concept 5.1: most macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers • a polymer is a long molecule...
TRANSCRIPT
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Chapter 5
The Structure and Function of Macromolecules
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Overview: The Molecules of Life
• Within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form larger molecules
• Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms
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Concept 5.1: Most macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
• A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks called monomers
• Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids
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The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
• Monomers form larger molecules by condensation reactions called dehydration reactions
• Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction
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LE 5-2
Short polymer Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer Longer polymer
Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond
Hydrolysis of a polymer
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The Diversity of Polymers
• Each cell has thousands of different kinds of macromolecules
• Macromolecules vary among cells of an organism, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species
• An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers
1 2 3 HO H
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Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
• Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
• The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
• Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
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Sugars
• Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O
• Glucose is the most common monosaccharide
• Monosaccharides are classified by location of the carbonyl group and by number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
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LE 5-3 Triose sugars
(C3H6O3)
Glyceraldehyde Ald
oses
Ket
oses
Pentose sugars (C5H10O5)
Ribose
Hexose sugars (C5H12O6)
Glucose Galactose
Dihydroxyacetone
Ribulose
Fructose
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• Monosaccharides serve as a major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules
• Though often drawn as a linear skeleton, in aqueous solutions they form rings
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LE 5-4
Linear and ring forms
Abbreviated ring structure
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• A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
• This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage
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LE 5-5
Glucose
Maltose
Fructose Sucrose
Glucose Glucose
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose
1–4 glycosidic
linkage
1–2 glycosidic
linkage
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Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
• The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages
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Storage Polysaccharides
• Starch, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers
• Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids
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LE 5-6a Chloroplast Starch
1 µm
Amylose
Starch: a plant polysaccharide
Amylopectin
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• Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals
• Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells
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LE 5-6b Mitochondria Glycogen granules
0.5 µm
Glycogen
Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide
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Structural Polysaccharides
• Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells
• Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages differ
• The difference is based on two ring forms for glucose: alpha (α) and beta (β)
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LE 5-7
a Glucose
a and b glucose ring structures
b Glucose
Starch: 1–4 linkage of a glucose monomers.
Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of b glucose monomers.
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• Polymers with alpha glucose are helical • Polymers with beta glucose are straight • In straight structures, H atoms on one strand
can bond with OH groups on other strands • Parallel cellulose molecules held together this
way are grouped into microfibrils, which form strong building materials for plants
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LE 5-8
Cellulose molecules
Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall
Cell walls Microfibril
Plant cells
0.5 µm
β Glucose monomer
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• Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing alpha linkages can’t hydrolyze beta linkages in cellulose
• Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive tract as insoluble fiber
• Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose • Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have
symbiotic relationships with these microbes
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• Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
• Chitin also provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi
• Chitin can be used as surgical thread
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Concept 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
• Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers
• The unifying feature of lipids is having little or no affinity for water
• Lipids are hydrophobic because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds
• The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids
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Fats
• Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
• Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
• A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
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LE 5-11a
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat Glycerol
Fatty acid (palmitic acid)
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• Fats separate from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and exclude the fats
• In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or triglyceride
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LE 5-11b
Ester linkage
Fat molecule (triacylglycerol)
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• Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds
• Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds
• The major function of fats is energy storage
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• Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats
• Most animal fats are saturated • Saturated fats are solid at room temperature • A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to
cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits
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LE 5-12a
Saturated fat and fatty acid.
Stearic acid
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• Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called unsaturated fats
• Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated
• Plant fats and fish fats are liquid at room temperature and are called oils
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LE 5-12b
Unsaturated fat and fatty acid.
Oleic acid
cis double bond causes bending
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Phospholipids
• In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
• The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
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LE 5-13
Structural formula Space-filling model Phospholipid symbol
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails
Fatty acids
Choline
Phosphate
Glycerol
Hyd
roph
obic
tails
H
ydro
phili
c he
ad
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• When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior
• The structure of phospholipids results in a bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes
• Phospholipids are the major component of all cell membranes
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LE 5-14
WATER Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails WATER
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Steroids
• Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
• Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes
• Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease
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Concept 5.4: Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
• Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells
• Protein functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
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• Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions
• Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry out the processes of life
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LE 5-16
Substrate (sucrose)
Enzyme (sucrose)
Fructose
Glucose
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Polypeptides
• Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids
• A protein consists of one or more polypeptides
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Amino Acid Monomers
• Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups
• Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups
• Cells use 20 amino acids to make thousands of proteins
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LE 5-UN78
Amino group
Carboxyl group
α carbon
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LE 5-17a
Isoleucine (Ile)
Methionine (Met) Phenylalanine (Phe) Tryptophan (Trp) Proline (Pro)
Leucine (Leu) Valine (Val) Alanine (Ala)
Nonpolar
Glycine (Gly)
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LE 5-17b
Asparagine (Asn) Glutamine (Gln) Threonine (Thr)
Polar
Serine (Ser) Cysteine (Cys) Tyrosine (Tyr)
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LE 5-17c
Electrically charged
Aspartic acid (Asp)
Acidic Basic
Glutamic acid (Glu) Lysine (Lys) Arginine (Arg) Histidine (His)
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Amino Acid Polymers
• Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
• A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
• Polypeptides range in length from a few monomers to more than a thousand
• Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids
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Determining the Amino Acid Sequence of a Polypeptide
• The amino acid sequences of polypeptides were first determined by chemical methods
• Most of the steps involved in sequencing a polypeptide are now automated
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Protein Conformation and Function
• A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape
• The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s three-dimensional conformation
• A protein’s conformation determines its function
• Ribbon models and space-filling models can depict a protein’s conformation
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LE 5-19
A ribbon model
Groove
Groove
A space-filling model
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Four Levels of Protein Structure
• The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids
• Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain
• Tertiary structure is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)
• Quaternary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
Animation: Protein Structure Introduction
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LE 5-20
Amino acid subunits
β pleated sheet +H3N
Amino end
α helix
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• Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letters in a long word
• Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information
Animation: Primary Protein Structure
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LE 5-20a
Amino acid subunits
Carboxyl end
Amino end
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• The coils and folds of secondary structure result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
• Typical secondary structures are a coil called an alpha helix and a folded structure called a beta pleated sheet
Animation: Secondary Protein Structure
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LE 5-20b
Amino acid subunits
β pleated sheet
α helix
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• Tertiary structure is determined by interactions between R groups, rather than interactions between backbone constituents
• These interactions between R groups include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions
• Strong covalent bonds called disulfide bridges may reinforce the protein’s conformation
Animation: Tertiary Protein Structure
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LE 5-20d
Hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions
Polypeptide backbone
Disulfide bridge
Ionic bond
Hydrogen bond
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• Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule
• Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope
• Hemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and two beta chains
Animation: Quaternary Protein Structure
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LE 5-20e
β Chains
α Chains Hemoglobin
Iron Heme
Collagen
Polypeptide chain
Polypeptide chain
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Sickle-Cell Disease: A Simple Change in Primary Structure
• A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein’s conformation and ability to function
• Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin
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LE 5-21a
Red blood cell shape
Normal cells are full of individual hemoglobin molecules, each carrying oxygen.
10 µm 10 µm
Red blood cell shape
Fibers of abnormal hemoglobin deform cell into sickle shape.
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LE 5-21b
Primary structure
Secondary and tertiary structures
1 2 3
Normal hemoglobin Val His Leu
4 Thr
5 Pro
6 Glu Glu
7 Primary structure
Secondary and tertiary structures
1 2 3
Sickle-cell hemoglobin Val His Leu
4 Thr
5 Pro
6 Val Glu
7
Quaternary structure
Normal hemoglobin (top view)
α
β
β
β
β
α
α
α
Function Molecules do not associate with one another; each carries oxygen.
Quaternary structure
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Function Molecules interact with one another to crystallize into a fiber; capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.
Exposed hydrophobic region β subunit β subunit
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What Determines Protein Conformation?
• In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect conformation
• Alternations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel
• This loss of a protein’s native conformation is called denaturation
• A denatured protein is biologically inactive
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LE 5-22
Denaturation
Renaturation
Denatured protein Normal protein
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The Protein-Folding Problem
• It is hard to predict a protein’s conformation from its primary structure
• Most proteins probably go through several states on their way to a stable conformation
• Chaperonins are protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins
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LE 5-23a
Chaperonin (fully assembled)
Hollow cylinder
Cap
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LE 5-23b
Polypeptide Correctly folded protein
An unfolded poly- peptide enters the cylinder from one end.
Steps of Chaperonin Action:
The cap comes off, and the properly folded protein is released.
The cap attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for the folding of the polypeptide.
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• Scientists use X-ray crystallography to determine a protein’s conformation
• Another method is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which does not require protein crystallization
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LE 5-24a
Photographic film
Diffracted X-rays X-ray source X-ray
beam
X-ray diffraction pattern
Crystal
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LE 5-24b
Nucleic acid
3D computer model X-ray diffraction pattern
Protein
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Concept 5.5: Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
• The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene
• Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid
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The Roles of Nucleic Acids
• There are two types of nucleic acids:
– Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
– Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• DNA provides directions for its own replication
• DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
• Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes
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LE 5-25
NUCLEUS
DNA
CYTOPLASM
mRNA
mRNA
Ribosome
Amino acids
Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus
Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm via nuclear pore
Synthesis of protein
Polypeptide
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The Structure of Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides
• Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides
• Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group
• The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside
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LE 5-26a 5ʹ′ end
3ʹ′ end
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous base
Phosphate group
Nucleotide
Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid
Pentose sugar
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Nucleotide Monomers
• Nucleotide monomers are made up of nucleosides and phosphate groups
• Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar
• There are two families of nitrogenous bases:
– Pyrimidines have a single six-membered ring
– Purines have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
• In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose
• In RNA, the sugar is ribose
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LE 5-26b Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
Purines
Pentose sugars
Cytosine C
Thymine (in DNA) T
Uracil (in RNA) U
Adenine A
Guanine G
Deoxyribose (in DNA)
Nucleoside components
Ribose (in RNA)
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Nucleotide Polymers
• Nucleotide polymers are linked together, building a polynucleotide
• Adjacent nucleotides are joined by covalent bonds that form between the –OH group on the 3´ carbon of one nucleotide and the phosphate on the 5´ carbon on the next
• These links create a backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages
• The sequence of bases along a DNA or mRNA polymer is unique for each gene
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The DNA Double Helix
• A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides spiraling around an imaginary axis, forming a double helix
• In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in opposite 5´ to 3´ directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as antiparallel
• One DNA molecule includes many genes
• The nitrogenous bases in DNA form hydrogen bonds in a complementary fashion: A always with T, and G always with C
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LE 5-27
Sugar-phosphate backbone
3ʹ′ end 5ʹ′ end
Base pair (joined by hydrogen bonding)
Old strands
Nucleotide about to be added to a new strand
5ʹ′ end
New strands
3ʹ′ end
5ʹ′ end 3ʹ′ end
5ʹ′ end
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DNA and Proteins as Tape Measures of Evolution
• The linear sequences of nucleotides in DNA molecules are passed from parents to offspring
• Two closely related species are more similar in DNA than are more distantly related species
• Molecular biology can be used to assess evolutionary kinship
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
The Theme of Emergent Properties in the Chemistry of Life: A Review • Higher levels of organization result in the
emergence of new properties
• Organization is the key to the chemistry of life
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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Isomers • Isomers are compounds with the same molecular
formula but different structures and properties:
– Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
– Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in spatial arrangements
– Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other
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(a) Structural isomers
2-methyl butane Pentane
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• Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry
• Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects
• Differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules
Isomers: Enantiomers
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Drug
Ibuprofen
Albuterol
Condition
Pain; inflammation
Asthma
Effective Enantiomer
S-Ibuprofen
R-Albuterol
R-Ibuprofen
S-Albuterol
Ineffective Enantiomer