coastal environmental and fisheries profile of danajon bank, bohol

COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL

AND FISHERIES PROFILE

OF DANAJON BANK,BOHOL, PHILIPPINES




PATRICK CHRISTIE

NYGIEL B. ARMADA

ALAN T. WHITE

ANECITA M. GULAYAN

HOMER HERMES Y. DE DIOS




PATRICK CHRISTIENYGIEL B. ARMADA

ALAN T. WHITEANECITA M. GULAYAN

HOMER HERMES Y. DE DIOS

II COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

Patrick ChristieNygiel B. ArmadaAlan T. WhiteAniceta M. GulayanHomer Hermes Y. de Dios

2006Cebu City, Philippines

Citation

Christie, P., N.B. Armada, A.T. White, A.M. Gulayan and H.H.Y. de Dios. 2006. Coastal environmental and fisheries profileof Danajon Bank, Bohol, Philippines. Fisheries Improved for Sustainable Harvest (FISH) Project, Cebu City, Philippines.63 p.

This publication was made possible through support provided by the United States Agency for International Development(USAID) under the terms and conditions of Contract No. 492-C-00-03-00022-00. The opinions expressed herein are those ofthe authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID. This publication may be reproduced or quoted in otherpublications as long as proper reference is made to the source.

FISH Document No.: 23-FISH/2006

III

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS IVTABLES & FIGURES VACKNOWLEDGMENTS VII

FOREWORD VIII

PREFACE XI

CHAPTER 1OVERVIEW OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED FISHERIES

MANAGEMENT IN DANAJON BANK 1Introduction 1Why a fisheries ecosystem profile for Danajon Bank? 2Past coastal and fisheries management efforts

in Bohol 5

CHAPTER 2SOCIOECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL

CONDITIONS IN DANAJON BANK 9Threats to coastal resources 10Socioeconomic context of Danajon Bank 12

Basic statistics 12Incomes within northern Bohol fishing

communities 12Health 13Population growth 14Education 14Coastal economic activities 16

The state of coastal planning and governance 17Summary 21

CHAPTER 3STATUS OF COASTAL AND MARINE

ECOSYSTEM IN DANAJON BANK 23Center of the center of inshore fish biodiversity 23Geological significance 24

Ecological and biological significance and status 24Summary 26

CHAPTER 4FISHERY STATUS AND TRENDS IN

DANAJON BANK 29Introduction 29Fishery overview 30Fishing gears 31Fishing practices 36Fishery condition 41

On blue crabs (lambay) 44On rabbitfish (danggit) 45

Summary 46

CHAPTER 5RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COASTAL

AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT INDANAJON BANK 47

Key management issues 47Ecosystem-based fisheries management planning and

implementation process 48Management interventions appropriate for Danajon Bank

48Marine protected areas 49Fisheries management 51Zonation 52Enforcement 53Institutionalization of EBFM 53

Monitoring and adaptive management 56Sustaining the process 57Sustainable financing 58Summary 59

BIBLIOGRAPHY 61TABLE OF CONTENTS

IV COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

ACRONYMS &ABBREVIATIONS

BAFOR Bisayas Alliance of Fisherfolks andOperators for Reform

BEMO Bohol Environmental ManagementOffice

BLA baseline assessmentCBRM Community-based Resource

Management ProjectCBRMP Community-based Resource

Management ProjectCeLeBoSoLe Cebu, Leyte, Bohol and Southern

Council Leyte Management CouncilCLEC Coastal Law Enforcement CouncilCRM coastal resource managementCRMP Coastal Resource Management ProjectCVRP-Phase I Central Visayas Regional Project-IDA-BFAR Department of Agriculture – Bureau of

Fisheries and Aquatic ResourcesDENR Department of Environment and

Natural ResourcesEBFM Ecosystem-based fisheries

managementFARMC Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Management CouncilsFISH Fisheries Improved for Sustainable

HarvestGT gross tonICM integrated coastal managementKAMADA Kahugpongan sa Mananagat sa Danajon,

Inc.LGU local government unitMAC Marine Aquarium CouncilMFARMC Municipal Fisheries and Aquatic

Resources Management Councils

MPA marine protected areaNGO nongovernment organizationNIPAS National Integrated Protected Area

SystemNRDB Natural resources databaseNSO National Statistics OfficePAMB Protected Area Management BoardsPCRA participatory coastal resource

assessmentPFC Philippine Fisheries CodePHO Provincial Health OfficePhP Philippine pesoPO people’s organization

V

TABLES & FIGURES

TABLES1 Core marine fisheries problems and underlying

factors. 22 Municipalities with jurisdiction over the Danajon

Bank and their shoreline. 103 Number of fishers and boats in Danajon Bank

municipalities and the rest of the coastalmunicipalities of Bohol province. 30

4 Inventory of fishing gears in Danajon focal area,by municipality. 32

5 Ten most important issues raised by municipalfishers in the various fishing grounds of Boholprovince. 41

6 Top 10 species/groups caught during trawl survey.42

7 Top 10 species caught during the bottom-setlongline survey in Danajon Bank. 42

8 Summary of CPUE from catch and effortmonitoring in Danajon Bank compared to otherFISH Project areas and other similar fishinggrounds. 43

9 Top 20 species by weight in the aggregate catch ofall municipal fishing gears monitored in DanajonBank focal area from May to July 2004. 43

10 Marine sanctuaries established under MunicipalOrdinances within the FISH Project targetmunicipalities of the Danajon Bank. 50

11 Challenges and potential solutions for EBFM inDanajon Bank. 59

FIGURES1 FISH target sites and administrative centers. 32 Target area planning and implementation process

for FISH EBFM process. 53 Project support framework for profiles. 64 Danajon Bank double barrier reef, northern Bohol.

95 Map showing target areas of the FISH Project on

the Danajon Bank. 106 Destructive and illegal fishing around Bohol. 117 Population and population density per

municipality. 158 Dense population levels on Calituban Island. 169 Seaweed culturing on Danajon Bank. 1710 Aquaculture on northern coast of Bohol. 1711 Status of CRM best practices: delineation of

municipal waters, presence of coastal andfisheries-related legislation, and presence of amultistakeholder management council. 18

12 Status of CRM best practices: implementation ofPCRA, presence of five-year CRM plan and CRMcertification. 19

13 Status of CRM best practices: presence of a CRMshowcase, CRM budget and some form ofmangrove management. 20

14 Presence of relevant institutions inmunicipalities. 21

15 Status of live hard coral cover in Danajon Bankcoral reefs in 2004. 24

16 Benthic conditions on 28 nearshore reef fishinggrounds. 25

17 Mean reef fish densities (all fish) for reserves orproposed reserves. 25

TABLES & FIGURES

VI COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

BOXES1 Immediate inter-LGU fisheries management

interventions for Danajon Bank. 482 Coastal law enforcement in Bohol. 533 Aquarium fish collection and the Marine

Aquarium Council. 56

18 Mean target fish densities for reserves or proposedreserves. 26

19 Total reef fish biomass for reserves and proposedreserves. 26

20 Mangrove and fishpond areas in northern Bohol.27

21 Number and density of fishers per municipality innorthern Bohol. 31

22 Density and numbers of fishing gears permunicipality in northern Bohol. 37

23 Gillnet distribution, density and contributions tolandings. 38

24 Hook and line distribution, density andcontributions to landings. 39

25 Spear distribution, density and contributions tolandings. 40

26 Comparison of size composition of Stolephorusindicus (bolinao) caught by various fishing gears inDanajon Bank in 2003. 44

27 Comparison of size composition of Rastrelligerbrachysoma (hasa-hasa) caught by various fishinggears in Danajon Bank in 2003. 44

28 Indicative sizes of rabbitfish (numbers per kg)caught by various fishing gears in DanajonBank. 45

29 Each municipality needs a zoning plan. 52

VII

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This profile has been developed with the inputs of many individuals and organizations concerned with coastalresource and fisheries management in Bohol and other parts of the Philippines. Those who have made importantcontributions to this profile in addition to the authors include:

Amado Blanco, Director, Project Seahorse Foundation, Inc., Cebu CityHilconida Calumpong, Ph.D., Silliman University Marine Laboratory, Dumaguete CityEvelyn T. Deguit, Training Coordinator, FISH Project, Cebu CityWilliam P. Jatulan, Deputy Chief of Party, Field Operations, FISH Project, Cebu CityKarlyn Langjhar, Graduate Student, University of Washington, SeattleCesar Luna, Coastal Resource Management Specialist, FISH Project, ManilaRebecca P. Smith, Information, Education and Communication Advisor, FISH Project, Cebu City

Finally, this profile is produced by the FISH Project with support from USAID to the Philippines. The bookdesign and layout have been accomplished by Leslie S. Tinapay and copy editing, by Marie Sol M. Sadorra, both of theFISH Project.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

VIII COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

FOREWORD

Boholanos depend on natural resources for most of their livelihood, either directly or indirectly. And, beingan island surrounded by diverse coral reefs, mangroves and rich tropical seas, majority of our coastal dwellers arefishers or are employed in marketing of coastal resources for consumption or for viewing and enjoying these resourcesthrough tourism. No matter whether a person is a fisher, a boat operator, a vendor, a tourism guide or owner, a scubadiver or in any related occupation, all depend on these healthy and productive coastal ecosystems. If our coral reefs andmangroves die or our fish disappear or our waters become unduly polluted, all of these persons will ultimatelybecome unemployed. And, the Bohol economy in general will decline and the vicious cycle of poverty will worsen.

Our fisheries, an essential marine resource, supported by coastal waters and healthy ecocystems, not onlyprovide income for many people but also a good portion of our diet. Fish as food is still one of the cheapest sources ofgood protein and at least in part, defines our island culture. But, fisheries are declining rapidly in Bohol. The fish caughtin northern Bohol in the vicinity of the Danajon Bank are drastically smaller and of lower quality than they were 15 - 20years ago. The trends are ominous and must be reversed if we are to survive on this island in a healthy state.

The Danajon Bank is a rich and rare coral reef and marine resource that supports many uses and valuableresources. All efforts to reverse its decline and nurse it back to health are laudable and essential. This profile is a firstimportant step to develop viable management actions for the environment of the Danajon area of northern Bohol andits associated fisheries. The process is underway and moving to improved fisheries management. Let’s provide all thesupport we can to this effort. Let’s read and make use of this profile to guide us in the planning and implementationprocess.

Erico B. AumentadoGovernor, Province of Bohol

IX

PREFACE

PREFACE

This Coastal Environmental and Fisheries Profile of Danajon Bank, Bohol, Philippines is an essential andmajor step in the process of developing and implementing fisheries and coastal resource management plans for thenorthern Bohol area. The activities leading to this profile that started with the beginning of the Fisheries Improved forSustainable Harvest (FISH) Project in 2003 include:

! setting up an office in Bohol and initiating agreements with all the participating municipalities, theprovince and other stakeholders;

! conducting baseline assessments of the habitats and fisheries in the core areas of the Danajon Bank as ameans for measuring change during the project;

! determining “early fisheries management actions” based on the initial baseline studies and other sourcesof information locally;

! beginning implementation of these “early actions” toward improved fisheries and habitat management inthe area (e.g., improved law enforcement, improved and more marine protected areas, etc.); and

! compiling baseline information from many sources to develop a comprehensive environmental andfisheries profile (this document).

With this profile in place, the courses of action in order to move forward are to:

! continue to implement “early actions” while formulating medium and long-term actions and plans; and! develop an “Ecosystem-based Fisheries Management (EBFM) Plan” that builds on the baseline

information, profile information and analysis, and that is informed from the experience of incrementallyplanning and implementing ever improved “early actions” that test the viability of implementation in thefield.

An important theme of the FISH Project is to utilize an EBFM approach. The thrust of EBFM is to maintain theintegrity of the underlying ecosystems that support fisheries in the Danajon Bank. It is realized that if coral reefs aredestroyed, their associated fisheries die. And, if fish in general are not allowed to mature to reproductive age, fisherieswill collapse. It is also known that fish, fisheries and all marine resources, are finite in extent, meaning that they canonly support a predictable level of extraction, beyond which they will decline and ultimately disappear.

Thus, to plan for improved fisheries and coastal resource management in Danajon Bank and vicinity, we must

X COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

take into account the physical and human elements that affect the larger ecosystem. We must fully understand all thenatural and human forces in the area and we have to strive to meet or balance diverse societal objectives in the process.This is a tall order but is what needs to happen!

The bottom line is that to improve fisheries productivity and environmental quality in the Danajon Bank,many things need to change. The parameters that govern fisheries and coral reef ecosystems are known and havelimits. If we want to keep them viable for years to come for the benefit of all stakeholders, the given limits need to beunderstood and of course followed. An EBFM plan will provide the road map to do this and this profile is an essentialstep.

The Authors

CHAPTER 1OVERVIEW OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED

FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

IN DANAJON BANK“It is no longer a provocative statement to argue that

human activities impact ecosystem dynamics at all scales, andacross scales; that there are no pristine areas free from humaninfluence or social systems independent of nature’s subsidies. Weare currently living in the Anthropocene era where most aspects ofthe functioning of the Earth system cannot be understood withoutaccounting for the strong influence of humanity. A major challengein this era of extensive transformations is to actively strengthenand enhance the capacity of the biosphere, from local to globallevels, to support and sustain social and economic development”(Folke 2003).

INTRODUCTIONAs captured in the above quote, marine ecosystems are generally in a

state of decline globally and most especially in tropical, impoverished contexts.Overfishing is depleting important predatory organisms (sharks, groupers, tuna)and habitat degradation is reducing the ability of fish stocks to replenishthemselves.

The situation is reaching crisis proportions for Philippine coastalcommunities that depend on these resources for protein and economic growth. Avariety of causes have been identified including: poverty, overconsumption,ignorance, poor land management, destructive fishing and overfishing. Fisheriescatch-per-unit-effort is declining in most places (Barut et al. 2004; DA-BFAR 2004).Coral reefs, mangroves and water quality are being degraded in many locations(Aliño et al. 2004; White and De Leon 2004). Systemic conditions underlie theseenvironmental trends and limit the options available to policymakers. Forexample, the rising national Gini Index for the Philippines, 46.6 (2003) (IndexMundi CIA World Factbook 2003), now at 48 out of 100 and among the highest inthe world, indicates that wealth is becoming increasingly concentrated in fewer

2 COASTAL ENVIRONMENTAL & FISHERIES PROFILE OF DANAJON BANK, BOHOL, PHILIPPINES

hands. Poverty, now directly affects about 40% of theFilipino populace and is still worsening. Naturalresources are extracted at ever increasing rates aspopulations grow (at approximately 86 million peopleand increasing at 2.2% annually) and pressures mount toexport commodities to service external debt (US$58billion or 3.8 times the annual national budget) (CIA2005).

Table 1 displays some of the key fisheriesproblems affecting marine fisheries in the Philippinesand underlying factors. The issues are complex andinterrelated requiring holistic policy responses. Whilethe problems are numerous, the Philippines is knownglobally for innovative responses. Community-basedcoastal resources management (CBCRM), community-based marine protected areas and integrated coastalmanagement (ICM) have been experimented with for

TABLE 1. CORE MARINE FISHERIES PROBLEMS AND UNDERLYING FACTORS.

decades and are being adopted on a fairly wide scale.There have been significant advances in improving themanagement of coastal and nearshore areas, withimprovement in enforcement to stop illegal anddamaging practices in many places.

WHY A FISHERIES ECOSYSTEM PROFILE

FOR DANAJON BANK?Each resource management effort should be

guided by an organizing framework. The so-called “top-down” framework, which is primarily led bygovernment agencies, and “bottom-up” framework,which is frequently led by nongovernment agencies andresource users, have been the two most influentialframeworks in the Philippines. Recently, scientists andpolicymakers have begun to advocate for the adoptionof an “ecosystem-based management” framework. This

Core fisheries problems Contributing factorsDeclining fish stocksLoss of marine biodiversityLoss of revenues and benefits

from fisheries and coastalresources

OverfishingIllegal and destructive fishingCoastal habitat degradationSiltation and pollutionPost-harvest lossesInefficient marketing

Systemic underlyingconditions

Contributing factors

Inequitable distribution of benefitsfrom fisheries and coastalresource uses

Open access to marine resourcesInter- and intra-sectoral conflictsLow awareness and participation in managementLack of employment/poverty among artisanal fishers

Rapid population growth Low awareness of the implications of overpopulation to food securityLack of delivery mechanisms for reproductive health programs in rural coastal communities

Inconsistent policies and programsfor sustainable fisheries

Continued investments in production-oriented programsConflicting and fragmented national policies

Core fisheries problems Contributing factors

Weak institutional and stakeholdercapacity to plan and implementfisheries management

Absence of incentives and vision for institutional change to support sustainable fisheriesInadequate technical and financial support to LGU fisheries management intiativesWeak and inadequate law enforcementInadequate interagency coordination mechanisms for fisheries and CRM

Lack of a constituency for sustainablefisheries

Low awareness and understanding of implications of overfishing on food security and economicdevelopment

Polarization of stakeholders over means to achieve sustainable fishing

3OVERVIEW OF ECOSYSTEM-BASED FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN DANAJON BANK

framework suggests that resourcemanagement decisions are based on aconsideration of ecosystem limits,ecological linkages and linkagesbetween humans and theirenvironment.

The Fisheries Improved forSustainable Harvest (FISH) Project is afive-year effort focused onstrengthening the capability of localand national institutions to managecoastal resources and marine fishstocks. FISH has adopted anecosystem-based fisheriesmanagement (EBFM) framework thatis defined in the following manner:

EBFM considersgeographically specifiedfisheries management thattakes account of knowledgeand uncertainties about, andamong, biotic, abiotic andhuman components ofecosystems, and strives tobalance diverse societalobjectives. Such an approachwill address human activitiesand environmental factorsthat affect an ecosystem, theresponse of the ecosystem,and the outcomes in terms ofbenefits and impacts onhumans. A distinguishing feature of anecosystem approach is an emphasis onprotecting the productive potential of thesystem that produces resource flows. For anecosystem that is already degraded, the goalbecomes one of rebuilding or restoring theecosystem (Christie et al., unpublished).

The FISH project is initially focusing on fourimportant target areas in the Philippines (Figure 1).Danajon Bank is an area of international significance dueto its double barrier coral reef formation. And above all,it is locally very important because of its high degree of

marine biodiversity, and high dependence of coastalcommunities on its marine resources.

In the case of FISH, the EBFM principles defineproject site boundaries and guide planning andinstitutionalization initiatives in the following specificmanner:

1. The project areas are informed by ecologicalcriteria (fisheries boundaries that representecosystem function) rather than by politicalboundaries.

2. The project is working with clusters ofmunicipal governments that comprise thefisheries ecosystem of concern.

FIGURE 1. FISH TARGET SITES AND ADMINISTRATIVE CENTERS.


3. The planning effort is intended to encourageeach municipal government to look beyondtheir boundaries for planning purposes and toset the stage for an ecosystem-based plan asopposed to only a municipal government plan.FISH will still be supporting CRM plans in eachmunicipal government as a stepping stonetoward an EBFM approach.

4. Early actions for coastal and fisheriesmanagement will be strategically based on theresults of baseline assessments that showopportunities to improve fisheries from anecosystem perspective. These early actions areborne out of the need to start managementquickly to catalyze long-term planningprocesses and engender stakeholdercommitment.

The most compelling reason to adopt EBFM as aguiding management framework is that fisheries areembedded with large social and ecological systems thatmust be managed holistically. The marine and coastalhabitats, living resources and coastal communities arelinked ecologically, economically and socially. Forexample, many fish naturally move across institutionaland political boundaries. The most valuable fishfrequently rely on prey fish and other organisms forfood. Most fish require a variety of habitats to reproduceand grow. Water quality, which is affected by land usepatterns, directly impacts the health of coral reef,mangrove and seagrass areas. If habitats continue to bedegraded and fishing pressure remains high, fish stocksare bound to collapse. The negative implications forcoastal communities and economies can be serious andlong-lasting.

While the problems may seem insurmountable,there are many successful initiatives to build on in thePhilippines. The EBFM approach of the FISH Projectbuilds step by step, and complements existingmanagement systems that are already proven andfunctioning in the Philippines. It utilizes the existinglegal and institutional framework while encouragingprogress toward ecosystem-wide management. Itassumes that functioning ICM or CRM units at thecommunity, municipal/city and provincial levels that

consider fisheries management are the foundation ofeffective EBFM. EBFM tools include the fundamentals ofsound coastal planning as well as more focused toolssuch as marine protected areas, limitations on fishingeffort and gear, and fisheries law enforcement, amongothers.

A primary output of the FISH Project in each ofthe four target areas is an ecosystem-based coastal andfisheries management plan. A prerequisite to thedevelopment of this plan is the compilation ofinformation to collectively comprise a coastal andfisheries management profile that provides adequatedata and basis from which the plan can be formulated. Inaddition, the process leading to the management plan isimportant so that the local stakeholders are engaged andtake full ownership of the plan as it evolves (Figure 2).

Several key steps and strategies in thedevelopment of the profile and management plan are asfollows:

1. Compile all existing relevant information onthe target area for planning.

2. Conduct scientific baseline studies on fisheriesand coastal habitats to monitor change and toprovide rigorous data input to resourcemanagement.

3. Conduct participatory coastal resourceassessments (PCRAs) in selected coastalcommunities to build an information base andto engage local stakeholders (Deguit et al. 2004).

4. Conduct stakeholder planning workshops thatutilize all relevant local information formanagement plans of coastal municipalities thatis consistent with and evolves into theecosystem-based management plan for thetarget area of concern.

5. Analyze and publish the body of available,relevant information as the basis for amanagement framework for coastal andfisheries resources.

6. Implement action plans as appropriate with abroad constituency.

The final chapter of this profile provides somesuggestions for management plan field interventions.


A project support framework to develop thecoastal ecosystem profiles for the target area relies onsubstantial data from PCRAs and scientific baselineassessments (BLA) with outputs stored in severalspatially explicit databases (Figure 3). This will beutilized in the ecosystem profile development.

The FISH Project plans to implement variousstrategies to improve the management of fisheries inproject sites. Below is a partial list of these strategies:

1. conducting strategic planning based on baselineand ongoing assessments and profiles;

2. conducting participatory monitoring andevaluation to inform planning andimplementation;

3. educating stakeholders through participatoryplanning and engagement in the managementprocess as well as other learning activities;

4. implementing marine protected area networksdesigned to protect and rehabilitate coralreef and other coastal habitats, support fishstocks through spillover of adults and larval

dispersal, and provide social and economicbenefits;

5. limiting access to fishery resources throughregistration, licensing, zoning, gear restrictionsand other options as appropriate for agiven area; and

6. strengthening coastal and fisheries lawenforcement.

PAST COASTAL AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

EFFORTS IN BOHOLBohol’s important fisheries and marine

biodiversity resources are in a state of rapid decline—alooming crisis for coastal communities that depend onthese resources for their livelihoods and food. All of thekey problems cited in Table 1 are found in Bohol. In theDanajon Bank area, local fishers are particularlyconcerned with the rampant use of illegal fishingmethods, the inconsistent implementation of fisherieslaws, and the competition between commercial andmunicipal fishers for dwindling resources.

FIGURE 2. TARGET AREA PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS FOR FISH EBFM PROCESS.


Fisheries management in the Philippines hashistorically been informed by government policies thatencourage increased fishing effort and modernization.Only recently, through the Fisheries Code of 1998, hassustainable fisheries management emerged as anorganizing principle. In addition, other national lawsand policies support sustainable use and management ofcoastal resources. But the practical field implementationis only beginning and basic controls on fishing effort,capture of juveniles, capture of endangered species anduse of destructive fishing methods are lacking in mostplaces.

Important components of EBFM are not new tothe Philippines and Bohol. As early as 1986, the CentralVisayas Regional Project-I utilized ecosystem-basedmanagement in its implementation by focusinginterventions in uplands (reforestation) and nearshore(fisheries). However, since this was a pilot project incommunity-based management, the major activitieswere on community organization, capability-buildingand mobilization, and improving productivity of uplandand nearshore areas by introducing interventions such asreforestation, artificial reefs and fish aggregatingdevices.

The Coastal Resource Management Project(CRMP) was active in this area from 1996 to 2004 (CRMP2004). This project worked primarily through localgovernment units (LGUs) to implement ICM, a planningprocess focused on improving the management ofnearshore coastal habitats and resources. In northernBohol, the main accomplishments of CRMP were theinstitutionalization of CRM best practices in most of theLGUs. LGUs developed and adopted CRM plans,Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Councils(FARMCs) and one or more best practices includingmarine protected areas, among others.

Currently, the Project Seahorse Foundation forMarine Conservation, the Marine Aquarium Council andthe Community-based Resource Management (CBRM)Project are active in northern Bohol. The Project SeahorseFoundation has a long standing collaboration withseahorse gatherers and coastal communities and hasbeen active primarily in monitoring reef systems,establishment of marine protected areas, development ofan advocacy network of fishers, and implementation ofnational and international policies. The MAC is focusedon educating coastal communities about the negativeeffects of cyanide fishing and developing market

FIGURE 3. PROJECT SUPPORT FRAMEWORK FOR PROFILES.


systems that bring net-caught aquarium fish to foreignmarkets for a premium price. The CBRM Project isworking with selected LGUs to implement a variety ofhabitat restoration projects for improved CRM.

Overall, the FISH Project, along with variousother projects and institutions, is working towardestablishing EBFM in the Philippines. It will necessarilybuild from the valuable experiences in coastal andfisheries management in the past. This fisheriesecosystem profile is an initial step to describing thestate of coastal communities and fishery resources forDanajon Bank, while identifying policy responses toaddress declining fishery resources. The problems areprofound, but much can be accomplished withdedication and commitment!

CHAPTER 2SOCIOECONOMIC AND

INSTITUTIONAL CONDITIONS

IN DANAJON BANKThe Danajon Bank or Double Barrier Reef, located off northern Bohol

Island, is the only double barrier reef in the Philippines and is 1 of only 3 suchsites in the Indo-Pacific (Pichon 1977). The reef is spread across almost 130 km andconsists of 3 large reefs. Caubiyan is the largest covering about 143 km2. There are5 smaller reefs in the northern outer region and 1 other large reef, Calitubas, inthe inner region. The overall area of the Danajon Bank is 272 km2 with anaggregate coastline of 699 km including 40 islands (Figure 4) (Fish Project, GISdata). The Danajon Bank makes up over 1% of the total area of coral reef of thePhilippines (estimated at 27,000 km2).

FIGURE 4. DANAJON BANK DOUBLE BARRIER REEF, NORTHERN BOHOL.


Sixteen municipalities and 1 cityinclude the Danajon Bank within their area ofjurisdiction, within 4 provinces and 2administatrive regions. In Region 7, 10municipalities belong to Bohol and 2 to Cebu.In Region 8, 4 belongs to Leyte and 1 city toSouthern Leyte. The shoreline of all 16municipalities and 1 city covers 699 km (Table2). Ten National Integrated Protected AreaSystem (NIPAS) sites occur within theseboundaries and include 7 strict nature reservesand 3 protected seascapes (Green et al. 2002). Todate, 60 community and municipal-basedmarine protected areas (MPAs) have beenestablished within the area in various stages ofprotection and management (CCEF 2004). TheFISH Project activities focus on 4 Boholmunicipalities with jurisdiction on the DanajonBank (Figure 5).

THREATS TO COASTAL RESOURCESDanajon Bank area has been subjected to

extremely high fishing pressure, largely throughunsustainable and destructive, not to mention illegal,fishing methods (Figure 6). The use of cyanide andcompressors is widespread. In a 1995 survey of northernBohol, it was determined that dynamite fishing was thepreferred method in the area because it yielded thehighest average catch of 17.5 kg per person-hour (ADB et

FIGURE 5. MAP SHOWING TARGET AREAS OF THE FISH PROJECT ON THE DANAJON BANK.

al. 2003). Since that time, such catches, even with use ofdynamite, have dwindled because few fish remain in thearea. Collection of fish for the aquarium trade has takenits toll through the use of cyanide, resulting in furtherreef degradation. Fisheries outside of the shallow reefareas are also heavily exploited by a combination ofsmall-scale locally based fishers and commercial fishingboats that fish illegally inside the 15 km municipalboundary.

TABLE 2. MUNICIPALITIES WITH JURISDICTION OVER THE DANAJON BANK

AND THEIR SHORELINE.

Province MunicipalityBohol

Cebu

Leyte

Southern LeyteTotal

TubigonClarinInabangaBuenavistaGetafeBien Unido*TrinidadUbay*Pres. Carlos P. Garcia*Talibon*Lapu-lapu CityCordovaMatalomBatoHilongosHindangMaasin City

Shoreline (km)2829623277458

617686

11221144

127

25699

*Municipalities that are focal areas of the FISH Project.

11S

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IC AN

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AL C

ON

DITIO

NS IN D

AN

AJO

N BA

NK

FIGURE 6. DESTRUCTIVE AND ILLEGAL FISHING AROUND BOHOL (GREEN ET AL. 2002).


In addition to fishing-related disturbances, theoverall reef condition is also degraded due to sedimentaccumulation, causing smothering and prohibiting coralregrowth. The coastal areas adjacent to the Danajon Bankhave high-density settlements, such as in Tubigon (539persons/km2 compared to the average density for theProvince of Bohol of 282 persons/km2) (ADB et al. 2003).The high population density within these communitiesleads to conversion of more land for settlement,agriculture and landfills for waste disposal. This all addsto the pollution load in the Danajon area. Mangroves arealso being removed and the area converted to other uses,thus contributing to increased runoff from terrestrialareas. The loss of mangroves also reduces criticalnursery habitat and shoreline resilience to erosion andstorms.

The final threat to the area is the poverty innorthern Bohol and surrounding provinces. Over 60percent of the coastal inhabitants of northwestern Bohollive below the poverty line of PhP6,000 per month(Green et al. 2002). This low income drives fishers tocatch smaller fish and use more efficient but destructivemethods. Such poverty significantly lowers the capacityof people to change their behavior and switch toalternative, sustainable livelihoods.

SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT

OF DANAJON BANKNorthern Bohol is an area rich in coastal

resources. Historic and contemporary humaninteractions with these resources are complex. Acomprehensive understanding of these interactions is thelogical first step toward improving coastal and fisheriesmanagement.

The overall socioeconomic conditions innorthern Bohol are not well documented. What littleinformation exists has been collected by various entitiesand is dispersed. This section will provide an overviewof what is known. When possible, information isprovided at the level of the FISH focal area. Chapter 5suggests what socioeconomic and governanceinformation is needed for the development of acomprehensive coastal and fisheries management planfor the area.

BASIC STATISTICSThe FISH Project is focusing its efforts in the

municipalities of Talibon, Bien Unido, Ubay and Pres.Carlos P. Garcia. Each of these municipalities has aunique and colorful history in which the sea and coastalareas frequently play central roles (www.bohol.ph).

" Talibon is 17,704 ha in area with 54,147inhabitants in 2000 in 25 barangays. The namemay have been derived from the term talibong—a spear used to look for gold. The municipalitywas the site of a guerrilla resistance to theoccupying Japanese in World War II led by Pres.Carlos P. Garcia. Various rivers bisect themunicipality and provide access to the interior.

" Ubay is 20,755 ha in area with 59,827 inhabitantsin 2000 in 44 barangays. The name Ubay islikely derived from the term ubay-ubay whichmeans alongside. Traders are reported to havetraveled on a trail alongside (ubay) the beach toavoid strong currents in the area.

" Bien Unido is a relatively small municipality of4,482 ha with 22,176 inhabitants in 2000 in 15barangays. The name of this municipalitysignifies the unification of two sitios, originallypart of the municipality of Trinidad, which by1981 became a separate municipality.

" Pres. Carlos P. Garcia consists of 6,528 ha with20,744 inhabitants in 2000 in 23 barangays. Thisisland municipality, consisting of 7 islands, wasoriginally named Lapinig Grande. By 1997, thisname was changed to honor the formerPhilippine President from Bohol.

A brief review of income levels and health andeducation systems suggests that the socioeconomicconditions in these four municipalities are belownational standards, despite the considerable coastalnatural resource base. Downward socioeconomic trendsare exacerbated by worsening environmental conditions.

INCOMES WITHIN NORTHERN BOHOL

FISHING COMMUNITIESBohol is one of the poorest provinces in the

country based on overall selected poverty indicators.According to the latest NSO annual poverty indicator

13SOCIOECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL CONDITIONS IN DANAJON BANK

survey, approximately 47% of Bohol families are underthe Philippine government’s poverty threshold levels.The incidence of individuals living in poverty hasincreased by 10.5% since 1997 in Bohol. The averagemonthly family income is only approximately PhP4,745,or less than US$100 per month. Approximately 51% of afamily’s income was spent on food while less than 1%was spent on medical care.

Fishing communities are among the poorestand most marginalized in the Philippines.Approximately 8,854 fishers are found in the four FISHfocal municipalities. In 1997, the average monthlyincome from fishing was approximately PhP1,830 permonth or US$69 (at 1997 exchange rates). While preciseestimates are difficult to make, over 60% of the coastalinhabitants lived below the poverty line of PhP6,000 permonth for a family of 5-6 members in 1997 (Green et al.2000). Considering dwindling resources, it is almostcertain that fishery-based incomes have declined.

Livelihoods vary considerably between thedifferent groups of fishers. Lantern fishing communitiesare among the poorest of the poor. To quote a recentreport by Project Seahorse Foundation,

The average annual gross income for sea-based and land-based economic activities wasfound to be PhP55,616. Fishing trips by fishersyielded on the average, PhP120/trip. Thesefigures were below the average familyincome for Bohol, at PhP77,291 for 2000, andRegion VII, at PhP94,676 for 2000 (NSO 2000).This is also below the national average ofPhP88,782 for 2000 (NSO 2000) (Barbon2005a&b).

These incomes are likely augmented by remittancesfrom family members working abroad or elsewhere inthe Philippines. The impact of such income sources isunknown.

The high incidence of poverty limits optionsavailable to FISH, government officials and resourceusers and suggests that the stakes are high. Ifenvironmental degradation continues, the poorest andmost dependent sectors will suffer the most.

HEALTHThe Rural Health Unit and its Barangay Health

Stations are the most important institutions for medicalcare delivery for most rural inhabitants. There is aserious, and growing, lack of personnel servicingnorthern Bohol municipalities (PATH-Philippines 2004).While life expectancy is on the rise—a factor that haslikely contributed to growing rates of coastal resourceextraction—basic health services (including reproductivehealth services) are lacking. The provincial developmentplan dedicates considerable attention to these matters:

In 2002, Bohol’s health resources included 33hospitals and clinics spread all over theprovince providing secondary and tertiary levelhealth services to the public with a total bedcapacity of 1,143 or 1 hospital bed per 1thousand population. This is below the standardof 1 bed per 500 people... Out of 1,109 barangaysin the province, only 29% of these barangays in2002 have Barangay Health Stations whereprimary health care can be accessed in the ruralcommunities of the Province. This could explainthe fact that the majority (75%) of childdeliveries in Bohol in 2002 were done in thehome rather than in hospitals or other healthcenters with only 55% of deliveries in that yearattended by midwives…

In Bohol, malnutrition still exists. OperationTimbang results showed that about 30% ofpreschool children (under 5) weighed werefound to be malnourished at varying degrees in2002. Among school children in public schools,41.65% of the total public elementary schoolpopulation enrolled at the start of the SchoolYear were found to be malnourished. About 6%of babies born in Bohol 2002 weighted less than2,500 grams…

Infant death rates were highest in themunicipalities of Pres. C.P. Garcia (42.11 per1,000 newborns), Buenavista (33.10), Valencia(31.50), Dagohoy (26.91) and Talibon at 23.47 per1,000 live births…


According to the Provincial Health Office, only61% of families in the province in 2002 hadaccess to safe drinking water while about 18%of the households in Bohol still have nosanitary toilets (PHO 2002)…

POPULATION GROWTHWith the Philippine population of

approximately 86 million people projected to double in28 years, infrastructure, services and environmentalconditions will be stretched to the limits. Family sizecan be thought of as a reproductive health issue.Research in the Philippines demonstrates that manywomen want access to reproductive health services,based on desires for improved personal health andconcern for the health and well-being of their children.

Region VII is one of the fastest growing regionsin the Philippines. Five out of the 16administrative regions have growth rateshigher than the national figure. Two of theseare in Luzon (Central Luzon - Region III - 3.20% and Southern Tagalog - Region IV - 3.72 %),one in the Visayas (Central Visayas - RegionVII - 2.79 %), and two in Mindanao… (NSO2000).

Since 1990, the coastal population in Region VII hasincreased 24.7% and Bohol’s population has grown by19.5% (NSO 2001).

Expert organizations have expressed concernregarding the recent rapid growth in Bohol’s population.

The population of Bohol grew at an averageannual growth rate of 2.95 percent during theintercensal period 1995-2000. This was thehighest population growth rate ever recorded inBohol since 1903 and a ballooning 2.06percentage point difference from that of 1990-1995 period. If this growth rate continues, thepopulation of Bohol is expected to double inabout 23 years... The number of householdslikewise rose from 191,657 households in 1995to 213,215 households in 2000. The averagehousehold size recorded was 5.34 persons,higher than the figure five years ago (5.18

persons) and the national average of fivepersons. (PATH-Philippines 2004)

The Bohol population is very young, with half of thepopulation at younger than 22 years of age.

Population densities in the Danajon Bank areavaries, as likely associated with economic opportunities,land tenure and historic patterns (Figure 7). The growthrate in northern Bohol is likely significantly lower thanother areas within Region VII (Green et al. 2000), partlydue to limited economic opportunities. However, thepopulation densities on outlying islands on DanajonBank are extraordinarily high, and suggest a high levelof dependence on coastal resources (Figure 8).

EDUCATIONEffectively defining and establishing a

sustainable relationship between human needs andenvironmental quality is based upon the participation ofa well-informed public in policymaking. There is agrowing awareness in the Philippines of the decliningstatus of coastal resources and the need for improvedmanagement. Formal and nonformal educationinitiatives, highlighting key coastal issues and solutions,are central activities within the FISH Project. While thereare encouraging trends, the overall educationalinfrastructure in Bohol is in a chronic state of need, andconsiderable financial barriers frequently preventchildren from attending school. To quote the ProvincialDevelopment Plan:

…more than half or 52% in Bohol had attended/finished elementary education; one–fourth(24%) high school and only 13% with collegeeducation. Females dominated the higher levelsof education with 13% of the total householdpopulation aged 5 years and over. For the year2004, more than 40 thousand students areexpected to enroll in all levels of education inBohol. Almost half of these are in theelementary level…

The lantern fishers of Bohol that collectseahorses and other marine animals on Danajon Bankare among the poorest in the Philippines. Their access to


FIGURE 7. POPULATION AND POPULATION DENSITY PER MUNICIPALITY (GREEN ET AL. 2004).


formal education is even more limited according toProject Seahorse research (Barbon 2005b).

Formal education among lantern fishers wasfound to be very low, with the majority nothaving finished elementary school (81%).Twelve percent had finished elementaryschool, and the remaining 7% had achieved ahigher level of formal education. Their wiveson the other hand fared better in terms ofeducation. Only 61% of them were not able tofinish elementary education compared to the81% of their husbands and 19% were also ableto finish high school, 11% higher than for thelantern fishers.

Despite these limitations, literacy remainshigh in Bohol according to Department of Educationstatistics at somewhere between 82 and 98% of thepopulation—a condition that broadens the suite ofavailable tools for education campaigns to engage thepublic.

COASTAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITIESCurrently Bohol is heavily dependent on

agriculture and fishing with approximately one-third ofthe working population engaged in these livelihoods(Green et al. 2000). In the northwest Bohol coast,approximately 50% of the population is engaged in

FIGURE 8. DENSE POPULATION LEVELS ON CALITUBAN ISLAND.

fishing, and only 5% of coastalinhabitants own agricultural land(Calumpong et al. 1997).Underemployment andunemployment are serious, but notat crisis levels. For example,approximately 80% of the labor force(between 15-64 years old) isemployed and 19.4% unemployed inUbay (PATH-Philippines 2004).

With a rapidly growingpopulation and limited marineresources, economic diversificationis a key dimension for sustainabledevelopment. Sustainable coastaltourism is one such diversifyingopportunity. Northern Bohol is

blessed with a wealth of tourist destinations that remainlargely untapped. To quote the Lonely Planet tourismguidebook, an essential reference for most foreigntravelers:

Ubay…has a lively market on the sea, just nearthe wharf selling everything from woven goodsto ice cream…Way off most travelers’ maps,Ubay offers masses of uncharted tourismterritory around nearby Pres. Garcia Island. Noofficial accommodation exists on the island atthis stage, but it is a great place to meanderthrough the mangroves, and organizinghomestays through the village captain ispossible once on the island. (Rowthorn et al.2003)

The double barrier reef represents a potentialglobal attraction for divers and ecotourists, potentiallyproviding numerous jobs and stable tax revenue, butonly if its ecological condition is significantly improved.

While the tourism potential is considerable, thedefinition and implementation of critical components ofa Bohol sustainable tourism plan remain incomplete:

…The province clearly lacks a concertedprogram in arts and culture…that will sustainBohol’s status as an Eco-cultural TourismDestination of the country. The ProvincialGovernment has yet to map out a clear agenda


for a sustained eco-culturaldevelopment. While it hasbeen declared that Bohol’sDevelopment Vision as aprime Eco-cultural TourismDestination of the country,there is no mention ofgeneral strategies in thefield of culture… (BoholProvincial Government)

Preparing local residents to activelycapitalize on the tourism traderemains as another task at hand.

In summary, while tourismis one alternative to rampantresource extraction, its developmentwill require careful planning andchanges in how coastal areas arecurrently treated. Clean andunobstructed beaches, healthymangroves and coral reefs, andeducated local tourism brokers arethe assets that will attract and sustaintourism.

Seaweed culture is anotheralternative to resource extraction(Figure 9). Thousands of families onthe outlying islands depend onEucheuma spp. culturing to eithersupplement or provide a main sourceof income. While potentiallyvulnerable to disease andfluctuations in price, seaweed culturing can provideconsiderable income. Water quality must be excellent toculture most seaweeds successfully.

Finally, pond culture of fish and shrimp hasbeen a long-standing source of income for some on thenorth Bohol coast (Figure 10). For example, in themunicipality of Pres. Carlos P. Garcia, approximately405 ha of developed fishponds are maintained andoperated by 52 separate owners (MAO 2004). While animportant part of the economy, the impacts onmangroves can potentially reduce ecosystem servicesfrom this essential habitat.

THE STATE OF COASTAL PLANNING

AND GOVERNANCEThe level of experience with and progress

toward coastal planning and management areinconsistent around the Danajon Bank area—primarilydue to the fact that previous coastal managementprojects did not cover all municipalities. The CoastalResource Management Project and the FISH Project havedeveloped benchmark indicators of progress towardcoastal management. Figures 11-13 indicate that somemunicipalities, especially those in the northwest portionof the Danajon Bank area, are further along in reaching

FIGURE 9. SEAWEED CULTURING ON DANAJON BANK.

FIGURE 10. AQUACULTURE ON NORTHERN COAST OF BOHOL.


these benchmarks.The coordination of various government and

nongovernment entities is a critical step toward effective

FIGURE 11. STATUS OF CRM BEST PRACTICES: DELINEATION OF MUNICIPAL WATERS, PRESENCE OF COASTAL AND FISHERIES-RELATED LEGISLATION, AND PRESENCE OF A MULTISTAKEHOLDER MANAGEMENT COUNCIL (GREEN ET AL. 2004).

coastal management. Figure 14 demonstrates that a widevariety of institutional partners in the area have a role toplay.


FIGURE 12. STATUS OF CRM BEST PRACTICES: IMPLEMENTATION OF PCRA, PRESENCE OF FIVE-YEAR CRM PLAN AND CRMCERTIFICATION (GREEN ET AL. 2004).


FIGURE 13. STATUS OF CRM BEST PRACTICES: PRESENCE OF A CRM SHOWCASE, CRM BUDGET AND SOME FORM OF MANGROVE

MANAGEMENT (GREEN ET AL. 2004).


SUMMARYThe Danajon Bank area is a region with socio-

economic conditions that make fisheries managementdifficult, namely, the large population is generally poorand highly reliant on fishery resources. Coastal andfisheries resource management is relatively new to theFISH Project target municipalities. Nonetheless, theleaders of this area are taking bold steps toward

improving fisheries management. As detailed in the nextchapter, the impetus to take action comes from therealization that coastal habitats can no longer sustain thelevel of exploitation they have been exposed to for thelast few decades. The situation has serious consequencesfor food security, biodiversity conservation andeconomic growth.

FIGURE 14. PRESENCE OF RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS IN MUNICIPALITIES (GREEN ET AL. 2004).

CHAPTER 3STATUS OF COASTAL

AND MARINE ECOSYSTEM

IN DANAJON BANK

This chapter provides an overview of the condition of coastal and marineresources that sustain the human communities of Danajon Bank. This area is ofglobal ecological significance given the high level of marine biodiversity as wellas the unique nature of the Danajon Bank’s double barrier reef.

CENTER OF THE CENTER OF INSHORE FISH BIODIVERSITYCarpenter and Springer (2005) have shown that a peak of marine

biodiversity occurs in the central Philippine Islands. Special attention to marineconservation efforts in the Philippines and especially within the Danajon Bank iswarranted because of its importance as a global epicenter of marine biodiversity.

DANAJON BANK IS A COMPLEX REEF SYSTEM WITH A VARIETY OF HABITATS.


GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCEPichon (1977) describes the Danajon Double

Barrier Reef as follows: It is a unique geologic structurein the Philippines having developed through 6,000 yearsof coral growth. It is a larger and better-definedstructure than other known double barrier reefs in theworld. The outer reef lies 11 km offshore, and iscomposed of several units up to 23 km long each. Theinner barrier is 2 km wide and separated from thelittoral by an inshore channel, 28 m deep at most. Theorigin of the double barrier can be explained by a restartof subsidence after an initial reef building phase and/orby the favorable influence of tidal currents on coralgrowth on a submarine ridge pre-existing in the originallagoon.

The morphological and ecologicalcharacteristics are strongly influenced by localparticulars of the environment. Key influences are: lowenergy conditions (little swell or wave action), tidalcurrents and a high rate of sedimentation. Because thelocation of the Danajon Bank protects it from strongmonsoon winds and heavy oceanic swells, sedimentstend to accumulate inside the reef lagoons.Consequently, light penetration is poor as evidenced bythe narrow depth range of coral growth. Coralcommunities are well developed only on the slopes.Reef flats of both barriers are largely covered bysedimentary deposits. A comparison with the classicalscheme of zonation for Indo-Pacific reefs suggests thatthe double barrier of Bohol represents a degraded stagein the reef evolutionary series (Pichon 1977).The degraded stage in the evolution of the reefcould be partially attributed to the increasedrate of sedimentation over the last severalhundred years of human development onBohol Island.

ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL

SIGNIFICANCE AND STATUSDanajon Bank has a high degree of

diversity in its marine flora and fauna. Thelarge reef structure, relatively protected fromstrong currents and storms, encourages a widevariety of microhabitats to flourish inside andadjacent to the reef lagoons and slopes. The

outer barrier reefs and slopes contain the most prolificcoral growth while the inner reefs and lagoons are moreturbid and contain less coral growth and more sediment.Seagrass beds dominate the inner lagoons andmangroves border many of the inner islands.

While coral diversity in the area is high, actualliving coral cover is low. In 1997, 103 scleractinian and 3nonscleractinian coral species were recorded byCalumpong et al. (1997). In 2004, 211 hard coral species(205 scleractinian in 15 families and 6 non-scleractinianin 4 families) were recorded by the Silliman Universitysurvey team (Calumpong 2004). Nine of the 12 sitessurveyed in six locations on the Danajon Bank in 2004had less than 25% living hard coral cover remainingwhile the other 3 sites exhibited just over 25% livinghard coral cover, generally indicating a reef with lowcoral cover (Figure 15). Coral cover had decreased in2004 from the mean cover of 29.5% measured from fivesites in 1996 (Reboton and Luchavez 2002).

In another recent study of 28 nearshore,artisanal reef fishing grounds, benthic conditions werefound to be in poor condition: 32% rubble, 28% sand orsilt, 9% dead coral and only 12% live coral (Marcus et al.,unpublished) (Figure 16). This study also measured asignificant decrease in benthic heterogeneity and a 16%increase in coral rubble between 2000 and 2003,potentially due to dynamite/blast fishing.

The survey led by Calumpong (2004) alsoassessed mortality, condition and succession indices to

FIGURE 15. STATUS OF LIVE HARD CORAL COVER IN DANAJON BANK CORAL

REEFS IN 2004 (CALUMPONG 2004).

Fair: 25-49% live hard coral coverPoor: 0-25% live hard coral cover

25STATUS OF COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEM IN DANAJON BANK

further analyze the status of theDanajon Bank. The results showthat these indices are important inaddition to the percentage of livehard coral cover in conveying thefull picture of reef health.

A survey in 2004 showedthat fish diversity was greatest inthe two outer islands ofHingutanan and Bilangbilangan,while the nearshore sites such asTintiman and Basiao had thelowest diversity (Calumpong2004). The reefs of the outer islandswere less silted and in bettercondition, perhaps accounting forthe greater diversity. Fishdensities in all six sites surveyedwere low by Philippine standardsfor a typical reef, with themaximum number of fish countedper 500 m2 approaching 800(Figure 17).

Fish that are sensitive tofishing pressure (target species)were rare on most of the reefssurveyed (Figure 18). Also, allestablished and proposed reservesites had greater density than theirneighboring fished sites (Figure19). This suggests that establishedreserves are receiving someprotection and/or thatcommunities have chosenhealthier reefs for proposedreserves. But fish biomass wasvery low at most sites suggestingthat the general status of the Danajon Bank is degraded(Calumpong 2004; Calumpong 2005).

The Bohol shoreline and offshore islands haveimportant mangrove forests. These areas are critical forthe life cycles of many fish and invertebrates, andprovide important energy inputs in coral reef systems.Most mangrove forests have been subjected to heavypressures from wood extraction and aquaculture. Figure

20 demonstrates that a significant amount of northernBohol’s mangroves have been converted to aquacultureponds.

There are wide areas of seagrass beds withinand surrounding the Danajon Bank. Almost all species ofseagrass that occur in the Philippines are represented,although the fish fauna in seagrass beds in Danajon weresparse and consisted mostly of juveniles. Many of the

FIGURE 17. MEAN REEF FISH DENSITIES (ALL FISH) FOR RESERVES OR PROPOSED RESERVES

(CALUMPONG 2004).

FIGURE 16. BENTHIC CONDITIONS ON 28 NEARSHORE REEF FISHING GROUNDS (MARCUS ET

AL., UNPUBLISHED).


species seen were moving from seagrass beds tosargassum beds. No significant biomass was recorded.Fish census observation was generally hampered bypoor water visibility. Turbidity appears to limit mostcoral and other growth to shallow depths.

The macro-invertebrate fauna of the samplesites were poor in diversity and density. Only a few siteshad economically important species of sea urchins, seacucumbers, mollusks and crabs. Low densities indicatedthat collection and gleaning was occurring within the

existing and proposed MPAs(Calumpong 2004). Seahorse densityhas also been measured to beextremely low at 0.105 fish per 200m2 in areas that were once known fortheir seahorse fishery (Marcus et al.,unpublished). Severe overfishing, inpart due to global demand, appearsto be the main cause of decline inseahorse density on the DanajonBank (Marcus et al., unpublished).Furthermore, multiple studiessuggest that seahorse populationshave been unable to rebound due tothe animals’ low mobility and thecontinual reduction of necessaryhabitat, in part by blast fishingreducing the reefs to rubble (e.g.Marcus et al., unpublished; Panes etal., unpublished).

Finally, there are likelyecological and oceanographic linksbetween Danajon Bank and theVisayan and Camotes Seas. Fish andinvertebrates utilize various habitatsand areas. No studies have beenconducted that verify this, however.

SUMMARYThe Danajon Bank is of

global significance due to its highlevels of marine biodiversity. It isalso the foundation of the localeconomy and provides a large shareof the area’s food. In the last few

decades, the area’s coral reefs have been severelydamaged by illegal and destructive fishing practices andsedimentation. These trends, while alarming, arereversible if immediate and substantial actions aretaken. If ignored, the consequences for localcommunities are certain to be drastic.

FIGURE 18. MEAN TARGET FISH DENSITIES FOR RESERVES OR PROPOSED RESERVES

(CALUMPONG 2004).

FIGURE 19. TOTAL REEF FISH BIOMASS FOR RESERVES AND PROPOSED RESERVES

(CALUMPONG 2004).

27STATUS OF COASTAL AND MARINE ECOSYSTEM IN DANAJON BANK

FIGURE 20. MANGROVE AND FISHPOND AREAS IN NORTHERN BOHOL.

MANGROVES ARE IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SOURCE OF FUEL, NORTHERN BOHOL

ISLAND.

CHAPTER 4FISHERY STATUS AND TRENDS

IN DANAJON BANK

INTRODUCTIONThe fisheries of Danajon Bank involve a wide variety of gears that exploit

diverse fish stocks. Fishing gears operate at various scales and impact theenvironment in different ways. The fisheries supply local, national andinternational markets. Fishers engage in small-scale operations to meetsubsistence needs and to sell their catch to dependent urban markets. The fisheriesare central to local economies, and provide an important source of livelihoods andprotein to local people. However, these fisheries are in a state of rapid decline.

FISHING IS AN IMPORTANT LIVELIHOOD AND SOURCE OF FOOD FOR COASTAL COMMUNITIES.


TABLE 3. NUMBER OF FISHERS AND BOATS IN DANAJON BANK MUNICIPALITIES AND THE REST OF THE COASTAL MUNICIPALITIES OF

BOHOL PROVINCE (MODIFIED FROM ARMADA ET AL. 2004).

FISHERY OVERVIEWDanajon Bank plays a major role in the fishing

industry of the province of Bohol. About 54% of thefishers, 44% of the nonmotorized boats and 62% of themotorcrafts of the entire province (Table 3) are found inthe 9 coastal municipalities bounding the Danajon Bank.

Densities of fishers per kilometer of coastlineare high (Figure 21) and highlight the importance ofsustainable fisheries management and establishinglimits to the number of fisheries and fishing crafts.

Municipality Counts Density(count/km coastline)

Fishers Non-motorized

boats

Motorizedboats

Fishers Non-motorized

boats

Motorizedboats

Fisherto boat

ratioN % n % %n

Danajon BankPres. C.P. GarciaUbayBien UnidoTalibonGetafeBuenavistaInabangaClarinTubigonSubtotalRest of BoholCalapeLoonMaribojocCortesTagbilaranPanglaoDauisBaclayonAlburquerqueLoayLilaDimiaoValenciaGarcia HernandezJagnaDueroGuindulmanAndaCandijayMabiniSubtotalGrand total

2,0931,4923,1763,4762,1701,0002,281

3351,670

17,693

1,0061,544

362363719

1,6551,634

637402472348391418473

1,187466596

1,048283

1,25615,26032,953

6.44.59.6

10.56.6

36.91.05.1

53.7

3.14.71.11.12.25.05.01.91.21.41.11.21.31.43.61.41.83.20.93.8

46.3100

610406840750700492874150261

5,083

45893315923327388050215880

28660

220122145268250262550156608

6,60311,686

5.23.57.26.46.04.27.51.32.2

43.5

3.98.01.42.02.37.54.31.40.72.40.51.91.01.22.32.12.24.71.35.2

56.5100

591380940

1,49066415962984

6205,557

3143786054

32835628621312280

16259

17173

21977

1267091

1563,3958,952

6.64.2

10.516.67.41.87.00.96.9

62.1

3.54.20.70.63.74.03.22.41.40.91.80.71.90.82.40.91.40.81.01.7

37.9100

36.738.3

264.7165.5127.7125.0162.947.9

128.5

67.164.336.2

139.657.866.266.657.280.442.940.165.263.629.684.868.537.355.228.343.3

10.710.470.035.741.261.562.421.420.1

30.538.915.989.621.935.220.514.216.026.06.9

36.718.69.1

19.136.716.429.015.621.0

10.49.7

78.371.039.119.944.912.047.7

20.915.86.0

20.826.414.211.719.124.47.3

18.79.8

26.04.6

15.611.37.93.79.15.4

1.71.91.81.61.61.51.51.41.9

1.31.21.71.31.21.32.11.72.01.31.61.41.42.22.41.41.51.71.21.6

31FISHERY STATUS AND TRENDS IN DANAJON BANK

FIGURE 21. NUMBER AND DENSITY OF FISHERS PER MUNICIPALITY IN NORTHERN BOHOL (MODIFIED FROM GREEN ET AL. 2004).

FISHING GEARS

A partial inventory of fishing gears conductedby the FISH Project in 2004 showed that there were about5,000 fishing gear units in the four municipalities of the

FISH focal area belonging to at least 20 generic types and44 specific types (Table 4). The most common ones werethe crab gillnet (panglambay), simple hook and line(pasol), squid troll (ulang-ulang), bottom-set gillnet(palugdang), spear fishing (pamana), drift gillnet (palutaw),


TABLE 4. INVENTORY OF FISHING GEARS IN DANAJON FOCAL AREA, BY MUNICIPALITY (FRAGILLANO 2004).

pukot pahubaspalugdang,panaymingpukot panglambaypalutaw, paanodsagiwsiw, ariba-aribalikos, lihos

dumbolpamasayanpukot pangnokosdouble net, triple netpalangre, kitangpasolpataw-pataw

bira-bira, undakkitang (panasa)subidulang-ulangundak (nokos)

sanggabbungsod, towerlawagbintolbalingbaling sa pasayanliba-libapalupadpalakayasudsudsapyaw (sa lambay)panggal panglambay

bantak, pambakasibubobubo pangpasayanpanggal pangnokustirolaya

panginhassikpaw, mosquito netpanapana-compressor

237

205174207

3073

99

9010143

4717

186

2039

54

92

451

173731

30

38

20

14832

1,618

5

1176432

24

655

266

26

5

17

4174

275

121

8457

3131615

2

37

887

143

1732131

2

1105268

130

4212

4

2

2

1

6

16

16

689

Fishing gear Local name Talibon

Barrier netBottomset gillnet

Crab gillnetDrift gillnetDrive-in gillnetEncircling gillnetSet gillnetSet gillnet (with plunger)Shrimp gillnetSquid gillnetTrammel netBottomset longlineHook and lineHook and line (withfloat)Multiple handlineSurface-set longlineTroll lineSquid trollSquid jigBagnetFilter netFish corralRound haul seineStationary liftnetBeach seineBeach seine (shrimp)Danish seineMidwater trawlOtter trawlScissor netCrab liftnetCrab potCrab trapEel trapFish trapShrimp potSquid trapBlast fishingCast netDive fishing w/compressorGleaningScoopnetSpear fishingSpear with compressorTotal

BienUnido

Ubay Pres. C.P.Garcia

Total

122

2346435

403

252930

24946

45

78

2

1516

21

30

205

105102

4

2818

6115

273593

1201,843

2307

729278611030

1393

3554

22768489

24817

311122

20211

64

944

1515

777

206197

71

673116

1141522

2735

294152

5,037


COMMON FISHING GEARS IN DANAJON BANK.

MULTIPLE HANDLINE (BIRA-BIRA)

SIMPLE HOOK AND LINE (PASOL)

BOTTOM-SET LONGLINE (PALANGRE)


SQUID TROLL (ULANG-ULANG)

BOTTOM-SET GILLNET (PALUGDANG)

DRIFT GILLNET (PALUTAW)


CRAB GILLNET (PANGLAMBAY)

CRAB LIFTNET (SAPYAW)

CRAB POT (PANGGAL)


multiple handline (bira-bira), bottom-set longline(palangre), fish corral (bungsod), crab liftnet (sapyaw) andcrab pot (panggal).

Based on a recent survey of fishing gears,Figure 22 displays the density of fishing gears in thearea. Gillnets, hook and line, and spears contribute thevast majority of fish catch in most municipalities.Gillnets are an important fishing gear throughout thePhilippines. In reef systems, they are frequently usednear reef slopes. On Danajon Bank, gillnets provide asignificant portion of the landings (Figure 23). In chapter5, possible policy responses to the use of fine-meshgillnets are explored.

FISHING PRACTICESA number of fishing gears have undergone

modifications from their original design and havespecific local names. Like in the case of hook and linesand gillnets, many have been improved and modified to

catch specific target species. For example, pataw pambalo isa type of hook and line that catches specifically garfishor balo and pukot pangmangsi is an encircling gillnetdesigned to catch herrings and sardines.

High fishing pressure on the harvestable stocksof Danajon Bank has resulted into changes in thecomposition of fish populations. Some fishing gears areno longer used because they no longer catch the fishesthey used to catch before. Others are only operatedoccasionally because of low catch rate for species theywere designed to catch. Some fishing gears designed tocatch a particular species are still regularly used but theyare catching other species instead. Multiple handlines(bira-bira) and bottom-set longline (palangre) in someareas of Danajon Bank have reduced their fishingoperation because of the sharp decline in the populationof jacks, emperors and snappers. Bottom-set longline(palangre) are catching mainly eels (ubod) instead ofgrouper (pugapo) and drift gillnets (panulingan) are

FISH CORRAL (BUNGSOD)

SPEAR FISHING (PAMANA)


FIGURE 22. DENSITY AND NUMBERS OF FISHING GEARS PER MUNICIPALITY IN NORTHERN BOHOL (MODIFIED FROM GREEN ET AL.2004).

catching primarily Indian mackerel (anduhaw) instead ofbullet tuna (tulingan).


FIGURE 23. GILLNET DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO LANDINGS (MODIFIED FROM GREEN ET AL. 2004).


Hook and line fishing is also important and iscommonly used to target valuable, piscivorous speciessuch as grouper and snapper (Figure 24).

Spearfishing is common on Danajon Bank andprovides a significant portion of the landings (Figure

25).

FIGURE 24. HOOK AND LINE DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO LANDINGS (MODIFIED FROM GREEN ET AL. 2004).


FIGURE 25. SPEAR DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO LANDINGS (MODIFIED FROM GREEN ET AL. 2004).


FISHERY CONDITIONOverwhelmingly, the most

important issue raised by municipalfishers in Danajon Bank during asurvey conducted in 2003 was therampant operation of small-scaletrawls and modified Danish seine(hulbot-hulbot) (Table 5) in themunicipal waters. This was followedby problems with illegal fishingactivities such as blast fishing,spearfishing with the use ofcompressor and use of noxioussubstances (cyanide) in catching orcollecting fish. The other importantissues raised during that time alsoincluded reduction of catch due toincrease in boats and fishers and dueto excessive fishing in general, intrusion of commercialfishing boats in the municipal waters, and use ofdestructive gears such as drive-in nets and other fine-mesh nets.

As demonstrated by systematic monitoring, theuse of illegal and destructive fishing methods has anegative impact on fish abundance and diversity. Thetrawl survey conducted by the FISH Project in 2004showed a very low demersal biomass density of 0.45 t/

MANY SMALL FISH ARE SEEN IN MARKETS IN NORTHERN BOHOL.

km2 for the Danajon Bank (FISH Project 2005b) comparedto the low demersal biomass density estimated forManila Bay in 1992-1993. The catch is composed mainlyof low-value species (Table 6) such as slipmouths(potpot), pufferfish (butete), flathead (sunugan), goatfish(timbungan) and cardinal fish (moong)—species thatwould be considered trash fish two decades ago.

TABLE 5. TEN MOST IMPORTANT ISSUES RAISED BY MUNICIPAL FISHERS IN THE VARIOUS FISHING GROUNDS OF BOHOL PROVINCE

(MODIFIED FROM ARMADA ET AL. 2004).

Rank Issues Fishing ground

1 Trawls and small-scale, modified Danish seines (hulbot-hulbot)operating in municipal waters

2 Spearfishing with compressor3 Commercial fishing vessels operating inside municipal waters (e.g.,

Danish seines and ringnets)4 Decrease in fish catch attributed to overfishing5 Blast fishing6 Fishing with noxious substances (cyanide, tubli, etc.)7 Increase in the number of boats and fishers competing for limited

resources in a limited area8 Drive-in nets (bahan, sagiwsiw or dagoydoy)9 Baling (beach seine) operations10 Ban of certain fishing operations (e.g., trammel nets, sudsud, whale

shark fishing, manta fishing, baling, etc.) affects negatively thelivelihood of the community

TotalRest ofBohol

DanajonBank

4

3738

193

1111

614

133

138

419119

663

137

5046

23222220

1277


The results of bottom-set longline (palangre) surveyconducted by the FISH Project (2005b) also showed avery low catch rate in Danajon Bank 4.77 kg per fishingoperation despite the 1,000 number of hooks used in thearea. The catch was dominated by the crescent perch(bugaong), emperor (katambak) and threadfin bream(lagaw) (Table 7). High-value fish such as the grouper(pugapo) and snapper (maya-maya) were not wellrepresented in the catch.

The catch and effort monitoring conductedfrom May to July 2004 in the Danajon Bank likewiseshowed the very low catch rates of many fishing geartypes compared to other FISH Project areas (Table 8).Noticeably low compared to all other areas are the driftgillnet (palutaw), bottom-set longline (palangre) andsquid jig (ulang-ulang).

Table 9 summarizes the relative importance ofthe various species in the FISH Project focal area. Thiswas estimated from the aggregate of the catchesmonitored from May to July 2004. The most commonspecies encountered during the catch monitoring werethe blue crabs (lambay), sardines (mangsi), slipmouths(potpot) and scad (caraballas).

The above data demonstrate that illegal fishingand overfishing are negatively affecting fish catchcomposition and catch rates. During a June 2005workshop sponsored by the FISH Project, blast fishingand cyanide fishing were identified as two destructiveand illegal fishing methods that need to be stopped. Themanagement responses identified in Chapter 5 consist ofboth incentives and improved enforcement.

TABLE 7. TOP 10 SPECIES CAUGHT DURING THE BOTTOM-SET LONGLINE SURVEY IN DANAJON BANK (FISH PROJECT 2004).

Species Local name Common name

1. Therapon jarbua2. Lethrinus lentjan3. Nemipterus hexodon4. Congridae5. Lutjanus chrysotaenia6. Pentapodus setosus7. Epinephelus sexfasciatus8. Gymnothorax sp.9. Muraenesocidae10. Aluterus monoceros

OthersTotal

% weight

Crescent perchPink ear emperorOrnate threadfin breamYellow pike congerSpanish flag snapperButterfly whiptailSixbar grouperMoray eelCommon pike congerUnicorn leatherjacket

bugaongkatambaklagawobodmanilan-onsiwsiwpugawobakasi, panangitanobodsaguksuk

50.615.55.83.63.42.91.31.21.21.1

13.4100.0

% number

35.713.34.76.81.99.20.25.12.10.1

20.7100.0

TABLE 6. TOP 10 SPECIES/GROUPS CAUGHT DURING TRAWL SURVEY (FISH PROJECT 2004).

Species/group Local name Common name

1. Leiognathus splendens2. Saurida tumbil3. Arothron sp.4. Platycephalus indicus5. Upeneus tragula6. Loliginidae7. Apogon sp.8. Scolopsis taeniopterus9. Loligo sp.10. Leiognathus rivulatus

Others

% weight

Splendid ponyfishGreater lizardfishPufferfishBartail flatheadFreckled goatfishSquidCardinalfishLattice monocle breamSquidPonyfish

dangay, potpotbanghutinbutetesunugantimbungantarorotonmoongsilaytaroroton, nokospotpot

42.97.47.36.44.23.83.62.92.52.3

16.7

% number

72.00.30.50.33.41.53.00.90.63.5

14.0


TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF CPUE (KG/DAY) FROM CATCH AND EFFORT MONITORING IN DANAJON BANK (MAY-JULY 2004)COMPARED TO OTHER FISH PROJECT AREAS AND OTHER SIMILAR FISHING GROUNDS (MODIFIED FROM FISH 2004).

Fishing gear Local name(Danajon Bank)

DanajonBank

Bottom set gillnetDrift gillnetSet gillnet with plungerBottom-set longlineMultiple handlineSimple hook and lineSquid jigCrab liftnetFish corralCrab potFish trapScissor netHandspearStationary liftnetBaby trawl

Coron Bay Lanuza Bay Tawi-TawiBay

15.77.4

10.34.53.72.51.53.45.46.79.10.72.8

13.613.7

palunod, palugdangpalutaw, paanoddumbolpalangre, kitangbira-bira, undakpasolulang-ulang, pangnokossapyaw (sa lambay)bungsod, towerpanggal panglambaybubosudsudpanabintolpalakaya

9.021.54.5

11.012.55.62.3

107.6

21.6

8.3

4.911.73.89.04.44.33.9

2.42.75.3

6.33.1

55.923.315.619.613.45.4

12.1

11.7

5.2

TABLE 9. TOP 20 SPECIES (ACCORDING TO LOCAL NAME) BY WEIGHT IN THE AGGREGATE CATCH OF ALL MUNICIPAL FISHING GEARS

MONITORED IN DANAJON BANK FOCAL AREA FROM MAY TO JULY 2004 (FRAGILLANO 2004).

Local name Species/group % weight

1 lambay2 mangsi3 potpot4 caraballas5 anduhaw6 maubgas7 timbungan8 guno9 nokos10 samook11 gilang12 bawo13 lupoy14 sasa15 danggit16 silay17 katambak18 pasayan19 molmol20 lagaw

21.86.55.34.84.24.14.14.13.02.92.61.91.81.71.41.31.31.11.11.0

24.0

Portunus pelagicusSardinella sp.Leiognathus spp.Selaroides leptolepisRastrelliger spp.Spratelloides sp.Upeneus spp.Atherina sp.Loligo spp.Gerres oyenaSpratelloides sp.Tylosorus acus melanotusSardinella albellaHemiramphus farSiganus canaliculatusScolopsis vosmeriLethrinus spp.Penaeus spp.ScaridaeNemipterus hexodonOthers


ON BLUE CRABS (LAMBAY)Among the gears with the

highest contribution to the landedcatch are crab gillnet (pukotpanglambay), crab liftnet (sapyaw) andcrab pot (panggal), three fishingactivities that target specifically bluecrabs. These three fishing gearssignificantly contribute to theaggregate composition of the catch.Blue crabs contributed to almost 22%of the total municipal catch landingsmonitored (Fragillano 2004), thehighest contribution by a singlegroup in the overall catch. Blue crabfisheries is itself an industry inDanajon Bank. It supports a widerange of endeavors from catchers, tobuyers, and to crab meat processors.At present, it is one of the fewharvestable marine resources thatremained viable despite therelatively high overall fishingpressure. Blue crab, being low in thetrophic system, with highreproductive rate and is fast-growing, was able to sustain itsoptimum stock size. Overfishing mayhave eliminated its predators andfood competitors thus sustaining thestock. However, there are strongindications that the blue crabindustry in Danajon Bank has grownto a large proportion than it cansustain. Market demand has driventhe processors to produce more crabmeat, the buyers to offer higher prices and the fishers tocatch more. And in fact there are indications that thefishers are now catching less as well as relativelysmaller individuals.

The use of fine-mesh nets by beach seine(baling), round haul seine (lawag), fish corral (bungsod),stationary liftnet (new look), Danish seine (liba-liba) andbaby trawl are, to various degrees, still tolerated in

4

5.5

7

8.5

0

20

40

60

%

baling

kurantay

lawag

sapyaw

Gear

Length (cm)baling

kurantay

lawag

sapyaw

FIGURE 26. COMPARISON OF SIZE COMPOSITION OF STOLEPHORUS INDICUS (BOLINAO)CAUGHT BY VARIOUS FISHING GEARS IN DANAJON BANK IN 2003 (ARMADA ET AL.2004).

FIGURE 27. COMPARISON OF SIZE COMPOSITION OF RASTRELLIGER BRACHYSOMA (HASA-HASA) CAUGHT BY VARIOUS FISHING GEARS IN DANAJON BANK IN 2003 (ARMADA ET

AL. 2004).

10

14

18

22

60

10

20

30

40

50

%

palundag

patuloy

undak

pasol

lawag

Gear

Length (cm)palundag

undak

lawag

many fishing grounds of the Danajon Bank. Some gears,such as round haul seine (lawag), that are designed tocatch naturally small species of fish such as anchovies(bolinao) are catching nontarget species. The sizecomposition of bolinao caught by lawag is comparable toother fishing gears (Figure 26). However, the problemarises when lawag starts to catch other species of fish,such as Rastrelliger brachysoma (hasa-hasa), that have thepotential to grow larger (Figure 27).


The fine-mesh nets also negatively impact theimportant rabbitfish (danggit) fisheries. Those gearsusing fine-mesh nets, such as Danish seine, filter net,scissor net, trawl, beach seine, barrier net and fish corral,are catching the juvenile stages of rabbitfish (Figure 28).

ON RABBITFISH (DANGGIT)Along with blue crabs, several species of squids,

garfishes (balo), anchovies (bolinao), mackerels (anduhaw),scads (tamarong) and bullet tunas (tulingan), fishersperceived rabbitfish (danggit) to be an importantfisheries resource in Danajon Bank (Armada et al. 2004).Despite the perceived importance of danggit as a fisheryresource in Danajon, danggit comprised only 1.4% (byweight) of the aggregate catch landings monitored(Fragillano 2004). This very low weight contribution isprimarily due to very low average sizes of danggit being

caught by major fishing gears in Danajon Bank.Obviously, this species, despite its high reproductiverate and fast growth rate has been reduced to apopulation of young and juveniles by fishing gears withfine-mesh nets. In addition, fishing gears operated inseagrass areas catch gravid danggit during spawningevents.

During a June 2005 workshop hosted by theFISH Project, fine-mesh nets were identified bypolicymakers and resource users as a critical threat tosustainable fisheries on Danajon Bank. While thenegative impacts of such nets are increasinglyacknowledged in the region, workshop attendees alsorecognized that developing policies to curtail usage ofsuch nets will be a complex undertaking.Understandably, policymakers are reluctant to take oncontroversial issues, especially when stricter regulationswill, at least in the short term, have a negative impact onthe livelihoods of some poor resource users.

In addition to food fisheries, importantglobalized nonfood fisheries also operate in the DanajonBank area. The seahorse fishery feeds a global market intraditional medicines, tonic foods, aquarium displaysand curios. Like all majority of fisheries in Bohol, theseahorse populations are being depleted, with a highpercentage of the catch consisting of juveniles(Torrechilla et al., unpublished). Seahorses are gatheredmainly at night, and caught while fishers gather otherorganisms. The catch rates are relatively low—averagingtwo seahorses per fisher per day and no catch on mostdays—partly due to their naturally low densities. Asfishers deplete fisheries resources and adopt new divingtechnologies, even deep-water seahorse populations arebeing heavily exploited (Panes et al., unpublished).

Danajon Bank supplies the global market withornamental fish. According to a locally activenongovernment organization, the Marine AquariumCouncil (MAC), the ornamental fish collection started inBohol more than 20 years ago, introduced by rovingcollectors from Cebu where collection started in the1950s. While efforts are underway to introduce lessdestructive methods, sodium cyanide is still frequentlyused to stun and capture the fish. This technique kills ahigh percentage of nontarget species and coral. Almostall of these fish are exported to the United States of

FIGURE 28. INDICATIVE SIZES OF RABBITFISH (NUMBERS PER KG)CAUGHT BY VARIOUS FISHING GEARS IN DANAJON BANK.

0 50 100 150 200

Dynamite

Spear with compressor

Crab gillnet

Bottom set gillnet

Drift gillnet

Simple hook and line

Handspear

Trammel net

Stationary liftnet

Bottom set longline

Fish trap

Set gillnet with plunger

Drive-in gillnet

Encircling gillnet

Fish corral

Barrier net

Beach seine

Otter trawl

Scissor net

Filter net

Danish seine

Pieces per kg


America and Europe. The improperuse of compressed air divingequipment is also very dangerous fordivers.

SUMMARYThe once rich fisheries of

Danajon Bank are not sustainablyharvested— a condition that is bothrisky for local communities andeconomically inefficient. The effectsof widespread use of illegal anddestructive fishing methods areapparent. Fishing effort is far beyondsustainable levels. With increasedattention to monitoring and soundmanagement, this once productivefishery ecosystem could return tosustainable harvest levels. The final chapter of thisprofile suggests various immediate actions that, ifcarried out, will improve fisheries management onDanajon Bank.

USE OF FINE-MESH NETS RESULTS IN OVERFISHING.

CHAPTER 5RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COASTAL

AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

IN DANAJON BANKKEY MANAGEMENT ISSUES

As this profile documents, the coastal and fisheries resources of DanajonBank are both valuable and imperiled. The challenges that government agencies,projects and coastal communities face in this arena are complex and wellestablished. Systemic conditions such as poor governance, poverty and ignorancefrequently undermine even initially successful management processes (Christie etal. 2005). But interest in improving fisheries and coastal management remainshigh—especially as the consequences of the status quo become apparent. A widevariety of coastal and fisheries management initiatives have focused onimproving environmental conditions while addressing pressing economic issuesin the Central Visayas region. This chapter is an overview of immediate actions toimprove the fisheries and other resources of the Danajon Bank.

Green et al. (2004) provide a comprehensive summary of key issues andappropriate policy actions to address overfishing and habitat degradation in theCentral Visayas. After a series of consultative workshops, the following issueswere identified as problematic for the area’s fisheries ecosystems:

" various forms of overfishing;" illegal fishing and overly efficient fishing gears;" habitat degradation;" lack of marine protected area coverage; and" lack of incentives to encourage sustainable resource management.

During a similar workshop of Bohol policymakers hosted by the FISH Project inJune 2005, the use of illegal active gears and fine-mesh nets and blast fishing wereidentified as the top priority issues to be addressed for Danajon Bank.


ECOSYSTEM-BASED FISHERIES MANAGEMENT

PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION PROCESSAs discussed in this profile, the FISH Project has

adopted ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM)as its management framework. This holistic approach tofisheries management considers ecological function andhealth as well as links between human communities andtheir environment. Figure 2 provides an overview of theplanning and implementation process for the four FISHtarget areas.

Phase 1: baselines, constituency engagement andplanning

As indicated in Phase 1 activities, up-to-date andmultidisciplinary information is the basis for thedevelopment of context-appropriate managementresponses. Participatory coastal resource assessment(PCRA) and ecological and social baseline assessmentsrecord both local knowledge and scientific observations(Figure 2). This process is well underway in DanajonBank. Once management responses are initiated,ongoing monitoring will provide tangible material foreducation campaigns and allow for ongoing adjustmentsthrough an adaptive planning process.

Since ecosystem-level planning is a novel andambitious approach, scenario analysis and planning canprovide stakeholders an opportunity to consider theimplications and trade-offs associated with variousstrategies before actions are taken and resources are

committed. Scenario analysis is also helpful to identifypotential opportunities associated with and barriers tohypothetical management interventions. Based on ascenario analysis exercise at the June 2005 planningworkshop, the initial management interventions belowwere discussed.

MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS APPROPRIATE

FOR DANAJON BANKBased on a series of consultations and thorough

situational analysis, Green et al. (2004) suggest increasingthe coverage of marine protected areas (MPAs), jointmanagement of commercial and municipal fisheries,licensing of fishing boats, providing preferential accessto stocks and fishing grounds for local commercial andartisanal fishers, strengthening reproductive healthprograms and establishing a sequential benchmarkingsystem to monitor progress. Participants from Bohol inthe June 2005 FISH Project workshop identified thefollowing initial strategies to reduce the impacts of theuse of active fishing gears and fine-mesh nets and ofblast fishing in Danajon Bank (Box 1). Given thecomplexity of the issues, implementation should firstfocus on sites that are within the jurisdiction of Boholprovince with expansion to the other three provinces tofollow as appropriate.

BOX 1. IMMEDIATE INTER-LGU FISHERIES MANAGEMENT INTERVENTIONS FOR DANAJON BANK.

1. Strengthen planning and enforcement efforts that involve Cebu, Leyte and Bohol.2. Ratify and implement an agreement among Bohol municipal governments to protect Danajon Bank, coordinate interventions,

share information and expertise, and harmonize municipal fishery ordinances.3. Strengthen Coastal Law Enforcement Teams (CLECs) and other municipal-based enforcement teams through education and

capacity development.4. Implement Danajon-wide registration and licensing of municipal fishers, fishing vessels and gears.5. Delineate municipal waters.6. Intensify education campaign on the importance of Danajon Bank and the effects of destructive fishing gears.7. Conduct socioeconomic monitoring of fishing communities, including research relevant to illegal and destructive fishing practices.8. Strengthen POs and FARMCs.9. Establish a network of MPAs.10. Develop alternative and supplemental livelihoods for the poor affected by regulations.11. Increase municipal and provincial budget allocations for coastal and fisheries management.

49RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COASTAL AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IN DANAJON BANK

The considerable experience with coastal andfisheries management in the Danajon Bank area providesa firm foundation for EBFM. As highlighted in Chapter1, most municipal governments have dedicated at leastsome personnel and finances into planning andenforcement activities. Some have taken more ambitioussteps by creating long-term coastal management plansand established MPAs in which fishing is prohibited.While these are significant first steps, the restoration ofDanajon’s coastal and fisheries resources will require anexpansion of management efforts that is sustainedindefinitely. The above lists of desirable policies asidentified by local constituencies and policymakersconstitute an ambitious, but necessary, agenda.

The following integrated managementframework includes specific field activities andmechanisms for their long-term support. Its three keycomponents—MPAs, fisheries management andenforcement—are complementary and mutuallyreinforcing. The effective establishment of thesecomponents relies on robust institutional support,timely information and adaptive planning.

MARINE PROTECTED AREASScientific consensus is still evolving on MPA

design parameters such as optimal size andconfiguration. There are strong indications, however,that considerable economic, social and ecologicalbenefits are generated by long-standing and well-managed MPAs (Russ 2002). Nearby internationallyrecognized success stories such as Apo Island provideinspiration and indication of the potential benefits.

Some 31 MPAs exist on Danajon Bank (Table 10).A few of these are well-supported by municipalgovernments and nongovernment organizations (NGOs)such as the Project Seahorse Foundation. The majority ofthese MPAs are small and not yet well established ormanaged (according to the MPA rating system applied)although some have been in existence since 1996 andprovide valuable lessons in design and management forthis context. Based on recent interviews, havingsustainable financing and establishing effectiveenforcement system are among the most seriousmanagement challenges (Langjhar, unpublished). Anetwork of MPAs, in either the social or ecological sense,

has not yet been established and may help address someof these issues by spreading management costs andpooling enforcement resources. In summary, while thereis a foundation to work from, there remainsconsiderable work ahead to develop a functionalnetwork of MPAs that will provide significant social andecological benefits. Existing community-based MPAsshould be strengthened while additional community-based MPAs are established as a means to engage localcommunities in coastal stewardship.

To reach the goals of stabilizing andsignificantly increasing fish biomass in the area newforms of MPAs should be introduced. Offshore MPAsthat close deepwater areas to fishing permanently orseasonally could provide some degree of protection forpelagic fish stocks that support both commercial andmunicipal fisheries. Areas closed to fishing during peakreproductive times, a type of MPA, would help ensurethat a sustainable standing stock of fish is maintained.Increased involvement of commercial fishers in the

BASDIO MARINE SANCTUARY, BOHOL.


fisheries management planning process will beimportant and necessary for such initiatives to succeed.The FISH Project is taking steps in this direction bycollaborating with the Bisayas Alliance of Fisherfolksand Operators for Reform (BAFOR) (Ostdahl,unpublished). FISH and BAFOR will collect data on thepelagic stocks that migrate between the Camotes Sea andthe Danajon Bank, with an objective of increasingbiomass in both areas by implementing short-term self-

imposed closed seasons at peak spawning times inparticular areas. Although still in the early stages, thiscollaboration is one of the first to work directly with thecommercial sector on fisheries management. Morefrequent and repeated forums that include bothcommercial and municipal fishers along withrepresentatives of the Bureau of Fisheries and AquaticResources (BFAR), local governments and NGOs in thearea will be useful for planning and zoning of allowable

TABLE 10. MARINE SANCTUARIES ESTABLISHED UNDER MUNICIPAL ORDINANCES WITHIN THE FISH PROJECT TARGET

MUNICIPALITIES OF THE DANAJON BANK (LANGJHAR, UNPUBLISHED).

MPA name Barangay Municipality

BantigianSidlakanAginingPopooBasiaoBaudPong-GamayBantigueSinandiganTipoloBilangbilangan EastBilangbilangan WestHingotanan EastHingotanan WestSagasaPinamgoMandawaLibertyPoblacionTuboranMalinginMaomawanNocnocanCatabanGuindacpanCalitubanSagSanto Niño 2San Francisco 2Tanhaligue 2

Bagacay 2

Yearestablished

by ordinance

Size(ha)

Managementrank (points)1

C.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaC.P. GarciaUbayUbayBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoBien UnidoTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibonTalibon

SaguiseSaguiseAginingPopooBasiaoBaudLapinigButanSinandiganTipoloBilangbilangan EastBilangbilangan WestHingotanan EastHingotanan WestSagasaPinamgoMandawaLibertyPoblacionTuboranMalinginMaomawanNocnocanCatabanGuindacpanCalitubanSagSanto NiñoSan FranciscoTanhaligueBagacay

???

2004200420051986200520042003200220022002200220022002200220022002200220022002200219961996198820042000199620001986

???

13.628

21.7?

18.951.6

3344.571.921.871.826.937.859.118.869.812.5

114.912819 *

19.946.4 *57.3

367.17.8

43.9?

1 (9)1 (10)2 (16)1 (8)1 (6)1 (6)

2 (17)1 (6)

1 (12)1 (11)2 (17)1 (12)2 (17)1 (13)1 (10)2 (16)2 (17)2 (16)2 (16)2 (17)1 (15)1 (15)0 (3) **

2 (20)0 (4) **

0 (4)1 (11)0 (5)

1 (10)0 (5)1 (8)

1 MPAs were ranked on a 1-5 scale using the MPA rating system developed and employed by the Coastal Conservation and Education Foundation, Philippines (MPA databaseversion 2004). Points are assessed based on attainment of measurable management activities and benchmarks such as: baseline assessment and monitoring, education,formation of management body, management plan development, municipal ordinance approval, boundary demarcation, effective enforcement, sustainable financing,alternative livelihood development, etc.2 Ratings for these four sites in Talibon were assessed from 2004 surveys.* Rating based upon the 2005 survey in which the barangay identified an informal sanctuary relocation.** The area (in ha) presented is the size of the original marine sanctuary because delineation of proposed sanctuary relocation has not yet been performed.


activities, and can also serve to raiseawareness of overfishing and otherthreats to coastal sustainabilityamong the commercial sector.

The current system of smallinshore MPAs in Danajon Bank doesnot provide sufficient protection forcritical habitats and overfishedstocks. In the absence of fishingeffort control, even successful onescannot support the intense andgrowing fishing pressures adjacent toboundaries (Christie et al. 2002). Anunsustainably high proportion offish that migrate outside small MPAsare likely caught outside boundaries.For these reasons, large MPAsshould be established that include coral reef, seagrassand mangrove areas. These MPAs, larger than 1,000 ha,should be strategically placed so as not to completelydisplace municipal fishers. Habitat diversity should bemaximized within their boundaries to help assure thatorganisms complete their life cycle. Priority sites forlarge MPAs should include areas on the outer edge ofDanajon Bank facing Cebu since these areas are moreremote, less affected by siltation and accessible by diveboats from Mactan Island. A prolonged educational andparticipatory planning program will need to precedelarge MPA establishment. Given their size, and likelyremoteness, the Coast Guard and other agencies willneed to be engaged to ensure compliance andenforcement. Such large MPAs would supportsustainable fisheries and may, if well positioned andproperly managed, catalyze dive tourism in the area.Diving interests in Mactan Island should be engaged asimportant stakeholders in planning areas that areaccessible to their dive boats. While potentiallycontroversial, Danajon Bank appears to be large enoughto accommodate both large MPAs and well-managedfisheries. The degree of controversy is likely to bedirectly related to the degree to which managementresponsibilities and benefits are equitably sharedbetween fishing and tourism interests (Oracion et al.2005; Pomeroy et al. 2005).

The process of MPA establishment could besystematized to a greater extent so that both ecologicaland social connectivity processes are taken intoconsideration (White et al. 2006). While it may beunrealistic to conduct genetic connectivity studies, basicoceanographic studies of current patterns will suggestwhich areas are sources and sinks of coral and fishlarvae. Social connectivity—a measure of the degree towhich managers, leaders and resource users are able tocollaborate, share resources and maintain mutualsupport networks—will influence managementsustainability. Social networks are essential tomaintaining long-term viability of MPA networks(Pollnac and Pomeroy 2005). Optimizing biological andsocial connectivity will likely entail trade-offs. Scenarioplanning provides a useful tool for considering thesetrade-offs before scarce financial resources and effort areexpended.

FISHERIES MANAGEMENTSpatial management tools, such as MPAs,

should be complemented with standard fisheriesmanagement techniques that manage gear types,minimum fish size and timing.

In fact, standard fisheries management andMPAs should be viewed as nested strategies that canoptimize sustainable fishery harvests, while maintainingimportant biodiversity and associated recreational uses

HIGH CORAL COVER IN THE GILUTONGAN MARINE SANCTUARY, CORDOVA, CEBU.


of marine resources. To date, there has been littleattention to standard fisheries management in the area.Fishing effort is largely unregulated for both thecommercial and municipal fisheries sectors—adangerous policy resulting in overfishing, foodinsecurity and habitat degradation.

Key fisheries management interventions thatare under consideration for Danajon Bank are a closedseason for rabbitfishes (during periods of reproductionand juvenile recruitment), ban on selling rabbitfishesduring closed season, minimum mesh size limit for crabgillnets, minimum size limit for blue crabs, ban oncatching and selling gravid (with eggs) blue crabs, meshsize limits for traditional fine-mesh fishing gears (likethe fish corral), ban on destructive gears like thetrammel net, seagrass sanctuaries (intended for rabbit-fishes), zoning of fishing activities, and fisher/boatregistration and licensing.

Since MPAs and fisheries management requiresacrifice in the short term, alternative or complementaryincome development programs should be initiated.These programs are complex and most feasible whenlinkages to the private sector and markets are wellestablished. The environmental and social implicationsof each type of project should be carefully assessedbefore implementation begins. While technically outsidethe mandate of the project, FISH will be collaboratingwith other partners to facilitate such economicdevelopment.

ZONATIONAs a way of integrating MPAs and

standard fisheries management, the entireDanajon Bank area should eventually bezoned into multiple use zones (Figure 29).Zonation can effectively separateconflicting resource uses (e.g., fishing anddive tourism). Similar to the system in theAustralian Great Barrier Reef, zones shouldbe established for sustainable fishing,tourism and conservation. A participatoryscenario planning process should beundertaken to ensure that scientificallydeveloped information, local knowledgeand constituency interests are considered.

Municipal CRM plans and ordinances can be developedto allocate areas according to local user rights forspecific uses such as fish and/or seaweed culture,tourism and recreation uses, boat channels and dockingarea, and other use zones as appropriate. The zonationscheme should be periodically re-evaluated to ensurethat necessary changes are included over time.

The zone boundary defining municipal watersis probably the most important one that warrantsimmediate formalization and strict enforcement. Thisboundary is frequently ignored by commercial fishingoperations (boats greater than 3 GT) that view it asarbitrary and denying them of traditional fishinggrounds. The encroaching of commercial operationsencourages municipal fishers to adopt increasingly moreefficient (and expensive) gears in order to compete.

Creating protective zonation schemes forsensitive habitats, for example, mangroves and estuaries,should be encouraged. In such zones, developmentshould be controlled and habitat restored. The overallecological health of Danajon Bank will depend onmaintaining and restoring these habitats. As highlightedin Chapter 3, large areas of Danajon Bank have beennegatively impacted by upland development andclearing of mangrove areas that act to trap sedimentsbefore they reach coral areas. Large areas of mangrovesin northern Bohol have been reforested and can act asdemonstration sites and seed sources (Green et al. 2004).

FIGURE 29. EACH MUNICIPALITY NEEDS A ZONING PLAN.


While it is beyond the mandate of the FISH Project towork directly in upland areas, it is important thatmarine, coastal and upland policies and interventionsare harmonized.

ENFORCEMENTEquitable and sustained enforcement of coastal

and fisheries regulations is the cornerstone upon whichall the above management interventions depend.Fortunately, various effective enforcement activities arecurrently underway in the area (Box 2).

By law, the municipal government plays acentral role in enforcement of regulations withinmunicipal waters. Experience demonstrates that acommitted mayor can eradicate illegal fishing, but thefrequent turnover of mayors makes sustained progress achallenge. Enforcement must be institutionalized,financed and professionalized to the point where it issustained regardless of whether a municipal mayor is anardent supporter of his or her predecessor’s enforcementprograms. The Provincial Government should take onthe role of catalyst, capacitor and supporter of municipallevel enforcement because issues and violations cutacross municipal territorial jurisdictions. The efforts ofcommitted mayors will also depend on the support ofnational institutions tasked with law enforcement suchas the Philippine National Police and the Coast Guard.Necessary basic equipment, such as boats, global

positioning units and radios, must also be available forenforcement to function properly. Finally, the CLECsand the Provincial Government of Bohol must commit totransparent, equitable and accountable enforcement becauseenforcement is a sensitive social and political exerciseinvolving conflict and confrontation. A comprehensiveeducation program focused on the importance of lawenforcement, the proper steps to apprehend illegalfishers, and the appropriate use of the evidence and lawis fundamental to any effective enforcement campaign.

While these enforcement efforts have been verysuccessful, they are difficult to maintain in the longterm. Also, frequently only the most vulnerable areprosecuted, rather than the mastermind and financier ofillegal fishing activities. These tendencies are frequentlyrelated to how institutions and incentive structuresfunction.

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF EBFMIn the Philippines, the contradicting policies of

increased fishery production and sustainable resourcemanagement are apparent. The relatively recent, andquite radical, decentralization of governance withoutsufficient financial and technical support at themunicipal level is of central importance. Finally, theseparate, and sometimes contradictory, managementpolicies of nearshore artisanal fisheries (small boatsoperating within 15 km of shore) and offshorecommercial fisheries (fishing boats greater than 3 GT, 15

BOX 2. COASTAL LAW ENFORCEMENT IN BOHOL.

Three CLECs in Bohol have been able to apprehend hundreds of illegalfishers and have received the Galing Pook Award for creative environmentallaw enforcement in 2003. At the municipal level, Municipal Coastal LawEnforcement Teams are organized and supported with municipal resources.In the FISH target municipalities, the Fish Wardens of Talibon, Bien UnidoCoastal Law Enforcement Team , Task Force Kalikupan-Pres. Carlos P. Garciaand the Coastal Environmental Protection Unit in Ubay have been organizedrecently with annual budgets ranging from PhP200,000 to 700,000. Members ofthese groups have undergone extensive training in legal means of surveillance,evidence collection and apprehension. These efforts have resulted in theconfiscation of numerous illegal fishing gears. When appropriate, the applicationof swift, serious and public enforcement actions has proven successful indeterring illegal fishing.

CONFISCATED ILLEGAL FISHING NETS.


km offshore) pose many institutional challenges toEBFM. Municipal governments have jurisdiction overartisanal fisheries, while BFAR has jurisdiction overcommercial fisheries.

Achieving the Ecosystems-based FisheriesManagement (EBFM) in the Philippines is aformidable task in the light of existing policiesand regulations concerning fisheriesmanagement. Some initiatives have beenundertaken which attempted to address theinteractive political, economic, cultural,institutional, environmental problems plaguinga common fisheries ecosystem. Unfortunately,the current legal landscape is not entirelysupportive of EBFM. In addition, the presentlegal regime is still plagued by ineffectivemechanisms for enforcement andimplementation. (Eisma-Osorio 2005)

Basic legal and institutional structures exist forthe realization of EBFM. Eisma quotes the importantLocal Government Code:

Section 33. Cooperative UndertakingsAmong Local Government Units. – LocalGovernment Units may, throughappropriate ordinances, groupthemselves, consolidate, or coordinatetheir efforts, services and resources forpurposes commonly beneficial to them…

Fortunately, the 1998 Philippine Fisheries Code (PFC),provides important legal basis for sustainable fisheriesmanagement: “conventional fisheries regulations arealready expressed in the PFC. Maximum sustainableyield, closed seasons, and limiting access throughlicenses are sufficiently dealt with in the Code. Science-based management decisions for EBFM are somehowimplied from these rules. These can provide adequateand sound bases when EBFM is jointly adopted byLGUs” (Eisma-Osorio 2005).

EBFM initiatives will need to consider what isalready working in the country and to build on existingand functional ICM models. It was noted thatintroducing new terms, structures, organizations andlaws is potentially disruptive when one considers that

the current and progressive Fisheries Code of thePhilippines took more than 10 years to craft before itwas enacted by Congress in 1998. The Fisheries Codecalls for a holistic approach to coastal and fisheriesmanagement and many opportunities remain to realizeits full implementation.

EBFM will require the engagement of national,provincial and municipal government organizations,NGOs and people’s organizations (POs). The BFARwithin the Department of Agriculture and theDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources arethe two key national agencies responsible for coastal andfisheries management. Because of the relative powerheld by municipal governments to manage their coastalresources and people, innovations in institutionalstructures will most likely occur in the manner thatLGUs coordinate and work together. Their jurisdictionsare large enough to fully address some EBFM problemsbut not large enough for others that span over multipleLGU boundaries.

At the provincial level, the BoholEnvironmental Management Office (BEMO) plays a keycoordinating and technical support role. The Governorof Bohol provides important leadership and momentumto this process.

The municipal government will play a centralrole in any management activities since most of DanajonBank is within municipal waters (out to 15 km fromshore). Mayors and their municipal councils will need tosupport the development of management plans andordinances to back regulations. These institutions willalso need to provide equipment and incentives to citizenenforcement groups and to facilitate access andinformation to police organizations into municipalwaters.

Managing Danajon Bank as a whole will requirethat municipal governments collaborate with oneanother. Such a high level of coordination is novel andwill likely take significant time to establish norms andpractical experience. Those mayors more experienced infisheries and coastal management should play lead rolesin inter-LGU organizations. While challenging, clearbenefits exist from such an approach. Turnover ofindividual mayors will be less disruptive tomanagement as a whole. Scarce and expensive resources


such as boats and engines could be shared. Illegal fisherswill not escape prosecution by targeting waters outsidetheir home municipality.

A current trend is to cluster municipal LGUsaround logical ecosystem-based boundaries, such asbays, along coastlines or channels between two islands.These efforts are starting to result in joint planning andimplementation efforts for coastal law enforcement. Ashighlighted by Eisma-Osorio (2005),

[T]he implementation of EBFM is anchored onthe basic principle of collaborative andcollective responsibility. EBFM requires astructure that will ensure coordination andcooperation among LGUs. There are twooptions which are identified: (a) tappingexisting structures such as the RegionalDevelopment Council in the case of inter-provincial cooperation or ProvincialDevelopment Council in the case of inter-municipality collaboration; or (b) creating aseparate management structure such as thecluster municipality councils. Forging newpartnerships and finding areas of commonground for collaborative action are central tothe process of implementation as well asbuilding and strengthening the roles andcapacities of LGUs and major stakeholders.

In addition to government support, there is an importantrole for NGOs and POs. In the Danajon Bank area, theProject Seahorse Foundation, PATH FoundationPhilippines, Feed the Children Foundation, Eco-GovProject, Community-based Resource ManagementProject and other NGOs work effectively with resourceusers and government entities. PATH FoundationPhilippines (http://www.pfpi.org/about.html) iscurrently working in two coastal municipalities (Talibonand Ubay) in the Danajon Bank area with an integratedreproductive health-coastal management approach. FISHand PATH Foundation already have an activecollaboration that will expand to help ensure thatunderlying issues, such as unmanaged populationgrowth, are considered in plans for Danajon Bank.

Project Seahorse Foundation is also anotherimportant partner interested in working with FISH to

improve the management of Danajon Bank. This NGOhas been active in the area for years with considerablesuccess in establishing MPAs, monitoring of reef habitatsand seahorse populations, local and internationaleducation, and organizing the fishery sector (Blanco2005).

Frequently these NGOs work to establish POs toensure program responsiveness to local needs andencourage participation. Most of the MPAs, aquacultureprojects and other fisheries management initiatives inthe area have associated POs that play central roles inproject design and implementation. Developing effectivefisheries management at a Danajon Bank-wide scale willrequire that these POs are networked. Project SeahorseFoundation has worked to establish one such fisheriesfederation named Kahugpongan sa Mananagat sa Danajon,Inc. (KAMADA, Inc.) (Barbon 2005a).

Historically, the private sector’s role in fisheriesor coastal monitoring, planning and policy developmenthas not been very strong. Developing viable alternativesto the use of cyanide for the capture of aquarium andlive food fish will require collaboration with the privatesector. Enforcement capacity, even with the aboveoutlined improvements, has not been able to keep upwith the explosive growth of these sectors whichencourage corruption at many levels and have beenresistant to traditional command-and-control approachesto management and enforcement. The Marine AquariumCouncil (MAC), an international NGO that is active insouthern Danajon Bank, works closely with the privatesector at all levels to encourage a sustainable aquariumfish industry (Box 3). Their experience and programshould be encouraged throughout Danajon Bank wheresuch fish are gathered.

Similarly, the private sector should be engagedin encouraging sustainable beach and dive tourism.While not currently a large part of the Danajoneconomy, there is considerable interest in developingthe tourism sector. If fisheries and marine habitats arebetter managed, tourism is likely to increase thusnecessitating that infrastructure is carefully developedand that tourism ventures support conservationmeasures in tangible and appropriate ways.

The above analysis demonstrates that effectivefisheries management in Danajon relies on the expertise


and support of a wide variety of stakeholder groups andinstitutions. Multisectoral and multitiered planningboards will be essential to encourage clearcommunication and integrated policy development.Established through a memorandum of understanding,the Cebu, Leyte, Bohol and Southern Leyte ManagementCouncil (CeLeBoSoLe Council) was formed to overseepolicy developments affecting Danajon Bank. Thecouncil and a technical working group are composed ofkey persons from provincial and municipalgovernments of Bohol, Leyte, Cebu and Southern Leyte,alongside key national agencies and NGOs.

At the June 2005 planning meeting hosted bythe FISH Project, a Bohol-based multisectoral and multi-institutional board named the Danajon Bank FisheriesManagement Planning Technical Working Group wasformed (Office of the Governor-Bohol 2005). Convenedby the Governor of Bohol and to be facilitated by theBEMO, this group has the following mandates:

" Develop a ten-year fisheries management plantowards the sustainable management, wiseutilization, protection and conservation offisheries resources of Danajon Bank, coveringthe municipal waters of Tubigon, Clarin,Inabanga, Buenavista, Getafe, Talibon, Bien

Unido, Trinidad, Ubay and Pres. Carlos P.Garcia.

" Propose policies and other measures in supportof the programs and strategies embodied in theten-year fisheries management plan.

" Propose mechanisms for inter-LGU and inter-agency collaboration in the management of theDanajon Bank.

" Coordinate and consult with the concernedmunicipalities, national government agencies,NGOs, POs, academic institutions, assistingorganizations, private individuals and otherinstitutions in the development of the ten-yearfisheries management plan for Danajon Bank.

" Perform oversight function in theimplementation and monitoring of programs,strategies, policies and other recommendationsembodied in the ten-year fisheries managementplan for Danajon Bank.

" Exercise such other duties and functions as maybe authorized by the Provincial Governor or theSangguniang Panlalawigan.

MONITORING AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENTMonitoring of social and ecological systems

provides fundamental information at all steps in the

BOX 3. AQUARIUM FISH COLLECTION AND THE MARINE AQUARIUM COUNCIL.

The MAC works with resident collectors in two sites in the southernmost section of Danajon Bank in the island province, Batasan Island(municipality of Tubigon) and Tangaran (a coastal village in the municipality of Clarin). MAC has worked with the local governments ofboth municipalities, and other stakeholders, in the formulation of a collection area management plan and in training fishers in the use ofnets. Part of this plan is the establishment or maintenance of existing marine sanctuaries. There are marine sanctuaries in both BatasanIsland and the village of Tangaran. The training of fishers was conducted by fellow aquarium fish collectors from other sites who havealready shifted to the use of nets with the help of previous programs focusing on reform in the aquarium collection and trade.

There are now 61 certified tropical fish collectors in these two sites (34 in Batasan Island and 27 in the village of Tangaran). Thesecollectors were former cyanide users. They ship most of their MAC-certified fish to MAC-certified exporters in Cebu and Manila, whoin turn ship these to MAC-certified importers in the US and Europe. Cyanide fishing and dynamite fishing around these collection siteshave been significantly reduced.

Now some of the aquarium fish collectors in these two sites have become trainers themselves in the use of nets, and are helpingaquarium fish collectors in other sites where MAC works shift to a more sustainable way of aquarium fish collection. The MAC is aninternational not-for-profit corporation that promotes sustainable coral reef management, sets standards and is an accreditation body forinternational certification of the global marine aquarium trade. (Ronet Santos, MAC)


management process. Baseline information establishesconditions prior to program implementation. Ongoingperiodic monitoring provides managers with an idea ofhow socioecological systems are responding tointerventions. This information is essential todeveloping context-specific management plans andeducational programs.

The goal of fisheries management is to modifyhuman behavior in a manner that encouragessustainability. Therefore successful fisheriesmanagement is reliant on a clear understanding ofsocial, economic and institutional systems and how theyalign with management objectives. At present, only themost basic social indices are regularly monitored. Thefollowing is a list of essential socioeconomic variablesand governance processes that should be monitored fordevelopment of an effective fisheries management plan(Christie et al. 2003):

" fishing effort, costs and profits;" local and national trade patterns for fisheries

products;" municipal and commercial fishing interactions;" fishing and tourism infrastructure and

interactions;" illegal and legal fishing behaviors and patterns;" perceptions of coastal resources and

management;" willingness and capacity of government and

nongovernment institutions to support EBFMfor commercial and municipal fisheries; and

" management status of declared MPA.

Without such information, decisions are grounded inimpressions and assumptions—a condition that isunlikely to lead to successful policy development(Christie et al. 2003; DAI and MERF 2004).

Similarly, ecological conditions and fisheryresponses to management must be monitored forsuccessful adaptive planning. In the Danajon area, theFISH Project will focus on a number of essentialparameters such as:

" fish density, diversity and biomass;" catch per unit of effort of major fishing gears;

and

" benthic conditions, particularly living coralcover.

In addition, focused studies on particular processes, suchas general current patterns, will assist with MPAnetwork design.

The effective management of social, economic,governance and ecological systems will determinewhether fisheries resources and marine habitats arerestored and sustained on Danajon Bank. Some of thenecessary social, governance and ecological informationhas been collected in the Danajon Bank area by previouscoastal management and conservation projects, butEBFM requires a considerable broadening of monitoringeffort. Such information should be fed into amultisectoral planning process that has the full supportof resource users and institutions with decisionmakingand enforcement mandates. A series of informationalworkshops that disseminate findings and develophuman capacity should be developed in order to supportadaptive planning.

SUSTAINING THE PROCESSEBFM represents a novel and ambitious

response requiring dedication and flexibility on the partof leaders, officials and resource users. Identifying andpreparing for likely challenges will improve the chancefor success. While Table 13 displays a list of generalchallenges and potential solutions, the process ofidentifying issues and potential solutions specific toDanajon Bank is a productive exercise.

Even successful management processes thatovercome some of the above issues may be difficult tomaintain over the long term (Christie 2005). ThePhilippines, while home to tremendous humanresources and experience, faces ever increasingeconomic, social and environmental pressures. Acomplex planning process that is frequently reliant onexternal funds and expertise is inherently unstable.Attention to the following dynamics is fundamental ifprogress toward EBFM is to be sustained in the longterm and beyond the life of the FISH Project .

While the importance of multisectoral planningboards is clear, experience from the Municipal Fisheriesand Aquatic Resources Management Councils andProtected Area Management Boards (PAMB) suggests


that these groups are challenging tomaintain. Common problems arethe: lack of a clear mandate,confused relations between LGUsand national agencies, and highmembership frustration andturnover (Doyle 2005). In some cases,such as the PAMB for the TubbatahaNational Park, the organization isvery effective. Real influence,sustainable financing andtransparent decisionmaking aresome of the factors that influencewhether such groups remaincommitted. Attention to incentivestructures, development of humanand institutional capacity, andconcrete systems of accountability are central tosustaining institutional commitment (Lowry et al. 2005).

Maintaining citizen commitment, which isfundamental to developing workable resourcemanagement systems, requires attention to effectivecommunity organizing strategies, meaningfulparticipation and conflict resolution (Christie et al. 2005;Oracion et al. 2005). The barriers to sustainedparticipation by impoverished resource users areconsiderable. While numerous civic organizations exist,active participation in such groups is not widespreadamong all social and livelihood groups particularly themost marginalized. For example:

of some 80 lantern fishers interviewed, only24 (30%) of them were involved in at least onecommunity-based organization. Of these 30%,the most common community organizationthat they were affiliated with was theTampuhan. This is a mutual help organizationwhere group members work together tocover the needs of its members duringfunerals, illnesses, baptismals, birthdays andfiestas. Very few were members of a fisher’sorganization, cooperative or non-governmentorganization. (Barbon 2005b)

Developing viable solutions to these potentialchallenges will require a lengthy participatory and

adaptive policymaking process. Unfortunately,institutional norms that discount environmental issuesand illegal practices are well established in some areasof Danajon Bank. Understandably, the local citizenrydoes not always prioritize these issues. The dramaticchanges that are necessary to recover degraded marinesystems will require a profound change in howPhilippine society relates with these resources. Policiesto establish sustainable fisheries in Danajon Bank willundoubtedly generate controversy and debate.However, if the monitoring and planning processesremain open, participatory and grounded in reliableinformation then local commitment is more likely todevelop (Pollnac and Pomeroy 2005).

SUSTAINABLE FINANCINGImproved management of Danajon Bank will

rely on ongoing monitoring, planning and actiontaking—all of which require financial support.Sustaining coastal and fisheries management, even at avery modest level, will require that officials prioritizethese activities as a basic service on par with supportingtraditional sectors such as education, health andinfrastructure development. Elected officials andenforcement agents will need to fully engage in aplanning process to identify priorities and opportunitiesto sustain activities. NGOs play necessary roles by

PLANNING MEETINGS BRING STAKEHOLDERS TOGETHER.


TABLE 11. CHALLENGES AND POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS FOR EBFM IN DANAJON BANK.

Challenges

Unsustainable financing: heavy reliance on external funding forfisheries and coastal managementWeak governance: corruption, unclear mandates

Institutional inertia

Legal framework is not conducive to EBFM: no clear legalframework for inter-LGU collaboration; commercial fishingoperations consider municipal water boundaries to be arbitraryIgnorance of impacts of environmentally damaging practices,such as illegal fishing, deforestation, shoreline hardening

Potential solutions

Endowment for Danajon Bank; taxation and permit fee systemfor coastal resource useMultisectoral planning groups to encourage decisionmakingtransparency, leadership development and communityorganizationIncentives to encourage relevant national agencies and LGUsto develop supporting policies, regulations and technicalassistance for EBFM; education campaigns making publicofficials accountable to their constituenciesPolicy and legal initiatives, joint planning by LGUs, artisanal andcommercial fishing interests

Enforcement, education

Context issues:

Resistance to change:

Potential to lose community/LGU support while scaling upmanagement effortsConflict: between commercial and municipal fishers, betweenlegal and illegal fishers, between fishing and tourism interestsPowerful and illegal fishing syndicates for live fish trade andtrawling resistant to changeUnwillingness to limit access/fishing effort due to poverty andignorance

Participatory planning, continued support of community-levelprojectsConflict resolution training, mediation by objective third party

Enforcement at multiple levels, education, international pressureto regulate marketsTargeted closures, education, alternative livelihood development

providing funding, technical support and externalevaluation of government commitment.

Developing sustainable financial mechanismsand funding streams will help sustain progress (Milneand Christie 2005). Creative solution schemes will needto be developed. For example, fines for illegal fishingshould be used to provide sustainable financing forenforcement activities. Financial incentives and awardsshould be provided for particularly active and effectiveenforcement agents. Diver fees collected by guards andbarangay officials at small community MPAs can be usedto support monitoring and patrols as is done elsewherein the Philippines.

Considering the unique ecological nature ofDanajon Bank, an international campaign should belaunched to establish an endowment fund to support itsmonitoring and management. Fees collected fromprivate sector interests that benefit from improvedresource management (e.g., diving, aquaculture andcommercial fishing) would support long-term

management of an ecosystem from which users deriveprofits and would help ensure stakeholder engagementin planning how funds are used.

SUMMARYDanajon Bank and reliant human communities are

in crisis. A globally significant ecosystem that took some6,000 years to create is literally on the brink of collapse—an event that would have serious consequences forthousands of people. Fortunately, the will to change howDanajon Bank is treated is growing. Decisionmakers,scientists and citizens increasingly realize that a sustainedand comprehensive program is of the highest priority.

The first steps have already been taken.Fisheries and habitat baselines, the June 2005 planningmeeting and this profile represent some of the initialsteps toward improved management of Danajon Bank.The success of any process will depend, to a great extent,on the degree to which resource users and policymakerscommit to a collaborative process of research, planning,


action taking and evaluation. Out of the June 2005meeting, a province-wide planning group has beenformed. Their role will be to foster, with FISH and otherorganizations, the improved management of DanajonBank. We hope that this profile will serve well as aresource for those engaged in that challenging, butpotentially rewarding, process.

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