MODULE 1 - Gathering and Processing Information

THIS MODULE seeks to instill in students the ability to speak and write with control of the grammar, vocabulary, mechanics and conventions of Caribbean Standard English usage. Students should also be able to identify the characteristic formats, organizational features and modes of expression of different genres and types of writing and speech.

Students should also be able to evaluate the appropriateness of data collection methods and instruments, including the use of the internet as an electronic resource. They should also create a portfolio of oral and written work.

RESEARCH METHODS

Research

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others. This chapter explains what research is and what it is not. Eight characteristics of research are presented. The process of research as a helical cycle is discussed.

Research is a process through which we attempt to achieve systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem, or a greater understanding of a phenomenon. This process, which is frequently calledresearch methodology,has eight distinct characteristics:

1. Research originates with a question or problem.2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal.3. Research follows a specific plan of procedure.4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions.7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research.8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.

Characteristics of Formal Research

1. Research originates with a question or problem. The world is filled with unanswered questions, unresolved problems. Everywhere we look, we observe things that cause us to wonder, to speculate, to ask questions. And by asking questions, we strike the first spark igniting a chain reaction that terminates in the research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of research. There is so much that we do not know that we do not understand! The hope of mitigating our ignorance lies in the questions we ask and the information we gather and in whose collective meaning we may find insight. The problem and its statement are important because they are the point of origin of formal research.

2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal.A clear, unambiguous statement of the problem is critical. This statement is an exercise in intellectual honesty. It cannot brook vagueness, or the avoidance of an obligation to set forth clearly and in a grammatically complete sentence precisely what the ultimate goal of the research is. The statement asks the researcher, "What precisely do you intend to do?" This is basic and is required for the success of any research undertaking. Without it, the research is on shaky ground indeed.

3. Research requires a specific plan of procedure.Research is a carefully planned attack, a search-and-discover mission explicitly planned in advance. Consider the title of this text:Practical Research: Planning and Design.The last three words are the important ones. The overall research effort must be explicitly planned and logically designed. Researchers plan their overall research design and specific research methods in a purposeful way -- that is, to yield data relevant to their particular research problem. Depending on the specific research question, different designs and methods will be more or less appropriate.

4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.The whole is composed of the sum of its parts. That is a universal natural law; that is also a good precept to observe in thinking about one's principal goal in research. We break down principal problems much more frequently than we realize.

Let's take an everyday problem to see how it breaks down into a number of sub-problems. Suppose you want to get from your town to a town 50 miles away. Your principal goal is to get from one location to the other as expeditiously as possible. You soon realize, however, that at the outset some sub-problems must be considered. Here is a structuralization of the problem and its attendant sub-problems:

Main problem:

How do I get from Town A to Town B?

Sub-problems:

1. What is the most direct route?2. How far do I travel on the highway?3. What is the number of the exit I take in leaving the highway?It is expedient to reduce the main problem to a series of logical sub-problems that, when resolved, will resolve the main problem.

5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.Having stated the problem and the attendant sub-problems, each sub-problem is then viewed through a construct called a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a logical supposition, a reasonable guess, an educated conjecture. It may direct your thinking to the possible source of information that will aid in resolving the research problem through the resolution of each attendant sub-problem.

6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions. In research, the assumption must be valid or else the research cannot proceed. For this reason, careful researchers -- certainly in academic research -- set forth a statement of the assumptions as the bedrock upon which the study must rest. In your research, therefore, it is important that others know what you assume with respect to your project. For, if one is to judge the quality of your study, then the knowledge of what you assume as basic to the very existence of your study is vitally important.

7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research.Having now isolated the problem, divided it into appropriate sub-problems, posited reasonable questions or hypotheses, and recognized the assumptions that are basic to the entire effort, the next step is to collect whatever data seem appropriate and to organize them in meaningful ways so that they can be interpreted.

8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.The research process follows a cycle and begins simply. It follows logical, developmental steps:

a. A questioning mind observes a particular situation and asks, Why? What caused that? How come? (This is the subjective origin of research.)

b. The answer to those questions becomes formally stated as a problem. (This is the overt beginning of research.)

c. Data are gathered that seem to bear on the problem.

d. The data seem to point to a tentative solution of the problem. A guess is made; a hypothesis or guiding question is formed.

e. The quest for more data continues.

f. The body of data is processed and interpreted.

g. A discovery is made; a conclusion is reached.

h. The tentative hypothesis is either supported by the data or is not supported; the question is partially / completely answered or not.

i. The cycle is complete.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

These are methods through which the researcher may get valuable data on a topic that the researcher needs more information on. Data collection methods may take various forms

1. Questionnaires

These are a collection of questions that the respondents complete on their own. They are used when factual information is required. A questionnaire is used with all research designs. These are the ways in which a questionnaire can be administered:

* Face to face* Via the telephone* Via the mail* Via electronic mail

2. Interviews

They are a list of questions administered to the respondent face to face. These can either be structured or unstructured. The structured interviews comprise a set of precisely formulated questions, which are asked of a respondent. The unstructured interviews allow the respondent to respond to a stimulus question. It is very informal and allows for the respondent to speak for as long as he/she wants. These are used in qualitative research and case studies, but can be useful in surveys- especially social surveys.

3. Observation schedule

The researcher records observations in terms of a predetermined schedule. This is used in action research as well as case studies.

4. Attitude or Sentiment scales

These are used to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions of a respondent. They can be used with all types of research, but more specifically with surveys and action research.

SAMPLE SELECTION

A researcher who undertakes a survey involving large numbers of people will find it impractical or even impossible to canvas the views of everyone in that population. He has to then ensure that he takes a sample of the total population.

The sample is a portion or fraction or subset of the total population. It is assumed that the sample is homogeneous and that the characteristics found in the sample may reasonably be expected to be found in the whole.

When generalizations are to be made about the total population this sample should accurately reflect the opinions, beliefs or choices of the population.

Therefore it must satisfy two basic conditions:

* It must be numerically large enough to correctly reflect the views of the whole population in other words; it must be sufficient or adequate.

* All segments of the population indicated by relevant variables such as sex, age, social class, occupation etc. are to be proportionately included in the sample in other words, it must be representative.

Types of Sampling

There are two types of sampling: probability and non-probability.

Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is one way of making sure that the sample is representative of the population and that the procedure used in your research has validity. It ensures that no member of the sample is likely to be preferred than another in the selection. The selection cannot be predicted. Here the researcher's bias is eliminated and the procedure becomes more consistent and efficient.

Non-probability sampling, also referred to as convenience sampling is used when the total extent of the population is not known. The researcher selects the sample at his discretion not randomly. One cannot guarantee validity and the absence of bias in this kind of selection and the results gathered using this type of sampling may not be totally reliable. However it has some advantages; it is less expensive and uses less time and resources.

Primary and Secondary Sources of Information

Primary sources of information allow the learner to access original and unedited information. A primary source requires the learner to interact with the source and extract information.

Secondary sources are edited primary sources, second-hand versions. They represent someone else's thinking.

Primary Sources

Person Interview E-Mail contact Event Discussion Debate Community Meeting Survey Artifact Observation of object (animate and inanimate)

Secondary Sources

Reference Material Book CD Rom Encyclopedia Magazine Newspaper Video Tape Audio Tape TV

Primary or Secondary

Internet Web Site Graph, chart, diagram, table

DISCOURSE TYPES

Types of Discourse

NarrativeWhen you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story.Narrative essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author's, so there is feeling as well as specific and often sensory details provided to get the reader involved in the elements and sequence of the story. The verbs are vivid and precise. The narrative essay makes a point and that point is often defined in the opening sentence, but can also be found as the last sentence in the opening paragraph. Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story.

When the writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of storytelling:plot, character, setting, climax, and ending.It is usually filled with details that are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to the main point the writer is attempting to make.

A narrative also relates things in history or describes processes. The narrative organizes facts and presents events at a climatic or dramatic point and by flashback method; it brings the story to the present time. Narratives focus on settings, characters and events and engage the readers attention because of the elements of suspense, intrigue and excitement.

To summarize, the narrative essay

is told from a particular point of view makes and supports a point is filled with precise detail uses vivid verbs and modifiers uses conflict and sequence as does any story may use dialogue

Descriptive Writing

Descriptive writingconveys images and impressions of a person, a place, an event or a thing.Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere, from reference books to poems. You might use a description to introduce a character in a narrative or to create a strong closing to a persuasive essay. In the descriptive type of writing, the writer appeals to the five senses.

The use of adjectives, figurative language such as similes, metaphors, alliterations and onomatopoeia are extremely important as they help to create images to please the senses.

Remember there are five types of imagery and they are named according to the senses to which they appeal:tactile touch/feeling, visual images sight, audible images - hearing, gustatory taste, olfactory smell.

Persuasive Writing

In persuasive writing, a writer takes a positionFORorAGAINSTan issue and writes to convince the reader to believe or do something. Persuasive writing is often used in advertisements to get the reader to buy a product. It is also used in essays and other types of writing to get the reader to accept a point of view. In order to convince the reader you need more than opinion; you need facts or examples to back your opinion. So, be sure to do the research!

Persuasive writing follows a particular format. It has an introduction, a body where the argument is developed, and a conclusion. Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader that the point of view or course of action recommended by the writer is valid. To accomplish this, the writer must develop a limited topic which is well defined and debatable, that is has more than one side. It is important that the author understand other sides of the position so that the strongest information to counter the others can be presented. In the essay, only one side of the issue is presented.

The verbpersuademeans to convince someone to agree with you or to convince others to accept your opinion. In order to do this effectively you must be convincing, you must use various methods to be successful. You may use gestures, various tones of voice, and facial expressions, employ body language, use diagrams, pictures, graphs, statistics, etc. whatever it takes, you must ensure that you do it in order to be successful.

To ensure that you write effectively in this area you must employ different techniques/skills, to do well.

Some techniques include use of:repetition, evidence, analogies, contrast, rhetorical questions, sarcasm, reliable source of authority, statistics, appeal to emotion, direct personal appeal, definition or a personal experience, exaggeration, comparisons, anecdote.

1.Use of evidence this giving concrete information that can be proven by the source, e.g. scientific.

2.Use of Analogythis is the comparison of two things that are similar in certain ways to illustrate a point.

3.Use of reliable source or authority Example:Information from journals or encyclopedia.

4.Use of Contrast

5.Appeal to emotion

6.Use of rhetorical questionsA Rhetorical Question is a question that is asked not to be answered, but to affect the reader or listener.

7.Use of repetition Repetition is a device in which a word, phrase or sentence is repeated for emphasis.

8. Direct Personal Appeal

9.An Anecdote:An anecdoteis a short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident.An anecdote can provide an amusing and attention-getting opening if it is short and to the point.

10.Statistic or Fact:Statisticsis a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data.A factis defined as something that is true, something that actually exists, or something having objective reality that can be verified according to an established standard of evaluation.Sometimes a statistic or fact will add emphasis or interest to your topic. It may be wise to include the item's authoritative source.

These are reallytools of persuasionas theyGETto you.

G- Grab readers attention.

E- Engage the audience for the given time.

T- Talk about their belief.

Expository Writing

Exposition is a type of oral or written discourse that is used to explain, describe, give information or inform. The creator of an expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topic that is being discussed. One important point to keep in mind for the author is to try to use words that clearly show what they are talking about rather than blatantly telling the reader what is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms that can be used to improve our skills in exposition is to provide directions to improve the organization of the text.

The expository category is characterized by facts. In this section students make use of facts, data from surveys, reports and manuals. There is usually analysis, definition, classification and reference.

A good piece of expository writingbegins with a key sentence, which sums up or defines the subject matter.If your composition is going to be long or elaborate, you can use your introductory paragraph to make some general remarks, to address the reader, or to indicate the treatment you will give your subject in subsequent paragraphs.

Note: In this type of writing, a summing up paragraph is usually required. This summing up paragraph gives you the opportunity to tie your beginning with your writing as a whole.

MODULE 2 - Language and Community

THIS MODULE seeks to develop in you the ability to discuss how language may be defined and characterized as well as to consider ways in which language affects society and is in turn affected by society. This study of language is investigated within the Caribbean context. You should be able to describe the salient features of the interactive relationship among communication technologies, language and society. In addition, your ability to examine the significance of communication technologies in cultural interaction ought to become evident.

This section carries much content and so you need to read all that is relevant and can be found on the various aspects of the module. You may read the following texts which, together, provide adequate information on this module:

* West Indians and their language by Peter Roberts

* English for Academic Purposes by Barbara Lalla

* Writing in English: A Coursebook for Caribbean Students by H. Simmons-MacDonald, L. Fields and P. Roberts.

* Grammar, Structure and Style - A Practical Guide to A-Level English by Shirley Russel

* Language: Exposition and Argument(Readings and Exercises) compiled by K. Shields-Brodber, I. McLaren, M. Thompson, E. King and M. E. Taylor

DEFINING LANGUAGE

Language is recognized as having two possible interpretations: language and a language. When we think of language we think of it in a general way.

Language:is the verbal form of human expression. As such, it is therefore confined to a human context and not extended to any other species. It also relates to a human being's ability to communicate, verbally and non-verbally, with other human beings as well as with himself. It allows the transmission of desires, ideas and emotions from individual to individual and within the same individual. Language is external in the form of sounds and symbols and it is internal as mental activity

A Language:means any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other such systems by its peculiarities of structure and vocabulary. That is to say that every language is distinct from other languages because of these features.

E.g. Spanish, Jamaican Creole, English, French and Chinese are each categorized as a language; while all who are speakers of these languages, in verbally expressing themselves, use language.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE

1. Human

Where other creatures seem to have communication systems which enable them to perform basic functions, only the human species has one which allows such complexity and range of performance. We know of no other species which can express meanings about past or future events, articulate abstract ideas or construct advertisements.

2. Verbal

Human beings make language. It is first spoken then written. The complex anatomy in the throat and mouth allows us to modify this vibrating air in order to make the vowels and consonants of speech and to manipulate its melodies, the intonation system. We have ears to hear what others say as well as to monitor ourselves.

3.Symbolic

Language has an arbitrary nature. The connection between the things signified (e.g. Objects) and the words used to signify them, that is the symbol the word 'book' and the symbolized the actual book, is arbitrary. There is nothing inherent in the word 'book' for us to refer to the object as such.

4.Systematic

Language is rule governed. It follows observable patterns that obey certain inherent 'rules'. To be fluent in a language requires both a mastery of its grammatical rules and competence in the appropriate use of the sentences that are structured by those rules.

5.Maturational

A language is always developing. Most languages do so as they acquire vocabulary.

6.Non instinctive

Language is naturally acquired. It is suggested that there is a built-in mechanism which gives human beings the ability to acquire and learn language; we are biologically conditioned to learn language.

7.Dynamic

Language is not static, it is always changing. Language changes because the lives of speakers change, for example, as speakers come into contact with other cultures or as new discoveries change their way of life.

The Jamaican Language Situation

The Jamaican Language situation is referred to as a continuum. It depicts the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica. (Indeed there are a few other Caribbean territories which are described in a similar manner.) This range is represented as a continuum because:

1. Not every point on the continuum is a separate language2. Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in conversation and in different situations.

The diagram below should give you a visual image of the Jamaican Language Continuum

BASILECT >MESOLECT >ACROLECT

BASILECTis the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms and is said to be the first point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.

MESOLECTis the form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect and is said to be the point on the continuum next to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.

ACROLECTis the Jamaican Standard English and it is the last point on the continuum. It is most often spoken in formal situations.

Undoubtedly this notion that each form is most often spoken by particular persons is debatable as the increased accessibility of new technological mediums of communication throughout the country has enabled Jamaicans to choose even more freely any variety they wish to use along the continuum.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CREOLE LANGUAGES

There are several features of Creoles and Creole-influenced vernacular which make them different from Standard English. These features may be categorized as grammar, sound, vocabulary and semantics.

Grammar:Within Creole grammar, for example, nouns, verbs and pronouns are not treated in the same way in which they are in Standard English [SE].To illustrate plurality as in the noun 'books', in Jamaican Creole [JC] plurality is shown by the use of the word 'dem' as in 'buk dem'. (Polard: 1993)

Sound: The creole sound does not use the "th" sound this is usually substituded by the letter 'd". The "h", or "ing" sound is normally not pronounced. To illustate sound formation in Jamaican Creole [JC] we generally hear the words "dem" "tief ", "comin" and "ungry".

Vocabulary: Most of the vocabulary used in the Jamaican Creole [JC] can only be found in that language. To illustrate this we often find words such as "nyaam" and "pickney".

Semantics: In the Jamaican Creole [JC] words that are used may be shared with Standard English [SE] however they have different denotative and connotative meanings. To illustrate this the word "ignorant" in Standard English [SE] may refer to someone who is lacking in knowledge, while in Jamaican Creole [JC] it refers to someone who gets easily upset/angry.

LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY

language is used in various forms and capacity within our society today. These factors give rise to the issues which perpetuate the prevailing attitudes, both negative and positive, to language in Jamaica and some other territories in the Caribbean. The following are some of the factors affecting language:

1.SOCIAL FACTORS:

* Interaction with peers* Media* Interaction with others [different age groups]* Structure of the society cultural plurality [several cultural groups existing in the same environment

2.ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

* Occasion determines the register [formal or informal]* Interaction in the home [What registers are used? How do members relate to each other?]* Church ceremonial language is used* School language of instruction and interaction with peers

3.HISTORICAL FACTORS:

* Slavery and plantation life* Dispersion of tribes on the plantations and in colonies* The need to communicate* Sovereignty who colonized which territory

4.EDUCATIONAL FACTORS:

* Level of educational background* Availability of educational materials which foster the development of language* The teacher* Interaction with students during class* Accessibility of and exposure to training* Level of literacy

5.ECONOMIC FACTORS

* Availability of materials which foster language development* Exposure to modes of communication* Travel

6.GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION

* Rurality vs. urbanization

References:

Polard, Velma 1993, From Jamaican Creole to Standard English. A handbook for Teachers, Caribbean Research Centre, New York: Medgar Evers College.

Roberts, Peter 2002. West Indians and their Languages, CambridgeUniversity Press.

MODULE 3 - Speaking and Writing

THIS MODULE seeks to teach you how to use the structures of Caribbean Standard English correctly and appropriately, as well as with a degree of elegance. You will also be required to produce different types of communication relevant and appropriate to your social, academic, professional and vocational needs.

Reading, writing, speaking and listening are the four ways in which we use communication and you should be able to express your self in speaking and writing with precision, accuracy, clarity and fluency. Essentially, for communication to take place, both writing and reading skills must be employed. Similarly, speech communication does not end with speaking. For communication to effectively take place, the receiver/audience must employ listening skills.

It is important, then, for you to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but also to read and listen effectively. Without effective communication skills, we are at a disadvantage in situations that involve other people.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication has been defined as the process of people interacting through the use of messages [Zeuschner: 1997]. Also it has been referred to as the process of human beings responding to the symbolic behaviour of other persons.

A close observation of them reveals that communication is a process [not an event], it involves people, it involves interaction among people and it involves the use of messages.

As a process, communication is dynamic, continuous, irreversible and contextual. It is inevitable, that is, it is sure to happen and cannot be altered or revoked.

All communicative events involve content and relationship. Content refers to the substance of the message while relationship tells of the receiver and sender and how they perceive their interaction.

Finally, communication happens in a setting or context and it is from such that much meaning is derived. Context may be defined as a culture, location or a relationship.

Elements in the Communication Process

Within the process of communication there are five primary elements, because communication is a process, there are certain elements of this process that are present in every communication act. These elements must be involved in order for communication to take place:

*Senders/Sources/Encoders* Receivers/ Decoders* Messages* Channels and Mediums* Feedback

DESCRIPTION OF THE ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS

1.Sender (also called source or encoder)As the word suggests, the sender is the person/group with whom the message originates. The sender conceptualizes the message. That is, she determines what the content of the message will be, the best form for the message to take and the best way of getting the message across.

2.Message

This is the content of the communication process. Before the communication process begins, there must be an idea or body of knowledge that needs to be communicated

3.A. MediumThis is the method that someone chooses to convey her message. Will you use e-mail? Speech? Gestures? A poster?B. ChannelChannel is closely associated with medium. This is the means by which your message is conveyed. For example, an e-mail is a medium, whereas the internet is a channel; speech is a medium, but radios and loudspeakers are channels; gestures are a medium, your hands act as their channel; finally, a poster may be your medium, but the poster-board and ink are your channels.

4.Receiver (also called decoder)Eventually your message arrives at the receiver. This is the person responsible for interpreting your message and taking some sort of meaning form it. The receiver is the main goal of any communication act.

5.FeedbackAfter the receiver interprets the senders message; she then provides feedback to the sender. This is the receivers response to the message and is essential in that it alerts the sender to whether or not the message has been accurately/effectively received and interpreted.

DESCRIBING THE PROCESS

Communication is described as a process because there are certain stages that it must follow in order for effective communication to take place. If any of the steps are neglected communication will not take place. The process is both cyclical (going in a circle/cycle) and transactional (has to be performed).

The event begins with theconceptualization/thinking of the message and this is the sender's role as the originator of the message. In addition, after the sender has thought of the message, it is the sender's task toencodethe contents of the message (putting it in a form that the receiver can understand). After which the senderselects the medium(what form it will take)andchannel(what device will be used) through which the message will be sent so that the receiver will be able to receive it. The receiver's role is chiefly to receive the message and todecodeit which shows that the message was received. After which the receiver will try tointerpret/understand the message sent to him/her. The receiver will then provide afeedback/answer to the sender. Without this feedback communication has not taken place.

It is very important for you to understand that both the sender and the receiver conceptualize, encode, select medium and channel, decode, interpret and provide feedback in all communicative events.

Facilitators and Barriers to Communication

Barriers: Often during communicative events there is some sort of interference or blockage to interaction. These are commonly referred to as barriers to communication and may be internal or external in nature.

Internal barriers include: daydreaming, anxiety and hunger, headache, depression.

External barriers include: noise from a lawn mower, gestures, attire, posture, chatting, spilled beverage on a page and choice of words.

Some common barriers to communication are:i. A language barrierii. A channel that is inaccessible to the receiveriii. The message is ineffectively encoded or the meaning is ambiguousiv. The medium is inappropriate to the message

Facilitator: These are factors that may influence the effective conveyance of messages positively or negatively. Anything that helps to ensure an effective transfer of messages is called a facilitator to communication. Anything that hinders this effectiveness is a barrier to communication

Some common facilitators to communication are:i. choosing a familiar languageii. Using an accessible channeliii. Ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the messageiv. Using audio/visual aids to enhance the encoding of the message

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

In general, human beings communicate using two mainforms:verbal communicationandnon-verbal communication. There are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speech and writing.

Verbal communication, simply put, is any form of communication that uses words in order to convey meaning or transmit messages. Essentially, verbal communicationis either speech or writing. There are four main skills that human beings put into practice when engaging in verbal communication: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Any verbal communication involves at least two of these skills.

Language is the one thing that all four verbal communication skills have in common; it is a specifically human form of communication that uses symbols to represent ideas and concepts.

Non-Verbal Communicationis the form of communication that does not involve the use of speech or writing. In effect, non-verbal communication is the use of voice, space, objects, movement, time and the five senses to convey meanings that without using words. Because the types of non-verbal communication focus on physical actions and manipulations to convey meaning, they are often referred to as communicative behaviours.

Non-Verbal/Communicative behaviours comprise the following:

Vocalics:refers to the use of voice in communicating messages. This does not include actual words, but modulations in tone of voice, rate of speech, pitch and non-verbal utterances. Because vocalics is often used in conjunction with speech communication (i.e. verbal), it is often referred to as paralanguage.Proxemics:is the use of space to communicate. Standing close to someone may indicate that you like her; likewise, changing seat during an exam may indicate that you suspect your neighbour of cheating or some sort of discomfort.

Artifacts:are objects that convey some sort of message about you. These include clothes, jewellery, home decorations, book bags etc.

Movement:incorporates several movements of the body eye contact, facial expressions, posture and gestures all communicate information. Failing to meet eye contact when speaking to a parent may indicate nervousness, shame or the possibility of untruthfulness; sitting straight in a chair could indicate attentiveness.

Chronemics:refers to the use of time. By being early for class you show respect for the teacher and fellow classmates; similarly, a teacher who arrives consistently late for class is exhibiting a lack of respect for her students and profession.

The five senses:(sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) are also used in non-verbal communication. For example, a normally good cook who over-salts a dish for her cheating spouse may be using taste to indicate her unhappiness or displeasure.

There are also six functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use non-verbal communication for six main reasons.

i.Substitute:is where we use non-verbal communication instead of, or to replace verbal communication. Waving goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example of this.

ii.Reinforce:We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or complement our verbal communication. Pounding your hand onto a table when arguing may reinforce whatever point youre making.

iii.Regulate:is used mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages. Raising your hand to answer or ask a question in class helps to regulate the communication going on in the room.

iv.Contradict:Sometimes we use non-verbal communication tocontradictour verbal communication. The most common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm when you say one thing, but your tone of voice says the opposite.

v.Manage impressions:We oftenmanage impressionsthrough the use of non-verbal communication. The way we dress, for example, often coincides with the impression we want others to have of us.

vi.Establishrelationships:Finally, we use non-verbal communication to establishrelationships. The wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the person is married.

CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication takes place in a variety of settings or contexts. The context is the setting/environment, place where communication takes place. The following are various contexts where communication may take place.

Intra-personal: Communicating within ones self. E.g. Thinking, daydreaming, solving problems, imagining. Also includes all physical feedback mechanisms, such as sensations of hunger, pain, pleasure.

Interpersonal: The interaction of two or more people. The one-on-one setting, direct contact of one person with another person. E.g. interviews, conversations, intimate communication.

Academic: This communication takes place in an educational setting where persons communicate mainly to disseminate educational information. E.g. Lecturer speaking to a class, essays, research paper, internal assessment.

Small-group: Interaction between 4-6 people. It is one of the most important communication settings and exists everywhere. It requires the following conditions: Leadership, Equal sharing of ideas, Peer pressure, Roles & norms, Focus on a common goal.

Public communication: When one person talks to several others and is the dominant focus of the communication. E.g. speaker and an audience speech, debate, general devotion. Defining characteristics: One person is identified as the primary sender of messages and others function primarily as receivers of those messages.

Mass communication: This communication begins to function when a message needs help to get from its source to its destination. Some form of medium is needed to connect the sender to receiver. Media may be print (newspaper/magazine), electrical (radio, television, video), or electronic (computer modem)

Inter-cultural communication: Sometimes called cross-cultural communication This context describes what happens when the sender of a message is from a different cultural background than the intended receiver. E.g. a person can communicate with someone who does not share the same culture; communicating across social sub-groups.

Organizational communication: Focuses on inter-personal, small-group, public and mass communication as they interact in a complex, multi-group setting. E.g. business, government, and educational institutions.

TYPES OF SPEAKING AND WRITING

There are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speaking and writing.

SPEAKING: is the vocalized form of human communication through the use of uttered sounds for auditory communication. It is based upon the syntactic combination of lexicons and names that are drawn from very large vocabularies.

WRITING: is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols such as letters that express some meaning.

SPEAKING: Oral Communication

TYPES:Expository speeches, Conversations, Face to face, Interview, Meeting, Oral Briefing, Public address, Oral Presentation, Telephone Call, Conference, Training Session etc.

AdvantagesDirect medium of communication advantages of physical proximity and usually, both sight and sound of sender and receiver; allows instant interchange of opinion, views, attitudes instantaneous feedback easier to convince or persuade Allows for contribution and participation from all present.

DisadvantagesMore difficult to hold ground in face of opposition more difficult to control when a number of people take part lack of time to think things out quality of decision making may be inferior often no written record of what has been said Sometimes disputes results over what was agreed.WRITING: Written Communication

TYPES:Essay, Journal, Diaries,Letter, Memorandum, Report, Abstract, minutes, Article, Press Release

Advantages:

Provides written record and evidence of dispatch and receipt capable of relaying complex ideas provides analysis, evaluation and summary disseminates information to dispersed receivers can confirm, interpret and clarify oral communications Forms basis of contract or agreement.Disadvantages Can take time to produce can be expensive communication tends to be formal and distant can cause problems of interpretation instant feedback is not possible once dispatched, difficult to modify message Does not allow for exchange of opinion, views or attitudes except over a period of time.

ReferencesZeuschner, Raymond. Communicating Today, Chapters 3, 5 & 6, Pearson Education, Inc., 2003.Simmons-McDonald, Hazel et al. Writing in English: A Course Book For Caribbean Students, Section 1, Ian Randle Publishers, 1997.

CAPE Communication Studies

Communication Studies is a one-unit CAPE course and contains three modules:

MODULE 1Gathering and Processing Information

MODULE 2Language and Community

MODULE 3Speaking and Writing

Candidates are assessed both externally and internally. The external assessment of the course has two written papers (Paper 01A, Paper 01B and Paper 02) * Note that Paper 01 has two parts) while the internal assessment requires the candidates to complete a Portfolio on a selected theme.

THE PORTFOLIO

The portfolio is a combination of an oral and a written assignment. It is based on the skills learnt in all three modules in the course. The entries in this portfolio have a theme or a main idea which is made evident in all of them (entries). Your theme ought to be an area which is of interest to you.

The portfolio should be internally coherent and organized under three major headings:

ExpositoryReflectiveAnalytical

The Expository section will be orally presented and examined, the Reflective will require the candidate to produce one sample of original work and the Analytical will be an analysis of the original piece.

The expository presentation for CAPE Communication Studies Internal Assessment

The presentation has two distinct parts

* A FACTUAL presentation on an aspect of your portfolio theme* A presentation about your research including an evaluation of two sources of information used to prepare your factual presentation.

It will have all the following 6 elements present

1. An introduction (statement of topic)

In the introduction you will give a brief explanation of topic/ theme and a preview (with a thesis statement) of what you are going to cover.

For example.

"My theme is Returning Migrants to Jamaica. Returning migrants or returnees are a group within the population of Jamaica who have spent a significant time away from the island and have then returned to permanently settle again. Returning migrants often are retired from their previous occupation which they pursued in a more developed country such as the United States, Canada or Great Britain or they have been working in another Caribbean state. According to statistics from the Customs Department given to me by Mrs B Chalres in an interview 4361 people claimed the concession for returning residents in 2005.

Thesis Statement:Returning migrants experience 5 phases of adjuststment when returning which can be termed as culture shock."

2. A rationale

In the rationale you need to explain why you picked the theme and it can form part of the introduction. In the rationale you should mention any personal interests, current academic links and future career plans which influenced your decision to choose the theme

For example

I chose the theme returning migrants to Jamaica specifically to focus on culture shock because I am a child/wife/husband/sister of a returning migrant. I currently pursuing a course in Sociology and the concept of culture shock is part of socio-cultural studies carried out by Kavelo Oberg 1958. In the future I will be submitting my Masters thesis on this specific issue.

3. Discussion of issues

The discussion of issues is the factual presentation about the theme and its narrowed focus based on the thesis statement. Remember this will be about 3 minutes or so it is not long.

It should have a distinct organisational pattern and you should aim for one of the expository structures such as cause and effect, process analysis, analysis by division, classification etc (See Writing in English)

It should also be referenced and include any research findings. You will also need to give a conclusion to your factual presentation as a sort of sub conclusion dont wait until the end

Here is an example of a possible outline for your presentation. It uses the organisational pattern of process analysis.

Culture shock 5 phasesHoneymoon, rejection/ regression, conformist, assimilation, reverse culture shock

HoneymoonCentre for Overseas Travel the tourist phaseQuestionnaire (300 returning migrants) 78% not feel tourist 82% elated

RejectionOberg frustration etcQuestionnaire 50% wanted to return after 3 months,Reasons, poor service, backward attitude, nothing to do, boringInterview Dr Sheridan Mental health presentations tend to be in 1st 4 months of return.

4. Challenges of research

You need to discuss what difficulties you faced in preparing your factual presentation. If you did not have any difficulties then just explain why.

For exampleQuestionnaires time consuming, identifying sample,Other sources - no central data on returnees, newspaper articles usefulAcademic research not on St Vincent

5. Evaluation of two sources

For this aspect of the presentation you need to discuss your research. The two sources should be relevant. You should try to select two different types of data source e.g. a newpaper article and an interview. You may want to very briefly summarise all your sources before evaluating two for reliability and validity.

For example

Secondary sources:academic text books and journals,local and international newspapers and magazines,web sites: international public organisations e.g. Peace Corps

Primary sourcesinterviews of experts in Jamaicaquestionnaire of returning migrants.

Questionnaire of returning migrantsReliable: primary data source, research method suited to collecting data for social researchValid: Problem with sample size as total population of RMs unknownProblem with generalisation as differences between UK, US and other RMs more research needed.Overall reliable and reasonably valid

The Experience of Return Migration: A Caribbean Perspective, Joan Phillips and Reliable Denis Conway, Ashgate Press, London 2005Author expert Phd Social Anthrop. Specialised Caribbean writer CanadaPublisher: reputable, specialst academic main interest Social researchValid Recently published Problem no reference to JamaicaOverall general but very reliable and valid source

6. ConclusionThe conclusion should be slightly different to the internal summary conclusion in your discussion of issues. At this stage you can express a personal view or put forward a possible solution.

For example

Returning migrantsYES culture shock3 waysHoneymoonRejectionConformistNO assimilation

SolutionsProgramme promote overseas, keep in touch,Information - government

Summary of requirements for Expository Presentation

The expository presentation should conform to the following requirements

An 8-10 minute presentation on the same theme as your reflective portfolio

It will have 6 elements- An introduction with a thesis statement- A rationale in which you explain why you chose your theme- A discussion of issues (a factual presentation)- An evaluation of the reliability and validity of two sources of data used in your presentation- A report on the challenges you faced while researching the presentation.- A conclusion

You cannot read from a full script

You can use notes in bullet point/ key words form (apart from details of references and statistics)

The notes should cover no more than 8 small index cards (or paper the size of index cards)

You can use visual aids but they are not a requirement

You should wear school uniform which conforms strictly to the dress code for the examination

A Checklist for the Portfolio - the Reflective and Analytical Elements

Reflective written portfolio 20 of 60 marks

The portfolio will contain, in the following order:

(a)Cover sheetwith name, candidate number, centre, centre number, territory and teacher's name

(b)Introductionto theme and reasons (personal, academic or other) for choosing the theme.

(c)A rationalefor the piece of writing which includes inspiration, purpose in writing, intended audience and situation the audience will receive the writing (e.g. in an anthology, newspaper etc)(d)One piece of reflective(creative) writing of 1 of the 3 genres - poetry, short story or other prose form or drama.

These pieces should have literary non-factual content (although your purpose may be to educate through this medium). This piece can be taped or videoed but the tape for video must be 3 to 5 minute long, and there must be a script for this tape/video.

(e)Conclusion. In the conclusion the student should reflect on his/her process in writing and his/her opinions.

Analytical Section of the portfolio 20 of 60 marks.

This will be an analysis of your reflective piece.

The analysis will includeany TWOof the following:

* register(formality, tone, word choice etc)

* dialectal variation(standard, non-standards)

* attitudes to language(what does the choice of language convey to the reader about the character, what do other characters think of the choices of language or what do certain language types symbolize in societies)

* communicative behavioursshown in the story e.g. use of non-verbal communication

Word limits for written portfolio

The word limit is 800 words for the reflective portfolio and 350 words for the analytical piece. You will be penalised by 29% of your marks if both the pieces together exceed 1250 words. Words over 2 letters will be counted.

With regard to taped or videoed submissions, the script must conform to the word limit and should be submitted along with the tape.