l 15 Indian Coconut Journal

Coconut Oil: Chemistry,Production and Its Applications -

A ReviewGopala Krishna A.G.,* Gaurav Raj, Ajit Singh Bhatnagar, Prasanth Kumar P.K.

and Preeti Chandrashekar

Department of Lipid Science & Traditional Foods, Central Food Technological Research Institute(CSIR), Mysore - 570020

Abstract

Coconut oil is produced bycrushing copra, the dried

kernel, which contains about 60-65% of the oil. The oil has the naturalsweet taste of coconut and contains92% of saturated fatty acids(in theform of triglycerides), most of them(about 70%) are lower chainsaturated fatty acids known asmedium chain fatty acids (MCFAs).MCFAs are not common to differentvegetable oils with lauric acid at 45-56%. Various fractions of coconut oilhave medium chain triglycerides andare excellent solvent for flavours,essences, emulsifiers etc. These fattyacids are used in the preparation ofemulsifiers, as drugs and also incosmetics. Its metabolism is differentfrom that of the normal vegetable oilscontaining long chain fatty acids.Hence, it cannot be generalized as anoil similar in properties to that of a92% long chain saturated fatty acidscontaining oil/fat. More studies arerequired to prove the good effects ofcoconut oil, medium chaintriglycerides (MCT) and the fattyacids on humans especially on the illeffects on cardiovascular and otherdiseases. The review covers theproduction of coconut oil, its

Coconut oil is consumed intropical countries for

thousands of years. Studiesdone on native diets high in

coconut oil consumption showthat this population is

generally in good health.Coconut oil has a long shelf

life and is used in bakingindustries, processed foods,

infant formulae,pharmaceuticals, cosmetics

and as hair oil.

chemistry, MCT and its applicationstaking a holistic approach on the goodand bad effects of coconut oil reportedin the literature.

Introduction

Coconut oil is an edible oil thathas been consumed in tropicalcountries for thousands of years. Asit has a long shelf life and a meltingpoint of 76 °F, it is used in bakingindustries. A negative campaignagainst saturated fats in general, andthe tropical oils in particular, led tomost food manufacturers abandoningcoconut oil in recent years in favorof hydrogenated polyunsaturatedoils, particularly soy, which containtrans fatty acids. Studies done onpopulations consuming diets high incoconut oil show no adverse effectson the health of the population (1).

Coconut oil has >90% saturatedfatty acids, hence is less attractiveto consumers. Saturated fat is onethat has no unsaturation or doublebonds and tends to be solid at roomtemperature. Coconut oil is rich inshort and medium chain fatty acids.Shorter chain length allows fattyacids to be metabolized without useof the carnitine transport system.

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Various fractions of coconut oil areused as drugs. Butyric acid is usedto treat cancer, while lauric acid iseffective in treating viral infections.Hence, the literature is reviewedin the context of increase of fatrelated disorders / diseases throughconsumption of highly unsaturatedoils.

Importance of coconut as oil seed

The coconut palm is the mostimportant perennial source of oil,which is grown in India. Thecultivation of coconut is spread overthe entire coastal belt and also someinterior tracts. Compared to all otheroil seed crops coconut has thehighest productivity as wellas consistency in production.Compared to other oil seed cropscoconut is less susceptible toabnormal climatic condition.

Coconut oil production in India

Rotaries and expellers are usedfor crushing the dry coconuts(known as copra) for recovery of oil.The total production of edible gradecoconut oil in the country is about4.0 lakh tons which is 1.5 lakh tonsmore compared to that produced in1980’s (2).

Specification for coconut oil (3)

Indian-Standard; IS: 6220-1971specifies the quality parameters ofcopra for grading for different usesin India. This standard prescribesthe methods of grading and therequirements of copra for extractionof oil and for table use, togetherwith methods of sampling and test.The 3 types of copra are defined:type 1 (grades 1, 2 and 3), ball coprafor table purpose; type 2 (grades 1and 2), cup copra for table purpose;

and type 3 (grades 1, 2 and 3),milling copra for oil extraction. Thematerial shall be the kernelsobtained from the fruits of Cocosnucifera Linn. Requirements coverphysical and chemical properties,packing, marking, sampling andtest.

manipulative methods. Part IIIprescribes detailed laboratorytechniques for determination of:colour (lovibond scale); sp. gr. (sp.gr. bottle); refractive index;moisture (by distillation); volatilematter (at 105 degree C/1 h);impurities (filtration and drying);

Table 1. Indian specification for coconut oil (4)

Expressed Solvent-extracted

Characteristics Refined Grade Grade Grade Refined Semi GradeGrade 1A (Raw) 1B (Raw) 2 (Raw) grade refined 1 (raw)

Moisture & insoluble 0.1 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.1 0.25 1.0impurities (max) (%)

Colour Lovibond 2 4 11 30 2 10 30colour scale in Y+5R

Refractive index 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 to 1.4480 toat 40 °C 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490 1.4490

Specific gravity 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 to 0.915 toat 30 °C/30 °C 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920

Saponification value 250 250 250 250 250 250 250(min)

Iodine value wijs) 7.5 to 10 7.5 to10 7.5 to10 7.5 to10 7.5 to 10 7.5 to10 8.0 to13

Acid value (max) 0.5 2.0 6.0 8.0 0.5 1.0 10

Unsaponifiable (max) 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.8 1.0

Polenske value (min) 13.0 13.0 13.0 - 13.0 - -

Flash point, °C (min) - - - - 225 100 90

Ceylon-Standard; CS 32: 1968describes the specification forcoconut oil intended for export.Coconut oil is classified into 4grades: refined, deodorized(neutralized, bleached, final steamdeodorization); refined (no steamtreatment); white oil (higher freefatty acids); and industrial oil (crudeoil, not edible without processing).Part I specifies requirementfor chemical and physicalcharacteristics, analytical standards,appearance, freedom fromadulterants and suspended matter,packaging and marking. Part IIdescribes and illustrates equipmentfor sampling, with special referenceto large bulk vessels, together with

free fatty acids; I value (modifiedWij’s); saponification value;unsaponifiable matter and mineralacidity (titration with 0.01N NaOHto methyl orange) (4).

Common methods of productionof coconut oil

Different types of coconut oil foredible purposes are available viz,virgin coconut oil from wet coconuts(unrefined grade); coconut oil fromdry coconuts (unrefined grade); andcoconut oil by solvent extractionmethod (refined from coconutexpeller cake). Virgin coconut oil isclaimed to have more health benefitscompared to coconut oil extractedfrom copra.

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Copra milling by traditionalmethods

The extraction of oil from coprais one of the oldest seed crushingoperations. In India and Sri Lankacopra is still crushed for oilextraction in the primitive chekkusas well as in rotary ghanis, expellersand hydraulic presses.

The chekku is a fixed wooden orstone mortar inside which revolveson a hard wooden pestle. The pestleis attached to a long pole which ismoved round via bullocks, donkeyor by human labor. About 20 – 40kg of copra can be handled by achekku.

Copra processing by continuouspressing

This is done with the help ofexpellers. The oil expeller isessentially a mechanical screwpress in which the oil is expelledfrom the copra by the pressureexerted by a continuous rotatingwarm shaft in the barrel or cage ofthe press. The barrel is built withopenings to allow the escape of oiland these can be adjustedaccording to the type of seed beingcrushed.

Hydraulic presses

These are used in the largeinstallations. They are of two maintypes-open or Anglo-Americanpresses and the closed or cage typepresses. In this the space between theplates above ram and the head isdivided by plates between whichcopra is put wrapped in press clothes.

The common method is to extractoil from copra or the dry coconuts.Conventionally coconut oil isproduced by expelling dry copra,followed by refining during whichoil is exposed to high temperature.The copra based refined coconut oilor the solvent extracted and refinedcoconut oil will have a bland tastedue to the refining processes.

Wet coconut processing

The wet coconuts are subjected topressing to ooze the oil out along withcoconut milk. This is processedafterwards without employing heat,shear, chemicals, refining and isknown as virgin coconut oil. Virgincoconut oil has applications inpharmaceuticals and cosmetics. It iscolorless with characteristic coconutflavor and finds several applicationsin medicinal, cosmetics and cooking

purposes. Traditionally, virgin coconutoil is produced by fermentationmethod, where coconut milk expelledfrom freshly harvested coconuts isfermented for 24-36 hr, and during thisperiod, the oil phase gets separatedfrom aqueous phase. Further, theresulting wet oil is slightly heated fora short time to remove the moistureand finally filtered. The maindisadvantages of this process are lowoil recovery and fermented odor,which masks the characteristic coconutflavor of the oil.

In conventional methods forvirgin coconut oil, freshly extractedmilk is centrifuged to obtain creamwhich is heated upto 60-80°C beforecentrifuging to obtain the oil.Systematic research work has beencarried out at CFTRI for theproduction of several value addedproducts from coconut, one of thembeing virgin coconut oil. In theCFTRI process, virgin coconut oil isobtained by ‘wet processing’ withoutheat, shear and chemicals withan overall yield of 87.5%.Physicochemical properties and fattyacid compositions were evaluated.Sensory studies are also carried outand found that virgin coconut oil issuperior to the commercial sample.Scale-up runs were carried out forthe production of virgin coconut oil.The process technology has beentransferred to several user industriesthrough Coconut DevelopmentBoard, Cochin.

Physico-chemical characteristicsof coconut oil

Solubility

Coconut oil is insoluble in water.At temperature above its meltingpoint it is completely miscible with

Table 2. Codex standards for coconut oil (5)

Characteristic Coconut oil

Colour – Platinum cobalt scale (max) 50

Relative density at 40°C/20° C 0.908-0.921

Refractive Index at 40°C 1.448-1.450

Moisture & other volatiles at 105°C 0.1

Free fatty acids, calculated as lauric acid % by mass (max) 0.3

Peroxide value (millequivalents of active oxygen per kg) Not more than 15

Iodine value 6.3-10.6

Sap. value 248-265

Unsaponifiables, % by mass, max g/kg ≤ 15

Reichert value 6 – 8.5

Polenske value 13 –18

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most of the non-hydroxylic solventssuch as light petroleum, benzene,carbon tetrachloride etc. In alcohol,coconut oil is more soluble than mostcommon fats and oils.

Chemical composition

Coconut oil contains a highproportion of glycerides of lowerchain fatty acids (Tables 3, 4 & 5).The oil is highly stable towardsatmospheric oxidation. The oil ischaracterized by a low iodine value,

high saponification value, highsaturated fatty acids content and is aliquid at room temperatures of 27°C.

Unsaponifiable matter

All natural fats contain minorquantities of substance other thanfatty acid glycerides. Theunsaponified constituent is mostlysterols. The unsaponifiableconstituent of coconut oil include asmall amount of tocopherols andphytosterols (Table 3).

Chemistry of fatty acids andtriglycerides

Medium chain triglycerides

Medium chain triglycerides(MCTs) are a class of lipids in whichthree saturated fats are bound to aglycerol backbone. What distinguishesMCTs from other triglycerides is thefact that each fat molecule is betweensix and twelve carbons in length (9).MCTs are a component of many foods,with coconut and palm oils being thedietary sources with the highestconcentration of MCTs. MCTs are alsoavailable as a dietary supplement (10).

MCTs have a different pattern ofabsorption and utilization than long-chain triglycerides (LCTs) that makeup 97 percent of dietary fats. Forabsorption of LCTs to occur, the fattyacid chains must be separated fromthe glycerol backbone by the lipaseenzyme. These fatty acids formmicelles, are then absorbed andreattached to glycerol, and theresultant triglycerides travel throughthe lymphatics en route to thebloodstream. Up to 30 percent ofMCTs are absorbed intact across theintestinal barrier and directly enterthe portal vein. This allows for muchquicker absorption and utilization ofMCTs compared to LCTs. MCTs aretransported into the mitochondriaindependent of the carnitine shuttle,which is necessary for LCT-mitochondrial absorption. Oxidationof MCTs provides 8.3 calories pergram, while LCTs provides 9.2calories per gram (11).

Coconut Oil as a source ofmedium-chain triglycerides

All fats and oils are composed oftriglyceride molecules, which are tri

Table 3. Physico-chemical Characteristics of coconut oil

Virgin coconut oil Unrefined coconut Refined coconutfrom wet coconut Oil from copra oil

Appearance Colorless Slight brownish Colourless

Odour Coconut smell Coconut smell Odourless

Melting point °C 24 24 24

Moisture (%) <0.1 <0.1 <0.1

Iodine value (cg I2/g) 12-15 12-15 10-12

Peroxide value (meq. O2/kg) 0-1 0-1 0-1

Saponification value(mg KOH/g) 245-255 245-255 250-255

Phospholipids(%) 0.1 0.1 0.0

Unsaponifiable matter(%) — 0.42% 0.19%

Tocopherols mg/kg 150-200 150-200 4-100

Phytosterols mg/kg 400-1200

Total phenolics mg/Kg 640 618 20

Fatty acid composition(relative %)

Saturates 92.0 92.0 92.0

Monounsaturates 6.0 6.0 6.0

Polyunsaturates 2.0 2.0 2.0

Table 4. Fatty acid composition of coconut oil and some other vegetable oils

Vegetable oils C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0 C22:0 Others

Coconut 7.0 5.4 48.9 20.2 8.4 2.5 6.2 1.4 - - -

Palm kernel - 1.2 51.6 22.9 12.2 1.3 10.8 - - - - -

Sunflower - - - - 6.3 3.0 43.7 47.0 - - -

Rice bran - - - 0.4 22.9 1.8 42.5 30.5 1.4 0.5 -

Safflower - - - 0.3 11.9 2.3 29.2 55.9 0.4 - -

Sesame - - - - 10.3 5.8 42.9 41.0 - - -

Groundnut - - - - 14.0 3.8 41.9 34.7 1.0 1.2 3.4

Palm - - 0.2 1.1 42.6 3.8 41.9 10.4 - - -

Olive - - - - 12.0 2.5 75.7 7.9 0.5 - - 1.4

Soybean - - - - 11.6 4.0 18.8 56.1 8.5 - - 1.0

Grape seed - - - - 7.2 4.8 19.4 68.1 0.1 - - 0.4

Linseed - - - - 7.1 2.0 19.9 17.3 53.7 - - 0.4

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diet (14). It is the MCT in coconut oilthat make it different from all other fatsand for the most part gives it its uniquecharacter and healing properties.Almost all of the medium-chaintriglycerides used in research,medicine, and food products comefrom coconut oil.

MCT are easily digested,absorbed, and put to use nourishingthe body. Unlike other fats, they putlittle strain on the digestive systemand provide a quick source of energynecessary to promote healing. Thisis important for patients who areusing every ounce of strength theyhave to overcome serious illness orinjury. It’s no wonder why MCT areadded to infant formulas. MCT arenot only found in coconut oil but alsoare natural and vital componentsof human breast milk. MCT are

considered essential nutrients forinfants as well as for people withserious digestive problems likecystic fibrosis (15, 16). Like otheressential nutrients, one must getthem directly from the diet.

Literature on coconut oil

Philippines, Indonesia, India, SriLanka, Mexico, West Malaysia, andPapua & New Guinea are the 7countries which produce majorquantities of coconut in the world.Coconut is available in two formsviz., wet and dry materialscommonly known as wet coconutand dry coconut or copra. The oil canbe extracted from both these rawmaterials. However, in India andSrilanka, it is a general practice touse only copra for oil extraction andthe oil is used for food and cosmeticpurposes. In Phillippines, the oil isextracted from wet coconut also andis known as virgin coconut oil. Insome countries solvent extraction ofthe dry coconut followed by refining,bleaching and deodorization iscarried out to get the refinedbleached and deodorized coconutoil. The technology for theproduction of coconut oil throughexpellers is well developed andmany medium scale industries inIndia produce oil by this method.However, some small scaleindustries produce the oil byprocessing fresh coconut also usinglocal expeller press. Problems ofsediments and rancidity persist inthese oils.

The literature on coconut oilwhich has been reported aspublished papers and patents from1970 onwards were reviewed andwere classified under the followingheads:

Table 5. TAG (triacyl glycerols or triglycerides) molecular species in coconut oil from India, Malaysia andIndonesia (12 & 13)

TAG Coconut RBDCNO MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL IND IND IND IND INDSpecies Oil (I) (MAL) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

CaCC 1.1 - - - - - - - - - - -

CaCLa 3.4 - - - - - - - - - - -

CCLa 12.8 13.1 16.6 15.1 16.4 15.9 16.2 14.4 14.3 16.7 14.7 16.1

CpCpLa - 1.2 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.0 1.4 0.9 1.1 1.3 0.7 0.9

CpCLa - 3.5 4.0 3.9 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.3 3.6 4.3 3.7 3.5

CLaLa 17.8 17.2 21.4 19.8 19.7 19.8 20.0 19.5 19.2 21.1 19.9 20.3

LaLaLa 20.7 21.9 25.8 23.3 24.1 22.8 23.6 23.5 23.6 23.5 23.6 23.9

LaLaM 16.1 17.2 15.1 15.6 13.8 14.6 13.6 15.4 16.5 14.2 16.2 14.8

LaLaO 1.8 2.3 1.3 1.5 2.0 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.2 1.6

LaMM 10.1 10.2 8.6 9.5 7.8 9.1 8.2 9.1 9.4 7.4 9.5 8.6

LaMO 2.1 2.1 0.9 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2

LLO/LaMP 6.2 5.8 4.8 4.8 5.0 4.9 4.8 5.7 5.5 4.8 5.4 4.7

LaOO 1.6 1.4 0.3 1.8 1.1 1.0 1.2 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1

LOO/LaPP 2.9 3.0 0.4 1.3 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.8 2.0

PLO 0.9 - - - - - - - - - - -

MOO - 0.7 - 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5

MPO 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - -

OOO 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - -

POO - 0.3 - 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5

POP 0.8 - - - - - - - - - - -

PPP 0.2 - - - - - - - - - - -

esters of glycerol and fatty acids. Thefats upon hydrolysis yield fatty acidsand glycerol. There are two methodsof classifying fatty acids,monounsaturated fatty acids, andpolyunsaturated fatty acids. Thesecond method of classification isbased on molecular size or length ofthe carbon chain in the fatty acid.

The vast majority of the fats andoils whether they are saturated orunsaturated or from an animal or aplant, are composed of long-chaintriglycerides. All fats we eat consist ofLCT while, coconut oil is uniquebecause it is composed predominantlyof MCT. The size of the fatty acid isextremely important becausephysiological effects of medium-chainfatty acids in coconut oil are distinctlydifferent from the long-chain fattyacids more commonly found in our

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A. Production Methods and Oilquality

A number of reviews areavailable on the different types ofextraction and processing methodsfor the preparation of coconut oil,coconut flour, protein and coconutcake and meal. Cornelius (17) hasreviewed the aspects of coconutprocessing such as growing,harvesting, handling, storage,composition of nut, processing,primary products (copra, ball copra,desiccated coconut, fibre and shells),coconut oil (extraction methods,composition of coconut oil), uses ofoil, coconut cake and meal,nutritional aspects, and the coconutindustry in the 7 major producingareas (Philippines, Indonesia, India,Sri Lanka, Mexico, West Malaysia,and Papua & New Guinea). Dendyand Grimwood (18) have reviewedthe various processes for wettreatment which have been proposedfor extraction of oil and protein fromfresh coconut meat: The Chayen,Robledano, ICAIT, Krauss-Maffei,Roxas and Sugarman processes,integrated processes, methods usedby the Texas A&M University andthe Tropical Products Institute,London. The problem of obtainingcheap protein-based food products,coconut milk and cream, frozenmilk, syrup, etc. is then examined.A few indications are givenregarding the nutritive and chemicalaspects of coconut protein. Baltasar(19) has reviewed the extractionprocess of coconut oil by the dryprocessing technology. Coconut oilextraction employing dry processingtechnology is discussed under thefollowing headings: preparation ofraw material; drying or cooking;

feeding the expeller presses;handling and filtering of crude oil;oil cooling system; and extraction bythe solvent method. Loncin et al (20)reviewed the utilization of palm oiland coconut oil in the form ofinteresterified fat. The utilization oftransesterified palm oil with 25%coconut oil for production of cookingfat of uniform consistency littleaffected by temperature. (solid fatindex at 10, 20 and 30 degree C being45.6, 33.6, 9.2, consistency in 0.1 mmASTM penetration depth after 9 days’storage at 15, 21 and 25 degree C was19, 38 and 44). Due to its lowoxidation during heating, liquid oil issuitable for table and frying use.

Enzymatic process

Coconut oil is extracted fromcoconut paste by a new enzymaticprocess (1) and the method used lessenergy than the conventionalprocesses. A Sri Lankan inventor (21)has developed a simple method formaking high quality coconut oil anddesiccated coconut. Using moremanpower and little or no electricity,it involves breaking the coconut,scraping it and drying in a speciallydesigned solar drier. The desiccatedcoconut produced can be used formechanical extraction of colourless,odourless coconut oil suitable fordirect consumption (22). Mojika (23)developed a simple process forproducing coconut oil and food gradecopra cake which has been patented.Nambiar (24) developed a method forthe production of refined oil from themilk of fresh ripe coconuts and hasbeen granted an Indian patent.

Wet processing of coconut

Nambiar (25) has developed amethod of processing fresh ripe

coconut to obtain refined oil and tosimultaneously recover coconutproducts including solid coconutproducts for human consumptionwhich has also been patented inIndia. Castellanos and Asturias (26)investigated the wet millingprocesses for the extraction of oilfrom decorticated fresh coconutunder a variety of experimentalconditions to get oil of better qualityand it required less refining.Hagenmaier et al (27) identified thecritical unit operations in the wetprocessing of fresh coconuts for therecovery of oil and food gradeprotein.

Solvent extraction

Cancel et al (28) has standardizedconditions for coconut oil extractionfrom coconut milk press-cake.Gonzalez et al (29) studied thesolvent extraction of residual oilfrom wet coconut meal usingisopropanol. Bernardini (30) hasdescribed a new single solvent directextraction process (by CMB,Pomezia) which obviates the needfor pressing. Aliwalas and Buccat(31) studied the filtration-extractionof granulated coconut on a benchscale. Claudio et al (32) carried outlaboratory scale studies on thepreparation of a highly nutritiouscoconut flour from granulatedcoconut. Preliminary feeding expt.indicate a PER comparable withcasein. Prepared foods (cakes,doughnuts, cookies, pastries) with20-30% wheat flour replaced bycoconut flour obtained high tasterating.

Fatty acid composition

Banzon and Resurreccion (33)carried out a study on the fatty acid

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distribution in coconut oil obtainedby four processing methods andsecured from four Philippine typesof coconuts. There was no observedchange in the fatty acid distributionin samples of coconut oil obtainedby 4 methods, namely: solventextraction, fermentation, freeze-thawing and heating. Neither wasthere such a change observed incoconut oil samples obtained from4 types of coconuts.

Phenolics and antioxidant activity

Kapila and Dissanayake (34)studied the phenolic compoundspresent in the nonsaponifiablefraction of coconut oil by high-performance liquid chromatographywith florescence detection. Massspectra of the phenolic compoundswere also obtained separately byLC–MS to confirm the presence ofthe phenolic compounds. Caffeicacid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acidand catechin were observed incoconut oil. Phenolic acid fractionof the coconut oil prepared byboiling coconut milk (traditionalcoconut oil) was more complexcompared with that of coconut oilprepared by pressing copra(commercial coconut oil). Totalphenol content of traditional coconutoil was nearly seven times higherthan that of commercial coconut oil(618 ± 46 vs. 91 ± 11 mg kg )1 ),suggesting that the phenol contentvaries with the extraction method.

Kapila, Chamil and Sagarika (35)compared the antioxidant activitiesof coconut oil extracted under hotand cold conditions. The coconut oilextracted under hot conditions(HECO) contained more phenolicsubstances than the coconut oilextracted under cold conditions

(CECO). However, high temperaturesused in the hot extraction of coconutoil favor the incorporation of morethermally stable phenolicantioxidants into coconut oil.Therefore, the consumption ofHECO may result in improvementof antioxidant related health benefitscompared with the consumption ofCECO.

Moura (6) studied the changes insome components of theunsaponifiable fraction of coconut oilduring refining. 8 lots of coconut oilwere sampled at 5 points in the refiningprocess. The unsaponifiable matter(UNS) comprised hydrocarbons(including squalene), aliphaticalcohols and triterpenoid alcohols,sterols and a final group containingfree fatty acids (FFA), campesterol andsome unidentified components.Tocopherols were not detected in thecoconut samples analysed. Manalacand Harder (36) analysed thetocopherol content of coconut oil froma commercial processing plant atdifferent stages of refining. Onesample of crude oil containing721.06µg/g lost 94.5% resulting in38.9µg/g in the final product.

It is observed from the aboveliterature reports that there isvariation in the composition ofcoconut oil with respect to naturalantioxidants level with the methodused for its extraction which mayhave a bearing on the nutritionalquality of the oil.

B. Blending of coconut oil withother vegetable oils

Oxidative stability

Coconut oil addition to othervegetable oils improves theiroxidative stability indicating that

coconut oil can be used as a naturalantioxidant through the blendingprocess. Bhatnagar et al (37) haveobserved that addition of coconut oilto either safflower oil, sunflower oil,rice bran oil increased the oxidativestability of the resultant blend.

Phase separation

Murthi et al (38) studied thestorage stability of edible oils andtheir blends. Among the blends,sesame oil or groundnut oil blendedwith refined cottonseed oil showedthe least increase in FFA. PV of rawedible oils and their blends tendedto rise steadily to a maximum,declining gradually thereafter.Acceptability became poor for rawedible oils after 120 days, when thePV was between 5.9 and 16 m-equiv./kg, and for refined oils after90 days (PV was 4.4-9) and for theblends after 90-120 days (PV 4-45).The consumer preference in variousareas was for oil blends containingcottonseed oil with sesame oil orgroundnut oil, coconut oil with palmolein, and rapeseed oil with mustardoil. Blends containing palm oil wereless acceptable, as a waxy solid massseparates out in these oils.

Coconut oil emulsions

Garti and Arkad (39) studied theprocess of preparation of cloudycoconut oil emulsions containingdispersed TiO2 using atomizer.Rogov et al (40) studied the viscosityof the fat components of margarineemulsions. Technological proceduresin margarine manufacture (dosage,transport, mixing) are affected by theviscosity of the fat component.Viscosities of some fats (hardenedfat, qualities 1, 2 and 3, coconut oil,vegetable oil blends, etc.) and of thefat components used for margarine

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emulsion preparation weredetermined at 40 degree C. Theviscosities of different fat blendemulsions applied in Russianmargarine formulations were alsodetermined and are tabulated.

Nutritional effects of coconut oilblends

Bellenand et al (41) studied theeffects of coconut oil on heart lipidsand on fatty acid utilization inrapeseed oil. The cardiac lipidosiswas proportional to the content oferucic acid in the diet. At 60 days,the high level of 22:6 in the cardiacphospholipids of rats fed rapeseed oilwas reduced by the addition ofsunflower oil but not by coconut oil.Thus, the blending of rapeseed oilwith coconut oil apparently is lessdesirable than that of rapeseed oiland sunflower oil. McCutcheon et al(42) studied the cardiopathogenicityof rapeseed oils and oil blendsdiffering in erucic, linoleic andlinolenic acid content on male Wistarrats using semipurified diets. Lowestlesion incidence was obtained withsafflower oil and hydrogenatedcoconut oil. It has been postulatedthat linolenic acid plays a role in theetiology of cardiac necrosis observedwhen rats are fed diets containinglow erucic acid rapeseed oils.

Theuer (43) developed fatcompositions for infant formulascontaining vegetable fats with a fattyacid simulating that of human milk.Grandadam (44) developedprocesses to recover the proteins ofthe coconut from copra cake, ordirectly from fresh coconut meat bydifferent processes. The improvedItipat process of double pressingallows recovery of 93.45% of the oiland 91.9%. Aliwalas (45) studied the

following process for oil extractionfrom coconut meat: (i) wet method(using a De Laval centrifuge), (ii)hydraulic pressing, (iii) pressing plussolvent extraction, (iv) filtrationextraction (direct solvent extraction).Oil extraction efficiencies obtainedwere: (i) 79.56% (increased to 96.3%by subsequent solvent extraction),(ii) 76.47%, (iii) 99.65%, (iv) 96.58.Protein contents of isolates from (i)ranged from 59 to 75%. Proteinefficiency ratio (PER) biologicalvalue (BV), true digestibility (TD)and net protein utilization (NPU) ofcoconut flour from (ii), (iii) and (iv)were: PER 2.42, 2.55, 2.42; BV 77,84, 79; TD 76, 74, 72; NPU 68, 64,66. Values for coconut isolateprepared by heat coagulation ofcream or aqueous portion of freshcoconut milk from (i) were: PER1.50, 2.20; BV 72, 80; TD 88, 92;NPU 59, 65. The traditional ruralmethod gave an oil extractionefficiency of 82.45, and a proteinisolate with PER 1.25, BV 62, TD86 and NPU 58.

Reena Rao and Lokesh (46, 47),Anitha Nagaraju and Lokesh (48, 49)and Reena and Lokesh (50) haveused immobilized lipase systems forthe synthesis of structured lipidsfrom coconut oil and omega 6 andomega 3 fatty acids and carried outnutritional evaluation of the same inrats. They found beneficial effects inthe lipid profile after enzymaticacidolysis of coconut oil with omega6 and omega 3 fatty acids.

Indian Specification for blendingof vegetable oils

As per the Prevention of FoodAdulteration Act 1954 Rulesand Regulations and updatedamendments following is the

specification for a vegetable oilblend.

A.17.24. “Blended EdibleVegetable Oil” means an admixtureof any two edible vegetable oilswhere the proportion by weight ofany edible vegetable oil used in theadmixture is not less than 20 percent. The individual oils in the blendshall conform to the respectivestandards prescribed by these rules.The blend shall be clear, free fromrancidity, suspended or insolublematter or any other foreign matter,separated water, added colouringmatter, flavouring substance,mineral oil, hydrocyanic acid, castoroil and tricresyl phosphate. It shallalso conform to the followingstandards, namely;

Based on the PFA specifications,a process has been developed at theCentral Food TechnologicalResearch Institute, Mysore undersponsorship from the CoconutDevelopment Board, Cochin and isready for commercialization.

C. Edible applications ofcoconut oil

Coconut oil has a high degree ofsaturation with a high content ofsaturated fatty acids. Because ofhigh content of saturated fatty acidscoconut oil is highly resistant tooxidative rancidity, coconut oil isused as a component of infant milkpowders because of its easydigestibility and stable flavor.Coconut oil is extensively used inthe food industries as aconfectionery fat particularly in thepreparation of ice creams. Inimitation chocolates coconut oil isused in place of cocoa butter alongwith cocoa powder.

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l 23 Indian Coconut Journal

materials. These MCTs can also beused as a glaze and polishing agentfor confectionery products such asgummy- type candies. Solid MCTscan help to enhance aerationproperties in bakery products (55,56).

MCT derivatives- structuredlipids

Medium chain triglycerides canbe used to custom design fats. MCTswith conventional long chain fats giveproducts with unique physical andnutritional products. MCT derivativesshow unique properties compared totheir corresponding physical blends.They may contribute nutritional andfunctional benefits to value addedfoods (57, 58, 59).

D. Non-edible applicationsof coconut oil

One of the major non-edibleapplications of coconut oil is in thesoap industries; one importantchemical derivative of coconut oilis methyl esters of coconut fattyacids, which are produced bytreating coconut oil with methylalcohol. These methyl estersconstitutes an important rawmaterial for the chemical industriesas they are more stable and areeasier to separate by fractionaldistillation. Coconut oil has manyother industrial uses in thepharmaceuticals, cosmetics, plastics,rubber substitutes, synthetic resinsetc. Coconut oil has also been founduseful for mixing with diesel. Thesemixture in the proportion as 30:70has given excellent roadperformance of diesel vehicles.Methyl esters of coconut oil fattyacids is also being used as lubricantsand biodiesel in aviation industry.

Indian Specification for blending of two oils

a. Moisture and volatile matter Not more than 0.2 per cent by weight

b. Acid Value

Nature of oil Acid value

1. Both raw edible vegetable oils in the blend Not more than 6.0

2. One raw edible vegetable oil and one refined ediblevegetable oil in the blend Not more than 5.0

3. Both refined edible vegetable oils in the blend Not more than 5.0

c. Unsaponifiable matter:

1. Blend with rice bran oil Not more than 3.0 per cent by weight

2. Blend with other edible vegetable oils Not more than 1.50 per cent by weight

d. Flash point (Penske Martin closed method) Not less than 250ºC

1. Test for argemone oil shall be negative for the blend2. However, blend may contain food additives permitted in these rules and Appendix ‘C’.

Use in the synthesis of mediumchain triglycerides

Medium chain triacylglycerolsare unique categories of lipidsproduced by the esterification ofglycerol with medium chain fattyacids, which come from high lauricoils. Coconut and palm kernel oilsare the only commercially importantsources of medium chain fatty acids(52). These oils are hydrolyzed toliberate their fatty acids fromglycerol, and then the fatty acids areseparated by fractional distillation.The lower boiling or top fraction ofthe fatty acids contains the mediumchain acids (53).The esterificationreaction between glycerol and themedium chain fatty acids is carriedout at high temperatures with orwithout use of a catalyst. The waterliberated in the reaction is removedcontinuously to drive the reaction tocompletion (54). When theesterification reaction is complete,excess fatty acids are removed fromthe reaction mixture by vacuumdistillation. To remove the volatileodor and flavor components as wellas any residual fatty acids, the crudeMCTs are deodorized to get a finalproduct that has a bland flavor andis odorless and colorless.

Functional benefits of mediumchain triglycerides

Medium chain triglycerides arewidely used in the flavor industriesas they are more polar and thereforemore hydrophilic and can dissolvea variety of polar substances that areinsoluble in conventional fats andoils. Hydrocarbons, esters andnatural oils as well as alcohols,ketones and acids are miscible withMCTs. These properties makeMCTs superior carrier for flavors,vitamins and colors when comparedto conventional oils. MCTs have alower molecular weight thanconventional oils. This gives MCTsa lower viscosity than conventionaloils, even at low temperatures.MCTs oils have no unsaturated fattyacids present; therefore they areexceptionally stable to oxidation.MCTs have excellent keepingqualities and therefore help toincrease shelf- life of finishedproducts. MCTs are ideal fortreating the surfaces of crackers toact as a moisture barrier. Theyadhere well to surfaces, includingmetals. They are excellent releaseagent for surfaces that come intocontact with food products or raw

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24 lJuly 2010

E. Clinical Applications ofmedium chain triglycerides and

saturated fatty acids

Malabsorption

Children with cystic fibrosissupplemented with up to 75 ml ofMCTs per day experienced greaterweight gain and reduced fecal fatcompared to a trial period on acontrol diet (9). When MCTs aregiven concurrently with a pancreaticenzyme preparation, absorption isimproved (58). MCTs have beenused in other malabsorptionsyndromes, including short-bowelsyndrome, celiac disease, andhepatic disease (15).

HIV/AIDS

MCTs may help with weightmaintenance in AIDS patients. Anenteral formula containing 85percent of fat calories from MCTs(35% of total calories from fat) ledto decreases in stool fat, number ofbowel movements, and abdominalsymptoms, as well as increased fatabsorption compared to baseline(59). No improvement was seen insubjects taking a control LCT-containing formula. Anothercontrolled trial confirmed theseresults (60). MCT-containingcaloric supplements do not appearto cause weight gain in AIDSpatients compared to a control diet.In 1978, Kabara and others (61)reported that certain medium chainfatty acids, such as lauric acid haveadverse effects on other pathogenicmicroorganisms, including bacteria,yeast and fungi. These fatty acidsand their derivatives actuallydisrupt the lipid membranes of theorganisms and thus inactivate them(62).

Healing properties of coconut oil

Coconut oil is antiviral, anti-fungal (kills yeast too) andantibacterial. It attacks and killsviruses that have a lipid (fatty)coating, such as herpes, HIV,hepatitis C, the flu, andmononucleosis. It kills the bacteriathat cause pneumonia, sore throats,dental cavities, urinary tractinfections, meningitis, gonorrhea,food poisoning and many morebacterial infections (63). It kills thefungus/yeast infections that causecandida, ringworm, athletes foot,thrush, jock itch and diaperrash.

Use of saturated fats in therapeuticapplications

Saturated fatty acids can beused to: boost the immune system,for weight management, asantimicrobials, to support thestructure of gut mucosa, and asdietary adjuncts in cases of chronicdegenerative disease, such ascardiovascular disease, liverdisease and cancer. As far as theintegrity of the gut mucosa isconcerned, the use of short andmedium chain fatty acids canreduce mucosal irritationcharacteristic of aliments such as:IBS, ulcerative colitis, anddysbiosis, to name a few. Inparticular, short chain fatty acidsare antihistaminic and may find usein the treatment of allergic-typeconditions, such as asthma,urticaria and food sensitivities.Studies have also shown that shortchain saturated fatty acids can beused in the treatment of dentalcaries, peptic ulcers, BPH, genitalherpes, and hepatitis (64).

Saturated fatty acids of coconut oilhaving medicinal properties

Roughly 45 to 50% of fatty acidsof coconut oil form lauric acid.Lauric acid is known to kill virusesand bacteria that are enveloped in aphospholipid membrane. Examplesof viruses with a fatty capsule are:influenza viruses and HIV. Coconutitself contains about 75% fiber, notbran fiber from wheat and grains(which contains phytic acid thatabsorbs calcium and other mineralfrom your body before it isexcreted), but dietary fiber that feedsbeneficial colon flora. As the fiberis metabolized by the naturallyoccurring bacteria, they by default,crowd out other potentially harmfulpathogens and produce short chainfatty acids (SCFA’s) like acetic acid(minute amounts of vinegar andbutyric acid (originally isolate inbutter) both compounds are knownto have varying degrees of antimicrobial activity. These fatty acidsare absorbed directly into the colonand serve as energy in that way.Butyric acid has been shown to haveanti-tumor properties. Manyresearchers have reported thatcoconut oil lowers cholesterol. Thecholesterol-lowering properties ofcoconut oil are a direct result of itsability to stimulate thyroid function.In the presence of adequate thyroidhormone, cholesterol (specificallyLDL-cholesterol) is converted byenzymatic processes to the vitallynecessary anti-aging steroids,pregnenolone, progesterone andDHEA. These substances arerequired to help prevent heartdisease, senility, obesity, cancer andother diseases associated with ageingand chronic degenerative diseases(64).

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l 25 Indian Coconut Journal

Anti-Cancer Effects of CoconutOil

In 1987 Lim-Sylianco (64)published a 50-year literature reviewshowing the anti-cancer effects ofcoconut oil. In chemically inducedcancers of the colon and breast,Cohen et al (65) showed that coconutoil was by far more protective thanunsaturated oils. For example 32%of corn oil eaters got colon cancerwhereas only 3% of coconut oileaters got the cancer. Animals fedunsaturated oils had more tumors.This shows the thyroid-suppressiveand hence, immuno-suppressiveeffect of unsaturated oils.

Conclusions

Coconut oil is consumed intropical countries for thousands ofyears. Studies done on native dietshigh in coconut oil consumptionshow that this population is generallyin good health. Coconut oil has along shelf life and is used in bakingindustries, processed foods, infantformulas, pharmaceuticals, cosmeticsand as hair oil. The oil contains 92%of saturates consisting of mediumchain fatty acids in the form oftriglycerides, and about 8% ofunsaturates consisting of oleic andlinoleic acids as triglycerides. The oilhas a small amount of unsaponifiablematter (< 0.5%), is colourless andhas a odour typical of the coconuts.The oil has small amounts oftocopherols and tocotrienols andphytosterols. The oil is known tohave antiviral and antibacterialeffects and excellent healingproperties. It gets easily absorbed inthe body and is a nature mimic ofthe human breast milk fat and henceused in infant formulae. With allthese good quality attributes, the side

effects of the oil has also beenreported especially in cardiovasculardiseases due to the presence of lessof unsaturated fatty acids in thetriglycerides of the oil. It ishypothesized that due to loweramount of PUFA, there is apossibility of atherogenecitydevelopment during long term usageof the oil. However, more researchis needed to clearly understand themany good effects of the oil.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Dr. V. Prakash,Director, CFTRI, Mysore and theCoconut Development Board, Kochifor enthusing us to write this reviewand Dr. B.R. Lokesh, Head, Dept. ofLipid Science & Traditional Foods,for critically going through themanuscript.

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The administrator revealed that the PCA-Davao Reseach Center conducted a Field Release Evaluation where a totalof 1,948 parasitoid adults were released in infested barangays in Region XI and parallel laboratory tests.

"The parasitoids collected in the field inflicted about 30-50 percent parasitism on the pest&apos;s larva or pupa"Garin noted adding that laboratory results showed that around 7 to 47 adult parasitoids emerged from one larva/pupa 18to 26 days from injection for parasitization.

"With the earwigs, we now have three indigenous species for biological control of this foreign pest" the administratorenthused as he underscored the need to adopt a long-term integrated pest management system.

The administrator further stressed that use of chemical insecticides through trunk injection or spraying should only bein severe cases and at first treatment, with the long term and sustainable approach to be comprised of biological control,use of entomophatogen fungi, good farming practices and strict quarantine controls.

"Our research centers are now mass rearing these parasitoids for immediate use in areas that may suffer recurrence ofBrontispa infestation" he concluded.

http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pr040109.php

For hundreds of years coconut oil has been a staple in the diets of those who live in tropical regions as an important

source of nutrients. Coconuts and extra virgin coconut oil are pure foods that can play an important role in a well

balanced diet.

Research has shown that unrefined coconut oil can be very beneficial. Some of its benefits include: nutrient absorption,

boosting energy, promoting weight loss, preventing cardiovascular disease, blood glucose levels, hypoglycemia,

strengthening of bones, promoting healthy skin and hair, proper digestion and metabolism, skin conditions and moisturizingthe skin.

Coconut oil is nature's richest source of medium chain triglycerides. It has antiviral, anti-bacterial and anti-fungal

properties. Recently, the western world has discovered coconut oil for its ability in promoting weight loss and preventing

premature aging. Coconut oil contains short and medium-chain fatty acids that are advantageous in losing weight andbecause it is easy to digest it supports the healthy function of the thyroid and enzymes systems. Its antioxidant properties

have been shown to slow the aging process. It is safe for cooking at high temperatures. And it is delicious!!

(http://www.innisfilscope.com)

Crazy for coconut oil

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