

62. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 57–58.

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65. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 58–59.

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92. Ibid, p. 177–178.

93. Ibid, p. 178–180.

94. Ibid, p. 187.

95. Ibid, p. 188–190.

275

96. Lydenberg, op.cit, p. 49.

97. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 190–192.

98. Ibid, p. 192.

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100. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 194.

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102. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 197.

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104. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 198–203.

105. Gast, op.cit, p. 234–254.

106. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 203.

107. Gast, op.cit, p. 260.

108. Agarwal, p. 217.

109. Ibid, p. 219.

110. Ibid, p. 222–223.

111. Ibid, p. 229.

112. Wächter, W. [et.al.] “Paper splitting at the German Library … to full mechaization”. Restaurator. 17(1); 1996; 32–42.

113. Agarwal, op.cit, p. 236.

114. Ibid, p. 238–242.

276

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116. http://www.iccrom.org

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126. Gupta, op.cit, p. 72–74.

127. Ibid, p. 28–30.

277