Colonial Hispaniola & the Origins of Haiti

& the Dominican Republic

Heather DeLancett

European Imperialism – WI

Prof. Michael Bitter

Spring 2011

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Hispaniola is one island; it has complex and divided histories which do not lend

themselves well to brief summaries or easy explanations. Geographical and socio-political

theories support the hypothesis that had the island of Hispaniola been less suitable for growing

sugar, like many of the neighboring Caribbean islands; it would have a different history and

legacy. The differences in topography between the former colonies of Santo Domingo, (now the

Dominican Republic), and Saint-Domingue, (now Haiti), may have been contributing factors in

the vast differences in development between these two countries. This one island contains one of

the top travel destinations of the Caribbean on the eastern side, the Dominican Republic, and the

poorest nation in the Western hemisphere, Haiti, on the western side. Historically, this island has

been unique in the shifting of European Imperialism powers – Spain, France, Britain - and most

recently has been considered by some scholars to have been the United States of America’s

launching point for a new era of Imperialistic policy. Hispaniola has seen European Imperialism

from its beginnings, to the close of High Imperialism following the World Wars, and continues

to be strongly influenced by what may be considered neo-colonialism.

Roots of Colonialism

Initially called Santo Domingo, Hispaniola was home to the first Castilian settlers in the

New World. After reaching the Bahamas, Christopher Columbus sailed south to Cuba and the

island he called “Española” or “Hispaniola” in honor of his Spanish patrons.1 The Santa Maria

sustained damages and was lost, forcing Columbus to leave the additional sailors behind where

they were all killed at their makeshift camp “Fort Navidad” by the local inhabitants.2

(T)he early accounts of the Castilian voyages coyly admit that the men from the Old

World were immediately anxious to enslave harems of concubines…the destruction of

1 Philippe Girard, Paradise Lost: Haiti (Gordonsville, VA, USA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 15.2 Girard, p. 13-14.

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the first shipwrecked colony on Hispaniola by the local inhabitants was probably

triggered in part by revenge raids over the persistent stealing of women.3

In 1493 the next settlers arriving on Columbus’s second trans-Atlantic voyage were looking for

gold and pepper, but neither of these goods was to be found in the expected quantities. At that

time, Bartholomew Columbus, (Christopher’s brother), established the settlement of Santo

Domingo, the oldest continually inhabited European settlement in the Americas.

In 1478, prior to the voyages to the New World, Christopher Columbus had been

stranded on Madeira for three years after a failed attempt to broker a sugar trade for the cloth of

Italian wholesalers.4 While he was there, he married, and had a son, Diego, and he certainly must

have learned quite a bit about sugar plantations. Arriving in the “West Indies” in 1492 and

failing to find the gold and riches of the Orient he had promised his patrons, Columbus needed a

“crop that was as good as gold,”5 and it was sugar. “Columbus tried to persuade both the crown

of Castile and the settlers of Hispaniola that the real wealth of the ‘Indies’ lay in the value of its

slaves” to be used to work sugar plantations and to be imported to Europe.6 These efforts gained

Columbus funding for another voyage, but his hope for “human resources” in the New World

was ungrounded. Before moving on to more abundant riches in Mexico and Peru, the new

Castilian inhabitants’ diseases, and enslavement of and cruelty to the native Taino peoples

resulted in a genocide. “They were conquistadors: they were ambitious nobles and merchants

who looked down on manual labor and dreamed of conquering a strange civilization, killing its

leaders, enslaving its natives, and exploiting a quick windfall of gold and spices.”7 To add insult

3 David Birmingham, Trade and Empire in the Atlantic, 1400-1600 (New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 52.4 Birmingham, p. 14.5 Crosby, p. 77.6 Ibid.7 Girard, p. 16.

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to vast injury, the Castilians also hunted down and murdered most of the elites and chiefs that

had managed to escape to neighboring islands.

Soon decimated of population with few settlers in the east, the island became a favorite

stopping point for English privateers and French corsaires, (preying on gold-loaded Spanish

galleons returning from Mexico and Peru), due to the plentiful hunting of escaped domestic

animals brought by the Castilians. The French sailors adopted the native style of slow cooking

venison and called themselves “boucaniers” after the Taino name for the practice “boucan” —

and selling their jerky to naval crews, became known as buccaneers.8 Through the plundering

activities of these buccaneers and privateers, as well as European internal power struggles, Spain

lost its hold on Hispaniola and was forced to surrender some of its Caribbean islands, including

the western one-third of Hispaniola, to France or Britain. Saint-Domingue, (the portion of the

island that is now Haiti), became a French colony created in 1697 by the Treaty of Ryswick.9

Slaves & Sugar

By the 18th century, the application of the sugar industry practices originally developed

by the Portuguese on Madeira and the Canary Islands, and refined by the Spanish on São Tomé,

was in full swing.10 Many of the Atlantic islands by this time had been cultivated by the British,

Spanish and French into slave labor sugar plantations. The primary requirements for a sugar

plantation are fertile soil, heavy rainfall, investment capital, and a very large labor force.

Portuguese Madeira and the Castilian Canary Islands off the northwest coast of Africa were the

settings of much trial and error in the modeling of successful sugar plantations, but once fixed

8 Girard, p. 17.9 Girard, p. 18.10 Birmingham, p. 12-24, 54.

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this industrial model was copied and exported to new colonial lands.11 C.L. R. James reports in

his book “The Black Jacobsons” the setting of the Haitian Revolution as follows:

In 1789 the French West Indian colony of Saint Domingue supplied two-thirds of the

overseas trade of France and was the greatest individual market for the European slave

trade. It was an integral part of the economic life of the age, the greatest colony in the

world, the pride of France, and the envy of every other imperialist nation. The whole

structure rested on the labour of a half-million slaves.12

Some authors, such as Crosby and Klein, have suggested that the European peoples really

developed a taste for sugar during the early Crusades and began to consider sugar to be “a most

precious product, very necessary for the use and health of mankind.”13 Plantation agriculture,

sugar production and slavery had been part of the Mediterranean world since the Islamic

invasion brought sugar to Europe in the 8th century, but it was the First Crusade at the end of the

11th century that gave the Christians a chance to become sugar producers, and hence more

actively involved in slave trade for intensive labor needs.14 Sugar, now considered a quasi-

addictive substance, but at the time thought to be medicinal,15 transformed the world in many

ways.

Throughout the New World Caribbean and South American colonies, slaves were

imported primarily from Africa wherever the native populations had been decimated. These

slaves had varying degrees of lack of rights and freedoms in different locations. Arthur

Stinchcombe links these differences in degrees of a slave’s autonomy – or complete lack thereof

11 Birmingham, p 12.12 Arthur Jones, Pierre Toussaint: A Biography (Westminster, MD: Doubleday Publishing, 2003), p.1.13 Crosby, p 67.

14 Herbert S. Klein, African Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean (Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, 1986), p. 8.15 Crosby. p. 77.

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– to crop types, noting that “extreme restriction of freedoms in family, social, political, and

economic matters tends to be produced by sugar plantations and by societies dominated, in a

sense to be described, by sugar plantations.”16 Throughout his book, Sugar Island Slavery in the

Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World, he argues that sugar

plantation societies had structures that allowed greater control of politics by the colonial planter

masters and that the continued existence of sugar plantations - even after slavery was abolished -

helped maintain a slave-like society. Keith Sandiford, in Cultural Politics of Sugar: Caribbean

Slavery & Narratives of Colonialism, also develops a similar thesis of exploration:

(T)he sugar cane played a central role in developing the material economies of these

societies. Similarly, sugar's real and imagined properties are reproduced in textual

economies as central metaphors for the idealized desires of those special-interest Creole

publics.17

Romanticized or brutalized, the legacy of sugar cultivation should not be ignored, because it

undeniably determined a colony’s fiscal and political worth, as well as the types of investment

capital needed and levels of autonomy given to both the slaves and the investing planters.

Population ratios are noted as one of the crucial differences on sugar plantation

dominated land. Islands and regions that had previously cultivated other crops and switched to

sugar cane cultivation and sugar boiling rapidly increased their populations by 5 to 10 times the

previous population. The production of sugar is so labor intensive that at least 4 out of 5 people

on the land would be devoted to sugar plantation work.18 Heavy rainfall was important to

growing sugar, but if there was not enough rainfall, areas where water irrigation systems could

16 Stinchcombe, p. 5.17 Keith Albert Sandiford, Cultural Politics of Sugar : Caribbean Slavery & Narratives of Colonialism (Port Chester, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p 3.18 Sandiford, p. 10.

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be built downstream of mountainous regions made potential sugar land. However, building

irrigation systems was an expensive and incredibly labor intensive undertaking.

Birth of Vodou

Prohibited from practicing the religions of their African homelands, slaves in Hispaniola

were forcibly baptized and expected to maintain rudimentary Catholic beliefs and practices.

Catholic missionaries distributed cheap lithographs of the Church’s holy saints to the slaves as

examples of desired conduct, though the slaves received none of the benefits of being

“Christian” – such as being a “child of God” with a soul and thus immoral to enslave.19 Despite

the strict prohibitions, groups of slaves found ways to meet and perform rituals they remembered

from their homelands. As the slaves were taken from different areas in Africa, various

traditional African religious beliefs - primarily from the Yoruba, Fon, Ewe and Kongo cultures -

merged and became synchronized with time. These remembered African religious elements

reconstructed in the New World slavery setting became “Vodou” or “Vodoun” or “Voodoo” in

Hispaniola. Variations of these African-based religious permutations - fused with the culture of

the ruling colonial power - became Santeria in Cuba, Obi/Obeah in Jamaica, Candomble in

Brazil, etc.

These religious ceremonies and personal acts dedicated to serving the “loa” –the Vodou

spirits/deities - became shielded from the colonists’ vision under the guise of worshipping the

Catholic saints. Symbolic associations between the characteristics of the loa and the saints grew

in volume and complexity with time.20 In a time period from about 1564 – 1803, longer than

America has been an independent nation, people with ideological differences in their

19 R. F. Thompson, Flash of Spirit: African & Afro-American Art & Philosophy (New York: Random House, 1989), p. 17-18.

20 Thompson, p. 163-172.

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backgrounds became united by Vodou in attempts to survive and confront their common

dehumanizing conditions in this New World setting.

Anti-Colonial Resistance

Due to the increased slave to colonist ratios, intensified labor, strict restrictions on slave

autonomy, and local planter political control in these sugar colonies, they were ripe for

revolutions. The surrounding geography of the plantations either made revolution accessible or

nearly impossible. Mountains too steep to be patrolled easily by colonial military troops and

nearby islands often provided refuge for escaped slaves and revolution planning groups. French

Saint-Domingue, had both tall mountains and nearby islands in its favor. Vodou, as an

organizing force for the black slave communities of Saint Domingue, has been both commended

and despised as a tool of rebellion, depending on the particular author’s pro-slavery or anti-

slavery stance. Haiti’s historical “houngan” (Vodou priest) heroes, such as François Mackandal

and Dutty “Zamba” Boukman, are known to have combined religious ceremonies and organized

rebellion against the control of the white colonists.21

Pierre Dominique Toussaint Louverture, also thought to be a houngan22, organized an

army of successful rebellion from 1791 – 1804,23 and the majority population of Saint-

Domingue, meaning the slaves, gained independence on January 1, 1804, hence creating the first

black republic in the world. However, peace was not forthcoming for the new Haitians. The

largest fortress in the Western Hemisphere, Citadelle Laferriere, or “The Citadel,” now a

UNESCO world heritage site, was constructed during 1805 – 1820 to defend against ongoing

21 Adeleke Adeeko, The Slave’s Rebellion: Fiction, History, Orature (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2005), p. 94-96.22 Claudine Michel (Editor); Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, Vodou in Haitian Life and Culture : Invisible Powers (Gordonsville, VA, USA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p 102.

23 Adeeko, p. 84-89.

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French invasions. These actions of anti-colonial resistance and victorious uprising created a

wave of paranoia in those invested in maintaining rigorous colonial systems in the Caribbean,

Central and South America.

Saint-Domingue, (present day Haiti), was not unique in being the first or only slave revolt

in these types of colonial New World settings, but it is unique in having the only “successful”

revolt leading to “independence”. Spurred by the ideals of the French Revolution, the first wave

of the revolt of 1791-92 was unsuccessful. While France was busy with its own Revolution,

England and Spain invaded Saint-Domingue in 1793. Soon France, now a Republic under

Jacobin government, retaliated by ratifying a decree of emancipation of slaves in Saint-

Domingue and Guadeloupe in 1794. France was the first major power to officially, and briefly,

give slaves legal emancipation.24 Though granted legal emancipation, the slaves of Saint-

Domingue had to continue to fight for their freedom, especially against the French troops landing

in 1802, now under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte and intent on resuming slavery practices.

Napoleon sent troops, warships, canons and dogs to regain control, but two years of renewed war

ended in stalemate and French retreat.

The revolution beginning in 1791 lasted for thirteen years, by the end of which all of the

planter aristocracy and their supporters were killed or in exile.25 A new, independent nation

“Haiti” was formed January 1, 1804. This first African-descendant “Republic” took the name

Haiti, from “Hayiti” the Taino language, meaning “mountainous island.”26 However, France

demanded reparations from the new republic for its lost colonial holdings – at a sum of 150

million francs, in gold.

24 Girard, p. 39.25 Michael J. LaRosa (ed.) Atlas and Survey of Latin American History (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, Inc. 2007), p. 70.26 Girard, p. 33.

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For Haiti, this debt did not signify the beginning of freedom, but the end of hope. Even

after it was reduced to 60m francs in the 1830s, it was still far more than the war-ravaged

country could afford. Haiti was the only country in which the ex-slaves themselves were

expected to pay a foreign government for their liberty.27

Though already mired in international debt from the beginning, Haiti was in a 60 year period of

trade isolation, severely limiting available resources for infrastructure development. Other

nations and the Vatican, fearing it would incite other rebellions for independence, refused to give

the new republic diplomatic recognition.28

Santo Domingo became independent from Spain briefly in 1821, but was quickly taken

over by the new Haitian Republic in efforts to stop French invasions from Santo Domingo’s

ports. The Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo “reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of

themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs,” and

increased internal organization towards gaining independence.29 Repelling the Haitians, the

Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844, and was modeled

after the Constitution of the United States.

It featured a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was

marred by Article 210, imposed by Pedro Santana on the constitutional assembly by

27 The Times. "Haiti: the land where children eat mud." The Sunday Times. May 17, 2009. Accessed April 4, 2011. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6281614.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1

28 E. McAlister, Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and Its Diaspora (Berkeley and Los Angelos: University of California, 2002), p. 41

29 Frank Moya Pons, "Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-speaking Caribbean in the 19th Century." American Anthropologist, December 1986:p. 981-982.

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force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over.

These privileges not only served him to win the war, but also allowed him to persecute,

execute and drive into exile his political opponents…Santana used the ever-present threat

of Haitian invasion as a justification for consolidating dictatorial powers. For the

Dominican elite—mostly landowners, merchants and priests—the threat of re-conquest

by more populous Haïti was sufficient to seek annexation by an outside power.30

Over the next 70 years, the Dominican Republic had multiple outbreaks of civil war and was

characterized by political instability and economic chaos while “caudillos , strong leaders who

ruled the country as if it were their personal fiefdom,”31struggled for power and alliances with

Spain, France, Britain and the United States, offering deep water bays as a draw to be granted a

protectorate status.

New World Neo-Colonialism

After independence, Haiti was in a 60 year period of trade isolation, severely limiting

available resources for infrastructure development, because other nations and the Vatican refused

to give Haiti diplomatic recognition.32 By 1823, the United States policy, in the form of the

Monroe Doctrine, articulated the “New World” political order which was to shape the Caribbean,

and the North, Central, and South Americas: "The American continents are henceforth not to be

considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers."33 The Roosevelt

30 Dr. Lynne Guitar, "History of the Dominican Republic." Hispaniola.com. Accessed April 4, 2011.

http://www.hispaniola.com/dominican_republic/info/history.php

31 Ibid.32 E. McAlister, Rara! Vodou, Power, and Performance in Haiti and Its Diaspora (Berkeley and Los Angelos: University of California, 2002), p. 41

33 Monroe Doctrine, 1823. (n.d.). Retrieved April 4, 2011, from U.S. Department of State: http://history.state.gov/milestones/1801-1829/Monroe

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Corollary, introduced in 1904, was a substantial amendment to the Monroe Doctrine. The

Roosevelt Corollary asserted the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic

affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their

international debts. By 1900, due to the reparations demanded by the French, “Haiti was

spending 80% of its national budget on repayments. In order to manage the original reparations,

further loans were taken out — mostly from the United States, Germany and France.”34

In 1915, “The Monroe Doctrine in Relation to the Republic of Haiti” was written by

William A. MacCorkle, former Governor of West Virginia. In this document, it is argued that

the “Black Republic” is an “international nuisance” because the major ports of commerce are

polluted; it is foul-smelling for foreigners, the colonial conditions of Cape Haitian – once known

as “Little Paris” – are in a mass of ruins, mining for resources has not been exploited, and the

government is in constant revolution.35 This document is filled with stories of voodoo child

sacrifice, cannibalism, orgies, and horrible sorcery conjured out of “exhaustive” accounts by

politically minded “gentlemen.” The British resident minister to Haiti, Spencer St. John, shows

his political aims more clearly. MacCorkle quotes him:

No country possesses greater capabilities, or a better geographical position, or more

varied soil, climate, or production, with magnificent scenery of every description; and yet

34 The Times. "Haiti: the land where children eat mud." The Sunday Times. May 17, 2009. Accessed April 4, 2011. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6281614.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1

35 W.A. MacCorkle, The Monroe Doctrine in Relation to the Republic of Haiti (New York, 1915) p. 45-46. Retrieved April 4, 2011 from http://www.archive.org/stream/monroedoctrinei00unkngoog#page/n71/mode/1up

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it is now the country to be avoided, ruined as it has been by a succession of self-seeking

politicians, without honesty or patriotism.36

Despite being described as a country that possessed unmatchable capabilities in climate, soil and

production in the 1800’s, Haiti is now described by the Washington Post as “eroded and treeless

an infertile environment that allows little more than subsistence farming” and is considered one

of the poorest nations in the Western Hemisphere.37

In July of 1915, U.S. military troops invaded and held Haiti under military occupation for

nineteen years. Neo-colonial domination took force as:

(M)arines installed a puppet president, dissolved the legislature at gunpoint, denied

freedom of speech, and forced a new constitution on the Caribbean nation— one more

favorable to foreign investment. With the help of the marines, U.S. officials seized the

customshouses, took control of Haitian finances, and imposed their own standards of

efficiency on the administration of Haitian debt.38

The United States also took occupation of the Dominican Republic from 1916-1924, due to

political unrest and threats of potential European interventions which might compromise the

Panama Canal project. During this time, U.S. interests took full control in the Dominican

Republic and established a military government, which brought order, general economic and

living conditions improvement, and infrastructure development. However, because the

Dominican Republic did not have the foreign debt, the United States did not have the

justification for ongoing occupation after the civil and political unrest was settled.

36 Ibid.

37 Washington Post. “Haiti is the Poorest Nation in the Western Hemisphere”. (1988, June 21). Retrieved April 4, 2011, from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-1263701.html

38 Renda, p. 1.

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After two-hundred years of being “independent” Haiti is considered the poorest nation39

in the Western Hemisphere despite the relative affluence of the neighboring Dominican Republic

covering the eastern two-thirds of this Caribbean island once known as Hispaniola. Haiti today

is almost completely deforested, as rural and urban residents used the timber as a source of

available fuel. Currently:

Haiti has a predominantly black, French patois-speaking population; the Dominican

Republic, a predominantly mestizo or mulatto, Spanish-speaking population. Apart from

one another, yet each one occupying a part of the same island, the two countries of

Hispaniola have been called “two tragic twins sharing the same craggy rock,” and

“conjoined siblings.”40

Santo Domingo, though sharing a similar topography, did not share in intensive sugar

cultivation. The Spanish, focused on Central and South America for a source of gold, silver and

slave-based cash crop production, opted to leave Santo Domingo (modern day Dominican

Republic) to focus primarily on small coffee, cocoa, tobacco, cattle and subsistence farming

which had less population and social strife.

In 1934, Roosevelt renounced the policy of interventionism and established the “Good

Neighbor” policy in the Western Hemisphere.41 However a review of continued international

police power interventionism in Haiti and the Dominican Republic, as well as the rest of Latin

America, reflects a different policy is in place. Until the 1980’s, Haiti was self-sufficient in rice

production, its staple food. However, due to the adoption of trade liberalization policies and

39 Washington Post. ""Haiti is the Poorest Country in the Hemisphere". Washington Post, June 21, 1988.40 Eugenio Matibag Haitian-Dominican Counterpoint (Gordonsville, VA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 1.41 “Theodore Roosevelt’s Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine”. (1905) (n.d.). Retrieved April 4, 2011 from Our Documents: http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=56

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environmental degradation, huge amounts of cheap American rice imports flood the market and

further devastate the already poor population.42

An estimated 80% of Haiti’s population lives in extreme poverty, with half of the

nation’s wealth controlled by 1% of the population.43

Instead of developing its potential, this deformed state produced a parade of nefarious

leaders, most of whom gave up the insurmountable task of trying to fix the country and

looted it instead. In 1947, Haiti finally paid off the original reparations, plus interest.

Doing so left it destitute, corrupt, disastrously lacking in investment and politically

volatile. Haiti was trapped in a downward spiral, from which it is still impossible to

escape. It remains hopelessly in debt to this day.44

Recently, Haiti petitioned France for reparations for its abuses during colonial conditions.

France has denied responsibility and refuses to return even the reparations Haiti was forced to

pay to France.

The state of the nation is blamed on brutal dictatorships and political unrest; but after

reviewing a myriad of sources that slant bias in both directions, it is very difficult not to conclude

that ongoing imperial controlling powers pull the strings of trade regulations, back the dictators

financially and militarily, and stage bloody revolutions from the shadows – all the while relying

42 Josiane Georges, “Trade and the Disappearance of Haitian Rice”. (Ted Case Studies #725, June 2004). Retrieved April 4, 2011 from http://www1.american.edu/TED/haitirice.htm

43 BBC News. “Country Profile: Hait”i. (April 29, 2009) Retrieved April 4, 2011: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1202772.stm

44 The Times. "Haiti: the land where children eat mud." The Sunday Times. May 17, 2009. Accessed April 4, 2011. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article6281614.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1

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on the media to convey the idea that it is only “natural” that the uncivilized “Black Republic”

cannot prosper.

In early 2010 a severe 7.0 magnitude earthquake hit near the capital Port-au-Prince,

killing tens of thousands of residents and leveling most of the infrastructure. International aid

was sent from many countries, but all relief efforts have been complicated by an outbreak of

cholera epidemic effecting at least 20,000 residents and though treatable has claimed many

fatalities due to lack of adequate supplies of clean water and sanitary conditions.45 In contrast,

though the Dominican Republic has vast disparity between the wealthy and the poor, living

conditions and life expectancy are relatively similar to those experienced in the United States and

other “first world” nations. The Dominican Republic has offered some financial assistance to

Haiti following the 2010 earthquake, but ongoing cultural and racial tensions continue to divide

this island dramatically.

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