cogni&on and language: interfaces and …...issues • 1.. what are the interfaces between...
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Cogni&onandLanguage:InterfacesandMechanismsinCommon
TimShalliceEx-UniversityCollegeLondonEx-SISSATrieste
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Approachesinpresenta&on
EmpiricalData
• Neuropsychology:forra&onaleandmethodologicalanalysis:
• SeeShalliceCogni&veNeuropsychology2015
Theore0calframework
• Connec&onism(butnotminimalistvariety):
• SeeShallice&Cooper–TheOrganisa&onofMindOxford,2011.
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Syndromestobediscussed
• 1.DynamicAphasia• 2.Seman&cDemen&a,Category-SpecificSeman&cImpairments
• 3.PhonologicalOutputBufferandGraphemicOutputBufferImpairments
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Issues• 1..Whatarethe
interfacesbetweenlanguageandnon-languageprocesses(mainlysyndrome1;somesyndromes2)
• 2.Towhatextentdoeslanguageusemechanismsspecifictoitselfandtowhatextentdogeneral-purposecor&calprinciplesapply?(mainlysyndromes3;somesyndromes2)
• 1.DynamicAphasia• 2.Seman&cDemen&a,
Category-SpecificSeman&cImpairments
• 3.PhonologicalOutputBufferandGraphemicOutputBufferImpairments
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DynamicAphasia(Luria)
• Subtypeoftranscor&calmotoraphasia• Luria(1970)reportedthatwhenpa&entswithdynamicaphasiawereengagedinataskrequiringthemtotellastorytheycomplainedofan‘...emp&nessinthehead...’asiftheirthoughts‘...stands&llanddon’tmove...’
• Ontheotherhandweresaidtoanswerques&onsappropriately
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DynamicAphasicPa&entsType1• ANG(Robinson,Blair&Cipolo0,1998)
– 59yrold,female,re&redgene&cslecturer– malignantmeningioma.
• CH(Robinson,Shallice&Cipolo0,2005)– 60yrold,male,re&redengineer– Frontotemporaldemen&a→non-fluentprogressiveaphasia.
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Quan&ta&veProduc&onAnalysis:Berndtetal,2000(SamplefromDescrip&onofComplexScenes)
Type 1 Controls
ANG
CH
Speech Rate (words per min)
29.2 12.0 160.8 (SD 37)
Proportion of Verbs (V/N+V)
0.39 0.44 0.48 (SD 0.06)
TheliflespontaneousspeechANGdidproducewaswellar&culatedwithnormalprosodyandcorrectsyntac&cstructure.(Seelater)
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TwoDynamicAphasiaPa&ents:lesionsites
ANG:frontalmeningioma * anterior part of the lehinferiorfrontalgyrus*BA45+++,BA44++
CH:focalatrophy*fronto-temporaldemen&a*lehBA44“moderatelyatrophic”lehBA43,45,46“mildlyatrophic”;righmrontalnormal
Le:InferiorFrontal+44,45and47
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LanguageExamina&on:WordProcessing
ANG CH Word Comprehension Synonyms Test British Picture Vocab. Scale
25-50th %ile
-
75-90th %ile
145/150
Oral Naming Graded Naming Test
75th %ile
75-90th %ile
Repetition Single Words
30/30
169/180
Reading NART 75-90th %ile
25-50th %ile
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Problemspecifictolanguage
• Fluencytasks–generateasmanyXaspossibleinafixed&meeg60s
• 1.Verballyspecified• 2.Designsconsis&ngof4lines• 3.Gesturesusingtheupperlimbs• 4.Movementsofajoys&ck
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CH:NonverbalGenera&on–purelyverbalproblem Total Number Generated
Gesture Fluency eg Make different positions with your hands.
CH Controls (n=10)
a. Meaningful movements b. Meaningless movements
13 26
16.0 (4.9) 22.0 (5.8)
Design Fluency eg Draw abstract designs with 4 straight lines. a. Free Condition 11 11.8 (4.4)
b. Fixed Condition 17 12.6 (4.3)
Random Motor Movement Generation eg Move joystick at tone.
% Total Responses (s.d.) CH Controls (n=10)
4 Options: Up/Down/Left/Right
Repeats 39 26.2 (5.8)
Opposites 24 27.0 (8.6)
Other 37 46.8 (10.0)
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TwoDynamicAphasiaPa&ents:lesionsites
ANG:frontalmeningioma * anterior part of the lehinferiorfrontalgyrus*BA45+++,BA44++
CH:focalatrophy*fronto-temporaldemen&a*lehBA44“moderatelyatrophic”lehBA43,45,46“mildlyatrophic”;righmrontalnormal
Le:InferiorFrontal+44,45and47
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PhonemicversusDesignandGestureFluency(RobinsonetalBrain2012)
02468101214161820
LeftLat RightLat
SupMedial
Healthy
phonemicdesigngesture
40 frontal patients: Specific Left Lateral problem in fluency is restricted to phonemic fluency
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SentenceGenera&onTasks Type1 ANG CH
SentenceGenera&onfrom: a singlecommonworde.g.phone2/1511/20pictureofsingleobjecte.g0/6nt
pictureofscenee.g.34/3420/20 e.g.(ANG)
“aboyandagirlridinganelephant”Reporter’sTest 14/1415/15
(TokenTestinreverse)e.g.(ANG)“Youhaveselectedfoursquaresandfourcircles.Youhavetappedthecirclesharderthanthesquares”
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DynamicAphasia;Func&onalLocalisa&on
• Levelt’smodelofspeechproduc&on
• GivenANGisnotagramma&candhasnophonologicalproblems
• Mostplausibleloca&on-Conceptualiser
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Jackendoff(2002)“BeethovenlikesthatSchubertwritesmusic”
Phrasal semantics – Preverbal message- impaired in dynamic aphasia type I
LIFG UNIFICATION – Binding of content to an abstract (programmable?) node in a hierarchical structure
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Badre&D’Esposito(JCN2007)• Fourtypesofexperiment• Eachtype–2linesonthe
diagramegAandB,CandD....• Foreachtypeeither1,2or4
choicesofresponseindifferentblocksoftrials
• (Forthefirstlineofeachexp(i.e.A,C...)theresponsesindicatedareforchoicesetof2)
• Whichaspectofs&mulusiscri&calonthattrialisdeterminedbythecolouroftheborder
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Badre&D’Esposito(2007)
• Asthedecisionbecomesmoreabstractcri&calregionbecomesmoreanterior
• ieA->B->C->D
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SentenceGenera&onTest:S&muliandPredic&ons
Generateawholesentencethatincludestheword…
Frontal Patients Posterior Patients Healthy Controls
LIFG Non-LIFG
High Frequency Words glass
X
√
√
Low Frequency Words kite
√
√
√
Proper Nouns Gandhi
√
√
√
Selection Demands
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* = p < 0.001, LIFG patients vs. Non-LIFG patients & Controls
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Mapsintoselec&ondemandsstudiesinfunc&onalimaging
• EgThompson-Schilletal1997
• Badreetal2005–judgementspecificity
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Crescen&nietal2009
• Genera&onofnoungivenverbandviceversa
• Lowselec&ondemands(LS)egcan->todrink*54%vs.can->toopen9%
• Highselec&ondemands(HS)eglamp>toturnon46%vslamp->tolightup37%
• Alsoweak(WA)vsstrong(SA)associa&vestrength
TransfromItalian
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DynamicAphasiaStudiesConclusion:Selec&onandSentenceGenera&onI
1. Low frequency words or proper names – have smaller number of associations so much more limited competition of associations than for high frequency
2. Plausibly due to an analogue of the cue-overload (Watkins & Watkins, 1976) or fan effect in memory: A-B A-C vs A-B D-E
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DynamicAphasiaStudiesConclusion:Selec&onandSentenceGenera&onII
3. Effects occurring at the conceptualiser level (on Levelt’s framework) and appear to be specific to language. Hence at the level of generation of preverbal message (which may be misnamed!). Note from a linguistic perspective – it plausibly involves Jackendoff’s abstract semantic hierarchy – events, situations, objects 4. Yet a simple phenomenon known from the memory literature - cue overload - also operates exceedingly strongly within the highest level of the language production system – presumably because it derives from a very general property of neural nets, out of which the language system is built.
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Thecomprehensioninterface-Seman&cs,languageandembodiment:
twosyndromes
• Seman&cdemen&a • Category-specificdisorders
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AB(Warrington1975)–spontaneouswri&ng
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HowdidWarrington(1975)detectthescien&ficinterestofABini&allyclinically?
• ProgressiveMatrices–top5%ile
• WAIS–PictureArrangementsubtest–secondeasiestitem;whatismissing?
• AB–“Ihaveneverbeeninterestedindogs”
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Seman&cDemen&a:Dissocia&ons• 1.IntactIQ(egRaven’sMatrices)• 2.Intactsensoryandperceptualprocesses(priortolevelofmeaning)
• 3.Intactshort-termmemory(egspan)• 4.Intactepisodicmemoryofnon-seman&ccharacteris&cs(Hodgesgroup)
• 5.Rela&velyintactsyntax,phonologyandorthography
• BUTalltypesofknowledgeegofthesignificance(andname)ofobjects,wordmeaningsetcgrosslyreduced
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Seman&cdemen&aasasyndromeegHodgesetal(1992)
• 5Demen&ngPa&ents• EgPicturesor&ng:threelevels• 1.LivingthingvsArtefact• 2.Categories:landanimalvsseacreaturevsbird
• 3.Afribute/Subordinate:Bri&shvsnon-Bri&shanimal;electricalvsnon-electricalitem
,
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Seman&cdemen&aasafunc&onalsyndromeegHodgesetal(1992)
• 5Demen&ngPa&ents• Downonpurelyverbalseman&cmemoryteststoo(egdefini&ons;categoryfluency)
controls (mean, SD)
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Mionetal(Brain2010)• Differencesbetween
normalisedcerebralmetabolicrateofglucosebetweenseman&cdemen&apa&ents(n=21)andhealthycontrol
• Glucoseisaprimarysourceofenergyforthebrain,andhenceitsavailabilityinfluencespsychologicalprocesses.
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Rogersetal(2004)‘Hub’modelofseman&cs
• Fullconceptualmodelandpartsimulated
• FromLambon-Ralph,LoweandRogers(Brain2007)
• Seman&cs–heteromodal(ieequallyverbal/non-verbal)
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Rogersetal‘hub’`modelsimula&on
Semantic dementia patients and model (with disconnection lesions) on picture-naming
Psychol Rev 2004
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Aproblemforthehubmodel:visualseman&cs-RM(Lauro-Grofoetal,1997)
• Seman&cdemen&a–lehtemporalmoreatrophiedthanright
• Whichof3items(egdetergent,cartaxs&cker,scarf)goeswithanother(egwindscreenwiper):
Verbal30%(chance);Visual69%
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Mionetal(Brain2010):Rela&velyunilateralseman&cdemen&a:lehvsright
• Camelandcactustestof‘visualseman&cs’Presentedinpictureswitha4-alterna&veforcedchoiceegforcamel:cactus(thetarget),tree,sunflower,orrose.
Verbal semantics (involving object naming and category fluency) specifically correlated with analogous left temporal region
Forrightgroup
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Abiggerproblemforthehubmodel:Herpessimplexencephali&sandcategoryspecificity• Veryrare• Veryrapid&me-courseofillness• Priorto1975mostpa&entsdied• Acyclovirstoppeddiseasebutmedialtemporallobesohengravelydamaged
• Rapidityofillnessprobablymeansthatliflereorganisa&onoffunc&onoccurs(unlikelowgradeglioma)
• Butrestofbrainunaffectedbydiseasewillbeingoodshape(unlikestroke)
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Non-Classical(Strong)Dissocia&ons–herpessimplexencephali&s
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
JBR SBY
ObjectsAnimalsFoods
From original descriptions in Warrington & Shallice Brain 1984
Proposal : Sensory Quality vs Functional Knowledge
TASK – give distinguishing meaning of (as assessed by independent judges)
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Gainoy(Cortex2000)
• 20+herpesencephali&cpa&entsreviewedwithasimilarpafernacrosscategories–‘categoryspecificity’
• Nowconsiderablymore(seealsoCapitanietalCogni&veNeuropsychology2003)
• Prototypiclesions(generallylarge)–bilateralanteriorinferiortemporallobe,par&cularlymedial–overlapslesionssuteforseman&cdemen&a
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TyleretalJCogNeuro2004
Red = Domain level naming
Green = Basic level Naming
Normal functional imaging superimposed on herpes patients
Black area – lesion of herpes patients
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Buthowtoaccountforcatspeconthehubmodelespeciallyasherpesandseman&c
demen&ahavesimilarlesionsites?
• LambonRalphetal2007
• Twodifferenttypesofdamagetothehubitself
• NO-Adhocassump&onsandunsuitablemodelling
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Bramba&etal(2006)&Campanellaetal(2010)Living(L)differsfromNon-Living(NL)
Dementing patients L>NL Udine Tumour patients
NL>L
L>NL
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MUCHBETTER:Chen(2016):sensory-func&oninthespokes
Cri&calregions–apartfromthehub–derivedfrommetaanalysisofcatspecfunc&onalimagingeffectsConnec&onsbasedonprobabilis&ctractography.Simula&on(pa&ent)forverbalinput
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ImpairmentsofLanguageOutputBuffers
• Phonological:Caramazzaetal86
• IGR-nonwords
• Lengtheffects• Errors–phonemesubs&tu&ons,inser&ons,dele&onsandtransposi&ons
• 1,2ormoreinnonword• Essen&allythesamepafernwithrepe&&on,readingaloudandwri&ng
• Graphemic:Caramazzaetal,87:Caramazza&Miceli90
• LB-words
• Lengtheffects• Errors–lefersubs&tu&ons,inser&ons,dele&onsandtransposi&ons
• 1,2ormoreinword• U-shapedserialposi&oncurves
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ImpairmentofPhonologicalOutputBuffer(Caramazza-Miceliposi&on)
• Papermethodologicallyhighlyinnova&ve
• Similareffectsacross3differentinput-outputtasks(readingaloud,repe&&on,wri&ngtodicta&on)
• Indicatesdeficitbeforetheinternalprocessingtrajectoriesofthethreetasksseparate
• Togetherwithnatureoferrors
• PhonologicalOutputBuffer
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• TwoPhonologicalOutputBufferpa&ents
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• TwoPhonologicalOutputBufferpa&ents:%ofdifferenttypesoferrors
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EarlyGraphemicBufferpa&ents:ErrorSerialPosi&onCurves-LBandAS(Jonsdoyretal1996)
AS:Errorsinwri&ng(black)andoralspelling(white)
LB:Errorsinwri&ng
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Compe&&veQueueingMechanism(Houghton,1990)
(a)ThestructureofthemechanismfromI(ini&al)andE(end)nodestotheCompe&&veFilter.(b)Ac&va&onofI/Enodesover&me–bothatlearningandretrieval.Inthissimula&onseparatenetforeachword.
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Compe&&veQueueingDynamics• CQac&va&ondynamicsof
nodesrepresen&nglefersduringproduc&onoftheword“CINEMA”.Theac&va&onlevelofeachleferisshownateach&mestepduringproduc&onoftheword.Thetraceforeachleferislabelledatthepointwhereitwinsthecompe&&onforoutput.
• Notethatpost-selec&oninhibi&onpreventsimmediaterepe&&onsofaleferbeinglearned
• Henceanaddi&onalgeminatemechanismisrequired
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CQmodelofspellingofHoughton,Glasspool&Shallice(1994)
• Notetheaddi&onofageminate(doublingnode)
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GraphemicBufferPa&entsandCQmodel–effectsof(i)wordlength;(ii)
errortype
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Glasspooletal(2006)distributedcompe&&vequeuing(CQ)model
Seman&cac&va&ngsystemtrainedfor400wordsusingBP–when95%correct,weights‘frozen’.Restofnetworkthentrainedwithseman&cinputusingalazylearningrule-weightschangedonlyforaleferincorrectlyselected
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TypeAandTypeBGraphemicOutputBufferImpairment–SerialPosi&onCurves
TypeBalsomake‘fragment’errors.AlsoTypeBtendtoshowdeepdysgraphiccharacteris&cs
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Glasspooletal(2006)distributedcompe&&vequeuing(CQ)model
TYPEB
TYPEA
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Hartley-HoughtonCQmodelofthephonologicaloutputbuffer(single
syllableversion)
(a)Givestheoverall2-routeCQmodelarchitecturefornovelphonologicalforms(egrepe&&onofnon-words)(b)givesthein-builtinternalsyllabicrepresenta&onsforthestructurepathway.Aseachphonemepresented,onlythephonemerepsinthenextwithin-syllableslotareini&allycandidates
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%ofsubs&tu&onerrors(asopposedtoinserts,deletes’transla&ons)ieerrorsthatretainwithin-syllablestructure
• Phonologicaloutputbuffer
• IGR,LT–75%,72%
• Graphemicoutputbuffer
• JH,LB,AS,HE-45%,53%,32%,31%
Effectsof(syllabic)structureweakerforgraphemicoutputbufferthanforphonologicaloutputbuffer->greater%oferrorsthatbreakstructure.
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Conclusions1• Cogni&on-Languageinterfaceforconcretenouns–hub
plusspokes• Specificallynon-languageandmainlylanguagesubsystems
interconnectedinacomplexfashion.Butconceptofembodimentoverlysimplis&candinadequate(lehtemporalhub).
• Cogni&on-Languageinterfaceforabstractnounsandverbs–muchlessclear(butseeShallice&Cooper,2013)
• Theprocessesunderlyingtheproduc&onofLevelt’spreverbalmessageremainsprefyvirginterritorybutitseemstoexistasaninputtotherestofthelanguagesystemthatcanbeselec&velyimpaired.
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Conclusion2
• Thelanguagesystemusesthebasicneuralarchitectureoftherestofcogni&on(eghub+spokemodel)
• BUTlanguagesubsystemshaveaddi&onalsubsystem-specificelements(egstructuralpathwayinoutputbuffermodels)
• Someoftheseaddi&onalelementsmustbelearned(wri&ngmodels)butsomeareprobablyinatelyspecified(egHartley-Houghtonassump&onsofstructuralpathwayforthephonologicaloutputbuffer).
• Syntaxwillrequirealotofspecialpurposeaddi&ons.
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OutputBufferModelling
• Needtocombinesymbolicandconnec&onistaccounts
• Hasbeendonefothephonologicaloutputbuffer(Hartley&Houghton,1996)
• Remainstobedoneforgraphemicoutputbuffer(tomyknowledge)
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Canessaetal(Cer.Cor2008)Manipulability(A)vsFunc&on(F)Judgements
ROIanalysesininferiorparietal(leh)toparieto-occipitalregions(right).NOTEA>Fasonegoesmoreanterior
ANDfunc&onlocalisa&ondoesnotfitLivingSuperioritypa&ents