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Reading Focus

• How did peace create problems for the Allies?

• How did the Cold War conflict worsen in the late 1940s?

• What were some of the early Cold War confrontations?

Main Idea

Once partners in war, the Soviet Union and the other former Allies found it much more difficult to cooperate in peace. The result was an era of conflict and confrontation called the Cold War.

Beginnings of the Cold War

• In World War II the Allies worked together to defeat the Axis

• At war’s end, shattered European nations needed to be dealt with

• This task placed a great strain on the alliance

• Much of Germany in ruins when war ended, May 1945

• Allies needed to establish system to govern and rebuild nation

Occupying Germany • Allies began to plan

Germany’s future before war’s end

• Agreed on major issues at Potsdam

• Agreed to divide into four zones of occupation

Four Zones• Soviet Union to

control one-third

• Remaining two-thirds controlled by rest of Allies

• Also divided capital of Berlin into four occupation zones

Capital Divided

The Problems of Peace

Trials and Reparations• Military courts tried more than two hundred Nazi, military officials

• Several dozen sentenced to death for roles in Holocaust, war crimes

• Allies also agreed on plan for Germany to pay reparations for destruction caused by war; in form of currency, industrial equipment

• Soviet Union got largest share; had suffered greatest destruction

Ridding Germany of Nazis• Allies also worked together to establish plan to rid Germany of any

remnants of Nazi Party, Nazi beliefs

• Brought former Nazi, military leaders to justice for crimes committed during war at Nuremberg trials in Nuremberg, Germany; 1945–1949

Beyond Germany

• Allies agreed on Germany, what to do with rest of Europe more difficult

• Even before war ended, major Allied powers in conflict over Eastern Europe

• Eastern Europe bordered Soviet Union, was occupied by Soviet forces

Growing Tensions

• American, British leaders believed Stalin planned to establish pro-Soviet Communist governments throughout Eastern Europe and beyond

• Growing tensions between Allies about to lead to another conflict

Buffer Zone

• Soviet leaders had been invaded by Germany in both wars

• Wanted buffer zone of friendly governments to guard against another attack

• Stalin promised to respect Eastern Europeans’ right to choose governments

Eastern Europe

Identify Supporting Details

What problems did peace bring for the Allies?

Answer(s): how to treat defeated countries, disagreements on what to do with Eastern Europe

As communism spread throughout Eastern Europe, tension between the Soviet Union and the western democracies continued to grow.

The relationship between the Soviet Union and the Western nations continued to worsen after the war. Soon the United States and the Soviet Union entered an era of tension and hostility, which became known as the Cold War.

• Cold War more than military rivalry

• Struggle for power, control between two nations with very different approaches

• Conflict between communism, capitalist democracy

The Struggle Begins

The Conflict Worsens

• Backed by Soviet troops, pro-Soviet Communist governments established in Eastern Europe

• Only Yugoslavia avoided Soviet domination, although it was led by Communist dictator

Pro-Soviet Governments

• March 1946, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave speech in U.S.

• Churchill used image of iron curtain to describe the division of Europe as result of Soviet actions

• Said this was serious threat to peace

Iron Curtain

• Tension worsened by Soviet failure to remove troops from northern Iran

• January 1946, President Truman warned “Another war is in the making.”

• February 1946, Stalin stated publicly he believed war between East, West bound to happen

Another Possible WarMore Tension

The democratic nations of the West soon faced a test of their resolve to contain the Communist East.

• Early 1947, Soviet backed Communists threatened governments of Greece, Turkey

• President Truman announced Truman Doctrine—pledge to provide economic, military aid to oppose spread of communism

• Congress agreed to send aid to Greece, Turkey

The Truman Doctrine• Because of post-war

economies, Truman believed more European countries might turn to communism

• U.S. launched massive program of economic aid

• Marshall Plan provided $13 billion for rebuilding Europe

• Plan helped Western Europe make rapid recovery from war, preserved political stability

The Marshall Plan

The West Resists

Summarize

How did conflict between East and West worsen after World War II?

Answer(s): Communism spread to most of Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union would not withdraw troops from Iran, the West resists with Truman Doctrine, aid to Turkey and Greece

• Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan demonstrated West’s Cold War policy, containment

• Containment involved resisting Soviet aggression in order to contain spread of communism

• Confrontations between East, West soon became increasingly severe

• Division of Germany, Berlin originally meant to be temporary

• 1947, Western leaders began planning creation of independent democratic German nation

• Also planned democratic government in West Berlin

Crisis in Berlin• June 1948, Soviets blocked off

land, rail, water routes into West Berlin to force West to leave Berlin

• Western leaders organized Berlin airlift to supply Berlin by air

• Airlift successful; Soviets called off blockade May, 1949

West Berlin Blockade

Cold War Confrontations

New Nations and AlliancesGermany and NATO

• At end of Berlin crisis, western zones of Germany formed Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany

• Soviet zone became German Democratic Republic, or East Germany

• U.S., Canada, most Western European countries joined in military alliance—North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO—designed to counter Soviet power in Europe

• 1955, Soviet Union, Communist nations of Eastern Europe formed own alliance, Warsaw Pact

Division of Korea• Allies gained control of Korea after Japan’s World War II surrender• Soviet Union, U.S. agreed to temporarily divide country in half• Soviets established Communist government in north; U.S. supported non-

Communist regime in south

MacArthur at Inchon• UN formed military force; troops from 17 nations sent to Korea• North Koreans nearly conquered south within matter of months• American general Douglas MacArthur, UN forces landed behind enemy lines

at Inchon; tipped balance back in favor of UN forces

Eisenhower’s Warning• June 1950, North Koreans attacked South Korea • U.S. asked United Nations to approve use of force to stop invasion• Eisenhower: “We’ll have a dozen Koreas soon if we don’t take a firm stand.”

War in Korea

Push Back

• UN forces pushed North Koreans out of south

• Drove deep into North Korea near Chinese border

Stalemate

• 1951, war settled into stalemate

• Battle lines lay about where they had been before North Korea’s initial invasion

War Shifts Again

• War shifted again when Communist Chinese came to aid of North Korea

• Drove UN forces out of north

End of War

• 1953, both sides agreed to armistice; war over

• Little changed during war

• North remained Communist state; South, ally of West

UN Responds

Summarize

What were some Cold War confrontations of the 1940s and 1950s?

Answer(s): Soviet blockade of West Berlin, Berlin airlift, Korean War

Reading Focus

• How did the arms race begin in the 1950s and early 1960s?

• How did the Cold War contribute to conflict around the world?

• How did the superpowers attempt to achieve arms control during the Cold War?

Main Idea

As the Cold War continued, the world’s two superpowers—the Soviet Union and the United States—competed for power and influence around the world.

Superpower Rivalries

The U.S. technological advantage was short-lived. Less than one year later the Soviets tested their own hydrogen bomb.

During the 1950s and early 1960s nuclear war seemed to draw ever closer as the Soviet Union and the United States raced to develop powerful new weapons. This rivalry between the world’s two superpowers became increasingly tense—and dangerous.

• 1949, Soviets successfully tested atomic bomb

• Great military advantage of U.S. over Soviet Union gone

• U.S. sought to develop even more powerful weapons

The Nuclear Arms Race

The Arms Race Begins

• Atomic bombs used energy created by splitting atoms

• Nuclear fusion—larger explosion

• 1952, U.S. tested first fusion-powered hydrogen bomb, vaporizing island on which tested

Hydrogen Bomb

Strategy of Deterrence

• Deterrence, development of or maintenance of military power to prevent attack

• Two superpowers locked in arms race to gain advantage in weapons• U.S. had more weapons, but nuclear attack by either side would lead

to terrible destruction

Change in Tactics

• Both sides forced to change military tactics• Could no longer rely on conventional forces, like troops, tanks• U.S., Soviets increased stockpiles of nuclear weapons• Nuclear weapons central to deterrence

In October 1957 the arms race took another leap forward with the Soviet Union’s successful launch of Sputnik.

• Sputnik, history’s first artificial satellite—object orbiting earth

• Soviet military technology now feared to be in the lead

• U.S. government established National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA

• Agency would eventually return United States to forefront of space research

Sputnik• Growing threat of nuclear war

• Significant impact on people

• Built bomb shelters to help protect from nuclear explosion

• Schools led air-raid drills to prepare for possible Soviet attack

• Books, movies, comic books had plots centered on dangers of radiation, nuclear war

Public Fears

Soviet Union Launches Sputnik

Red ScareCold War led to so-called Red Scare in U.S.

• Many Americans feared possible Communist influence in U.S. government

• U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy

– Prompted congressional committee in effort to expose Communists in American film industry, government, late 1940s, early 1950s

– Accused many innocent people of Communist activities

Identify Supporting Details

How did the arms race begin?

Answer(s): development of atomic and hydrogen bombs

The Korean War showed that Cold War rivalry could lead to conflict far from the United States or the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, this rivalry led to struggles for influence in countries around the world.

• End World War II, France tried to reestablish control over Southeast Asia

• Communist rebels in Vietnam fought back, forcing French to give up control

War in Southeast Asia

• Peace agreement temporarily divided Vietnam in half

• Communists controlled North, anti-Communist regime ruled South

Vietnam Divided

• U.S. supported South Vietnam, when revolution broke out sent military troops

• Eventually North Vietnamese fought alongside rebels

• War dragged on until mid–1970s

American Support

Cold War Around the World

Crossing Over

• After Communist East Germany, democratic West Germany formed in 1949, tens of thousands of East Germans crossed from East to West Berlin

• Some wanted to live in free nation, other simply wanted to find work

Communist Brutality

• Barrier, Berlin Wall, heavily guarded

• Anyone attempting to cross risked being shot by East German guards

• Succeeded in slowing flight of East Germans, became symbol of Communist system brutality

Berlin Wall

• By 1961, up to 1,000 per day made daily trip between homes in East Germany, jobs in West Berlin

• To stop exodus, East Germany erected barrier between two halves of city

Another Crisis in Berlin

• 1959, rebels led by Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s dictator• Installed Communist government• Centrally planned economy, close ties with Soviets• Actions worried United States; Cuba near Florida coast• Cuba’s alliance with Soviet Union brought Cold War close to

American territory

• U.S. government secretly trained invasion force to overthrow Castro

• April 1961, force came ashore at Cuba’s Bay of Pigs

• American officials believed invasion would start uprising against Castro

• Instead invaders quickly defeated

Bay of Pigs• 1962, Cuban missile crisis, two

week confrontation between U.S., Soviet Union over installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba

• After standoff missiles removed; U.S. agreed to remove missiles from Turkey, not attack Cuba

Cuban Missile Crisis

Communism in Cuba

Find the Main Idea

How did the Cold War play out around the world?

Answer(s): Communism was spreading to many other countries, and the United States became involved in an attempt to stop its spread around the world.

Reading Focus

• How did independence come to Southeast Asia?• What were the main causes of the Vietnam War?• How has Southeast Asia changed in recent decades?

Main IdeaLong under colonial domination, many Southeast Asian nations achieved independence in the postwar years. The transition, however, was not always a smooth one.

Independence Struggles in Southeast Asia

• During war, Japanese occupied these Southeast Asian colonies

• Occupation helped weaken grip of European, American powers

• Some nations decided to end colonial presence in region at end of war

• U.S. granted independence to Philippines; British gave up Burma

End of Colonial Presence

• Before World War II, Southeast Asia controlled by major colonial powers

• Burma, Malaya controlled by British; Philippines by United States; Indonesia was Dutch colony

• Modern day countries of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia part of French colony, French Indochina

Colonial Powers

Independence in Southeast Asia

Struggles• Communist rebels in Malaya fought British before

achieving independence

• Group known as Vietminh fought French troops to win Vietnamese independence

– Vietminh leader, Communist Ho Chi Minh

– Received assistance from China, Soviet Union

– Major goal was independence, not expansion of communism

– After years of fighting, Vietminh defeated France; French control of Indochina ended

Make Generalizations

How did Southeast Asian nations achieve independence?

Answer(s): In some areas, Japanese occupation during World War II helped weaken the grip of the European and American powers in the region. In others, independence came with struggle.

Fighting with France was over, but conflict was not—Ho Chi Minh’s dream of a united, independent Vietnam would be achieved only after years of war.

• 1954, representatives from France, Vietnam, U.S., Soviet Union, other nations met to establish peace agreement for Vietnam

• Talks reflected Cold War tensions

• Worried about spread of communism, Western powers did not want Ho Chi Minh, Communists, to have complete control of Vietnam

Vietnam’s Future• Vietnam temporarily divided into

northern, southern halves

• Communists would control north

• Voters to choose government for reunited Vietnam in 1956

• President Eisenhower warned if Vietnam fell to communism, other Southeast Asian nations would quickly follow

• Belief that communism would spread called domino theory

Domino Theory

The Vietnam War

U.S. supported South Vietnam• U.S. supported South Vietnam to keep from being taken over by North

• South Vietnam leader Ngo Dinh Diem prevented 1956 election

• Also made enemies with corrupt, brutal rule

Fighting Escalates• As Vietcong influence spread, U.S. increased aid to South Vietnam

• Also sent thousands of military advisors to help South Vietnamese forces

• August 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson informed Congress two U.S. Navy ships subject of unprovoked attack by North Vietnamese gunboats

Vietcong• Diem’s enemies formed Vietcong, “Vietnamese Communist”—not all

Vietcong Communists; all shared goal of overthrowing Diem, reuniting Vietnam

• Soon North Vietnamese entered South Vietnam, fought alongside Vietcong

Fighting Begins

American Presence in Vietnam

• American military presence in Vietnam grew quickly, hundreds of thousands of combat troops sent to region

• Increased U.S. involvement forced North Vietnam, Vietcong to change military strategy

• Rather than press for quick victory, focused on outlasting enemies

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

• True, one U.S. ship fired on by North Vietnamese; second attack seems to have been misunderstanding

• Johnson did not mention full facts, Congress passed Gulf of Tonkin Resolution—gave Johnson power to expand U.S. involvement without formal declaration of war

• 1968, North Vietnamese army, Vietcong carried out daring strike against cities, other targets across South Vietnam

• Attack began on Vietnamese New Year, called Tet—came to be known as Tet Offensive

• Offensive military setback for Vietcong; still delivered heavy political blow to U.S., South Vietnamese effort

• American leaders had claimed victory in Vietnam close at hand

• Tet Offensive dramatically showed this was not case

• Attacks greatly weakened American public support for war

Weakened Support• After Tet Offensive, war

expanded into Laos, Cambodia

• North Vietnamese had supply network—Ho Chi Minh Trail

• U.S. efforts to destroy trail failed

• More Americans opposed war

Opposition Grew

Tet: A Turning Point

End of War

• 1973, after long negotiations, U.S. reached peace agreement with North Vietnam, withdrew military support; without support, South lost ground

• 1975, North Vietnamese tanks rolled into Saigon, ending war

Still Communist Nation

• 1995, U.S. formally recognized united Vietnam

• Two nations agreed to improve trade relationship

• Many economic reforms; political reforms slow for Communist nation

After the War

• 1976, Vietnam reunited officially, but faced major problems

• Millions dead or made homeless; Vietnamese economy severely crippled

• 1980s, abandoned Soviet-style planned economy, made economic reforms

Vietnam War Ends

Make Generalizations

Summarize the course of the Vietnam War.

Answer(s): United States feared Communists would take control of South Vietnam; war began and U.S. involvement increased; American public opposition to the war grew; United States removed troops; North Vietnamese took control of South Vietnam.

• Cambodia endured years of struggle after winning independence from France in 1953

• In 1975 Communist Khmer Rouge gained control of country• Khmer Rouge established Communist government led by Pol Pot• Renamed country Kampuchea• Began radical program to rebuild Cambodian society

• Goal: country of simple peasants• To achieve goal, all influences of

urban life, modern civilization had to be destroyed

• All opposition destroyed• Anyone educated killed• 1.5 million died

Rebuilding Society• Conflict between Khmer Rouge,

Vietnam turned into war• 1979, Vietnam invaded Cambodia,

forced Pol Pot from power• Pol Pot led Khmer Rouge guerrillas

in civil war throughout 1980s• Now rebuilding

Constitutional Monarchy

Cambodia

While relations between East and West were largely hostile throughout the Cold War, some attempts at cooperation were made.

• Eisenhower proposed open skies treaty with Soviet Union

• Each side could fly over other’s territory, gather accurate weapons information

• With accurate information, neither side would have to imagine worst about enemy

• Soviets rejected proposal

Early Arms Control• Soviet leaders proposed total

nuclear disarmament

• United States rejected idea

• President Kennedy favored limited nuclear weapons tests

• Cuban missile crisis convinced both sides important to make arms control progress

• 1963 U.S., Soviets agreed on Test Ban Treaty

Test Ban Treaty

Attempts at Arms Control

SALT I

• U.S. President Richard Nixon sought détente, reduced tension between superpowers; started negotiations called Strategic Arms Limitations Talks

• SALT I talks led to agreements limiting nuclear weapons held by each side

SALT II

• Vulnerability important element of principle of deterrence

• Two sides began new round of talks called SALT II

• Talks resulted in arms control treaty in 1979: never ratified by U.S. Senate

ABM Treaty

• Also led to Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, preventing development of weapons designed to shoot down nuclear missiles

• Meant to ensure each side remained vulnerable to other’s nuclear weapons

SALT I and SALT II

Reagan Presidency

• Reagan took aggressive position against Soviet Union

• Wanted to develop missile defense system

INF Treaty

• 1988, two countries ratified Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty

• Called for elimination of certain types of missiles

Arms Reduction Talks

• Idea of system seemed to violate spirit of ABM Treaty

• Began arms reduction talks with Soviet leader Gorbachev

Improving Relations

• After many years of conflict, relationship between U.S., Soviet Union began to improve

The 1980s

Sequence

What were the major arms control agreements negotiated by the Soviet Union

and the United States?

Answer(s): Test Ban Treaty, SALT I, reducing the number of nuclear weapons each side held, ABM Treaty that prevented the development of weapons that shoot down nuclear missiles

Reading Focus

• How did the Communists take over China?

• What were the main events that took place in China under Mao’s leadership?

• How did China change in the years after Mao’s death?

Main Idea

China has undergone many changes since becoming a Communist nation in 1949. today, after making many market reforms, China has a rapidly growing economy.

Communist China

During World War II the Chinese Communists and the nationalist Guomindang put aside differences to fight Japanese invaders.

• Once Japan defeated, civil war resumed

• Guomindang forces outnumbered Mao’s Communists, but Communists had wide support among China’s peasants

• Rural Chinese peasants had long been oppressed by brutal landlords, high taxes, policies of Jiang Jieshi’s corrupt government

Civil War Resumes

• Communists promised to take land from landlords, distribute to peasants

• By 1949, Communists had driven Guomindang almost entirely from China

• Guomindang control limited to small areas on mainland, several islands, including Taiwan

Public Support

Communists Take Over China

• China faced many difficulties, including crippled economy, lack of functional government

• Some countries opposed to communism refused to recognize Mao

• Claimed Jiang’s government on Taiwan was true Chinese government

Opposition to Mao

• October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong stood before huge crowd in Beijing

• Announced formation of People’s Republic of China

• Mao’s strategy of guerrilla warfare in rural China

People’s Republic of China

Communists Take Over China

Summarize

Why did peasants support the Communist takeover of China?

Answer(s): because the Communists promised them land

Having defeated the Guomindang, Mao set about building a Communist China. His first concern was rebuilding a country that had been torn apart by years of civil war.

• Communist ideology shaped new government

• Change in China’s political, economic systems

• Government discouraged practice of religion

Rebuilding China

• Also seized property of rural landowners, redistributed among peasants

• Put in place Soviet-style five-year plans for industrial development

Development

• 1957, first plan doubled China’s small industrial output

• Early efforts to build economy successful

• Improved economy, reduced poverty

First Plan

China under Mao

Early YearsImprovements in literacy rates, public health

• Chinese life expectancy increased sharply over next few decades

• Improvements came at a cost

– To consolidate Communist control over China, government soon began to eliminate so-called “enemies of the state” who had spoken out against government’s policies

– Many thousands—including public officials, business leaders, artists, writers—killed, or sent to labor camps

The Great Leap Forward• 1958, in break from Soviet-style economic planning, Mao announced

program designed to increase China’s industrial, agricultural output

• The Great Leap Forward created thousands of communes, collectively owned farms, of about 20,000 people each

• Each commune to produce food, have own small-scale industry

China Modeled on Soviet Union• Soviet Union provided financial support, aid in China’s first years

• China modeled many of its new political, economic, military policies on Soviet system

• 1950s, territorial disputes, differences in ideology pushed China away from Soviet ally

• Failure of Great Leap Forward led to criticism of Mao

• Soviet criticism, withdrawal of Soviet industrial aid widened rift between two Communist nations

• By early 1960s, relations had broken down completely; China virtually isolated in world community

China Virtually Isolated

• Plan was disaster; small commune factories failed to produce quantity, quality of goods China needed

• Combination of poor weather, farmers’ neglect led to sharp drops in agricultural production

• Famine spread through rural China; tens of millions starved to death between 1959 and 1961

Planning Disaster

The Great Leap Forward

New Movement• Mid-1960s, Mao tried to regain power, prestige lost after Great Leap Forward• Initiated new movement called Cultural Revolution, sought to ride China of

old ways, create society where peasants, physical labor were the ideal

Destruction of Society• Mao lost control; Red guards murdered hundreds of thousands of people; by

late 1960s, China on verge of civil war before Mao regained control• Cultural Revolution reestablished Mao’s dominance, caused terrible

destruction; civil authority collapsed, economic activity fell off sharply

Red Guards• Campaign meant eliminating intellectuals who Mao feared wanted to end

communism, bring back China’s old ways• Mao shut down schools, encouraged militant students, Red Guards, to carry

out work of Cultural Revolution by criticizing intellectuals, values

The Cultural Revolution

Analyze

How did life in China change under Mao?

Answer(s): The failure of the Great Leap Forward and the isolation of China triggered the Cultural Revolution.

Reforms Begin• 1976, Mao died; his death followed by retreat from many of his policies• China began to end isolation from rest of world in early 1970s• 1972, U.S. President Richard Nixon visited China, meeting with Mao• During last years of Mao’s life, much power wielded by group of four people

known as Gang of Four

• Gang of four included Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing—responsible for some of worst features of Cultural Revolution

• After Mao’s death, more moderate leaders imprisoned Gang of Four

Gang of Four• Deng Xiaoping eventually became

China’s leader, helped put in place far-reaching market reforms

• Deng’s reform plan, Four Modernizations, sought to modernize: agriculture, industry, science and technology, defense

Four Modernizations

China After Mao

More Freedoms

• Inspired by movement toward economic freedom

• Chinese demanded more political freedom

Leaders Impatient

• China’s leaders repeatedly asked protestors to leave square

• Protestors remained, met with force

Pro-Democracy Protestors

• Spring 1989, democratic reforms in Eastern Europe

• One million pro-democracy protestors occupied Beijing’s Tiananmen Square

Freedom Had Not Arrived

• June 1989, tanks, troops moved into square

• Killed protestors in Tiananmen Square Massacre

Tiananmen Square

This has caused shortages and higher costs for these resources on the global market, as well as air and water pollution within China.

China’s economy has grown rapidly as market reforms have continued. Today, China’s economy is the second largest in the world, behind only the United States. As the economy has improved, so has the standard of living for many Chinese.

• Economic growth has not reached all China’s 1.3 billion people

• To prevent further population growth, Chinese government encourages families to have only one child

Economic Development

China Today

• Large population, rapidly expanding industries

• High demands on resources, environment

• Imports coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas to meet energy needs

Other Challenges

Human Rights IssuesHuman rights abuses another concern for critics of China

• Chinese government continues to limit free speech, religious freedoms

• Exercises strict control over the media

• Political protestors can be jailed

• Nation’s courts accused of failing to provide fair trials

• Critics increased calls for reforms after Beijing chosen to host 2008 Olympic Games

Make Generalizations

How did China change in the years after Mao’s death?

Answer(s): isolation lessened, more moderate leaders took power; new economic freedom led to call for political freedom, improved standard of living

Reading Focus

• How did the Soviet Union break up?

• What changes occurred in Europe after communism ended?

• What challenges does the United States face today?

Main Idea

The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991 and the Cold War came to an end, bringing changes to Europe and leaving the United States as the world’s only superpower.

After the Cold War

The fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet-backed regimes in Eastern Europe showed the dramatic crumbling of Soviet power.

• Soviet Union consisted of 15 separate republics

• Some had been independent nations before World War II and long wanted freedom

• 1990, Lithuania declared independence; appeared other republics planned same

• Not clear if Soviets had will, power to stop movement

Soviet Union Collapses• August 1991, hard-line

Communists tried to end Gorbachev’s reforms in coup

• Effort failed due to opposition of Boris Yeltsin, leader of republic of Russia

• Yeltsin favored more radical changes than Gorbachev

• Did not want to see hard-liners take over Soviet Union

Government in Crisis

The Breakup of the Soviet Union

• Twelve republics united in loose confederation, Commonwealth of Independent States

• Mighty Soviet Union, once one to two most powerful countries in world, no longer existed

• Cold War finally over after more than 40 years of tension, conflict

End of Soviet Union

• Although coup failed, Gorbachev’s power largely gone

• Republic after republic declared independence

• By end of 1991, Soviet government had ceased to function

Gorbachev’s Power Gone

Failed Coup

More Freedom

• Yeltsin began to allow private ownership of businesses, land

• Business owners, workers able to take advantage of economic opportunities

• However, lost guarantee of government-backed job, other government supports

Economic Change

• Soviet Union fell; communism ended in former Soviet republics

• In largest republic, Russia, Boris Yeltsin began campaign to alter economy’s basic structure

• Goal to make economy function like capitalist system

Mixed ResultsEarly results of Russia’s reforms mixed

• Some entrepreneurs prospered, most ordinary Russians did not

• Prices rose sharply

– Many Russians could not afford to buys goods in stores

– Some questioned benefits of market reform

• Early 2000s, Russia rebounded somewhat from economic crises; still, path from communism to capitalism not easy

Ethnic Unrest

• After Soviet Union fell, underlying issues in region bubbled to top

• Two were ethnic unrest, need for new governments

• One example of ethnic unrest took place in Chechnya, in Caucasus region

Azerbaijan

• Early 1990s, another example of ethnic conflict occurred when ethnic Armenian minority sought to break away from country of Azerbaijan

• Tens of thousands died in fighting that followed

Chechnya

• Chechnya considered part of Russia

• When Chechens tried to gain independence from Russia, dispute led to bloody fighting, insurgency that still affects region today

Other Issues

Challenging TransitionTransition from communism to new

government challenging for some former republics

• 2004, Ukraine held election

• Election had to be repeated amid widespread charges of fraud

• Results of elections left Ukraine deeply divided

• Such transitions continue to trouble the region

Summarize

How and why did the Soviet Union break up?

Answer(s): Republics fought for freedom and independence, Communist Party leaders tried to overthrow the government and end Gorbachev's reforms, and republics gained independence.

The collapse of the Iron Curtain brought new opportunities and new challenges to Europe. The end of communism brought much economic change as well as new threats to peace.

• Communist governments with strict control

• In Yugoslavia, control helped suppress tensions between various ethnic, religious groups living there

Yugoslavia

• Tensions began to surface

• Nationalism grew as ethnic, religious tensions increased

• Independence

• Serbia tried to prevent breakup of Yugoslavia

Nationalism

• Conflict broke out

• Bosnia and Herzegovina at war

• Independence declared in 1992

• Bosnian Serbs went to war to stop independence

Bosnian Serbs

Europe after Communism

Fighting in Kosovo

• Soon fighting began in Serbian province of Kosovo

• Serbs, ethnic Albanians fought over control of area

• 1999, NATO airplanes bombed Serbian targets to stop conflict

• NATO peacekeepers eventually maintained order there, although Kosovo remains Serbian province today

War in Bosnia

• Serbs used policy of ethnic cleansing against Bosnian Muslims

• Ethnic cleansing means elimination of an ethnic group from society through killing or forced emigration

• U.S.-led diplomatic efforts finally ended violence in Bosnia in 1995

Market Reforms

• End of communism brought mixed results for Eastern European economies

• Market reforms created new opportunities for many people

• Some started businesses; some got management, technical jobs

The European Union

• European Union (EU), single economic unit in competition with U.S.

• Many of newer members far poorer than older Western Europe members; some in wealthier nations worry their economies will suffer

Strain on Western Europe

• Others fared less well; earnings not increasing for all workers

• High unemployment in some areas, forcing many to move to West

• Newcomers compete with longtime residents for jobs, resources

Economic Change

Summarize

How has Europe changed since the end of communism?

Answer(s): High unemployment has led many Eastern Europeans to move to Western Europe for jobs and opportunities.

Missions Around the Globe

• U.S. forces took part in missions around globe, including NATO operations in Kosovo, conflict in Somalia, restoring elected government in Haiti

• American leaders continued work toward solution of conflict between Israel, Palestinians—which continued to defy peaceful resolution

New Conflicts

• Even as Cold War ended, U.S. faced new conflict in Middle East

• 1990, Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, attacked neighboring Kuwait

• Invasion troubling; Iraq threatened Kuwaiti, Saudi Arabian oil supplies

• U.S. led multinational force into battle in Persian Gulf War

• Series of terrorist attacks on American targets in U.S. and overseas, including bombings of World Trade Center (1993), U.S. embassies in Kenya, Tanzania (1998)

• Attacks planned, carried out by Islamist terrorist organization, al Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden

• Deadliest attack killed 3,000

• al Qaeda terrorists hijacked and crashed three passenger airplanes in New York City and Pentagon

• Fourth crash in Pennsylvania

9-11

• U.S. responded to attacks, targeting al Qaeda, Taliban

• Taliban, group then governing Afghanistan according to strict interpretation of Islamic law

• Supported, protected al Qaeda

War on Terror

The War on Terror

• March 2003, U.S-led attack on Iraq topped Iraqi government

• Weapons inspectors failed to find stockpiles of biological, chemical weapons, evidence proving Saddam had role in September 11 attacks

• U.S., coalition forces occupied Iraq, began rebuilding

• Iraqis elected new government, but nation faces ongoing violence; rebuilding stable Iraq will take years

Rebuilding Iraq

• Fall 2001, U.S.-led military campaign invaded Afghanistan, forced out Taliban

• President George W. Bush then focused on Iraq

• Saddam Hussein used chemical weapons against Iraq in 1980s; some claimed he still possessed such weapons, supported anti-American terrorist organizations

Focus on Iraq

Iraq

Summarize

What threats does the United States face today?

Answer(s): conflicts in the Middle East and the war on terror

The Rwandan Genocide1994

History of the Conflict

• In the fifteenth century the Tutsis were the rulers of most of today's Rwanda– Put in place by the Belgians to rule

• Tutsis were a minority of the population, mostly herders

• Majority Hutus were mostly croppers• When kings distributed the land, they gave it the

to Tutsis who charged Hutus to live and work on the land

Evolution of Titles

• Originally an ethnic distinction• Everyone who wasn’t Tutsi is labeled Hutu• Became an economic status

– Gaining wealth meant losing “Hutuness”

• When the Belgians gained the land as part of the Treaty of Versailles in 1918, they used the distinction to “divide and rule”– Issued passcards to Rwandans – Gave preferential treatment to Tutsis (“with the long nose”)

• Hutu’s had “blunt nose”

Beginning of a Social Revolution

• Hutus begin to form a a nationalist party (Parmahutu) to fight for their rights in 1959

• Began killings of Tutsi (20,000 the first year)

• 200,000 Tutsi refugees flee border and from the Rwanda Patriotic Front

• Rwanda gains its independence from Belgium in 1961

What we have so far…

• Tutsi minority is ruling

• Hutus have formed groups to fight against the injustice

• Tutsi refugees have formed groups in other countries

The Rwandan Civil War

• Conflict lasting from 1990-1993+• Between the government of

President Habyarimana (Hutu)

and the rebel Rwandan Patriotic

Front (Tutsi group in other country)– Tutsis were trying to take back the power in Rwanda– Peace agreements were signed, but Habyarimana

(Hutu President) doesn’t cede power to any other political party

Habyarimana

The Action of…

• two extremist Hutu militias– The Interahamwe

• "those who stand together" or "those who work together" or "those who fight together”

• A Hutu paramilitary organization• Backed by the Hutu Government

– Impuzamugambi• "Those who have the same goal" or "Those who

have a single goal" • Hutu militia

The Catalyst

• On April 6, 1994,the airplane carrying Rwandan President Habyarimana and the Hutu president of Burundi was shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali

• Both presidents died when the plane crashed. • Responsibility for the attack is disputed, with

both the RPF and Hutu extremists being blamed• In spite of disagreements about the identities of

its perpetrators, the attack on the plane is to many observers the catalyst for the genocide

The Beginnings of Genocide

• National radio urged people to stay in their homes

• the government-funded station RTLM broadcast vitriolic attacks against Tutsis and Hutu moderates• Hundreds of roadblocks were set up by the

militia around the country• Lieutenant-General Dallaire of the UN

Peacekeeping Force and UNAMIR, escorting Tutsis in Kigali, were unable to do anything as Hutus kept escalating the violence and even started targeting the peacekeepers themselves

The Killings• Killed in their villages or in towns, often by their neighbors and fellow villagers

• Militia members typically murdered their victims by hacking them with machetes, although some army units used rifles

• The victims were often hiding in churches and school buildings, where Hutu gangs massacred them

• Ordinary citizens were called on by local officials and government-sponsored radio to kill their neighbors and those who refused to kill were often killed themselves

• Everyone killed so they weren’t killed themselves:– Mayors– Priests– EVERYONE

Number Killed

• Unlike Nazis they didn’t keep record• The RPF government has stated that 1,071,000

were killed, 10% of which were Hutu (determined in February 2008)

• Gourevitch agrees with an estimate of one million

• United Nations lists the toll as 800,000• African Rights estimates the number as "around

750,000," • Human Rights Watch states that it was "at least

500,000

Issues Post-Genocide• Approximately two million Hutu

refugees, most of whom were participants in the genocide and with anticipation of Tutsi retaliation, fled from Rwanda, to Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo)

• Thousands of them died in epidemics of diseases common to the squalor of refugee camps, such as cholera and dysentery– These are the refugee camps that

were aided by the UN and the US• The refugees have fueled wars in

Uganda, Burundi, and the DRC

Questions Still Exist• Why didn’t the US do anything?

• Why didn’t the UN listen to Daillaire?

• How could people kill their neighbors?

• How many actually died?

• How can we prevent this from happening again?

Save DarfurSave Darfur

Darfur: The century’s first genocideDarfur: The century’s first genocide

400,000 dead400,000 dead

2.5 million displaced2.5 million displaced

10,000 dying every month10,000 dying every month

Hundreds of thousands of lives have been Hundreds of thousands of lives have been lost, but countless more can be saved.lost, but countless more can be saved.

““Injustice anywhere is a threat to Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.” justice everywhere.”

-Martin Luther King Jr.-Martin Luther King Jr.

““Every few months we are driven away Every few months we are driven away from one refugee camp to the other, so from one refugee camp to the other, so far in the desert where nothing, nothing far in the desert where nothing, nothing at all exists. This is no way for a human at all exists. This is no way for a human being to live. No way to live in such a being to live. No way to live in such a

shocking place – uncultivated, shocking place – uncultivated, waterless, treeless and barren waterless, treeless and barren

region...! Everything is burning, Lord, region...! Everything is burning, Lord, around me, around us ... in me, in us ... around me, around us ... in me, in us ...

Everything is barren, hell, hell!”Everything is barren, hell, hell!”(continues)(continues)

Darfur, SudanDarfur, Sudan

Origins of the ConflictOrigins of the Conflict

DroughtDroughtNorth-South Civil WarNorth-South Civil WarDictator: Omar Al-BashirDictator: Omar Al-BashirMarginalization of DarfurMarginalization of Darfur

DroughtDrought

North-South Civil WarNorth-South Civil War

““The most long-lasting and devastating The most long-lasting and devastating war in the world.”war in the world.”

-Jimmy Carter-Jimmy Carter

General Omar Al-Bashir and General Omar Al-Bashir and the National Islamic Frontthe National Islamic Front

Marginalization of Darfur Marginalization of Darfur

Current SituationCurrent Situation Janjaweed MilitiasJanjaweed Militias Government sponsored terrorGovernment sponsored terror Destruction of towns, food and Destruction of towns, food and

water supplieswater supplies Millions are still threatened, at risk Millions are still threatened, at risk

of starvation, rape and murderof starvation, rape and murder Children in dangerChildren in danger

Janjaweed:Janjaweed:Devils on HorsebackDevils on Horseback

Government-Sponsored TerrorGovernment-Sponsored Terror

Thousands of Towns DestroyedThousands of Towns Destroyed

Civilian Targets BombedCivilian Targets Bombed

Food and Water Supplies RuinedFood and Water Supplies Ruined

Millions Still ThreatenedMillions Still Threatened

Mass StarvationMass Starvation

Rape and Murder of CiviliansRape and Murder of Civilians

Children At RiskChildren At Risk

AbductionAbduction of Childrenof Children

Impact on the Next GenerationImpact on the Next Generation

““Now my nights are hard because I feel frightened…“Now my nights are hard because I feel frightened…“-Taha, age 13-Taha, age 13

““They know what they are doing…they are They know what they are doing…they are doing it with purpose.”doing it with purpose.”- Ali, Refugee Teacher- Ali, Refugee Teacher

Save DarfurSave Darfur

Darfur: The century’s first genocideDarfur: The century’s first genocide

400,000 dead400,000 dead

2.5 million displaced2.5 million displaced

10,000 dying every month10,000 dying every month

Hundreds of thousands of lives have been Hundreds of thousands of lives have been lost, but countless more can be saved.lost, but countless more can be saved.

““Every few months we are driven away Every few months we are driven away from one refugee camp to the other, so from one refugee camp to the other, so far in the desert where nothing, nothing far in the desert where nothing, nothing at all exists. This is no way for a human at all exists. This is no way for a human being to live. No way to live in such a being to live. No way to live in such a

shocking place – uncultivated, shocking place – uncultivated, waterless, treeless and barren waterless, treeless and barren

region...! Everything is burning, Lord, region...! Everything is burning, Lord, around me, around us ... in me, in us ... around me, around us ... in me, in us ...

Everything is barren, hell, hell!”Everything is barren, hell, hell!”(continues)(continues)

Darfur, SudanDarfur, Sudan

Origins of the ConflictOrigins of the Conflict

DroughtDroughtNorth-South Civil WarNorth-South Civil WarDictator: Omar Al-BashirDictator: Omar Al-BashirMarginalization of DarfurMarginalization of Darfur

DroughtDrought

North-South Civil WarNorth-South Civil War

““The most long-lasting and devastating The most long-lasting and devastating war in the world.”war in the world.”

-Jimmy Carter-Jimmy Carter

General Omar Al-Bashir and General Omar Al-Bashir and the National Islamic Frontthe National Islamic Front

Marginalization of Darfur Marginalization of Darfur

Current SituationCurrent Situation Janjaweed MilitiasJanjaweed Militias Government sponsored terrorGovernment sponsored terror Destruction of towns, food and Destruction of towns, food and

water supplieswater supplies Millions are still threatened, at risk Millions are still threatened, at risk

of starvation, rape and murderof starvation, rape and murder Children in dangerChildren in danger

Janjaweed:Janjaweed:Devils on HorsebackDevils on Horseback

Government-Sponsored TerrorGovernment-Sponsored Terror

Thousands of Towns DestroyedThousands of Towns Destroyed

Civilian Targets BombedCivilian Targets Bombed

Food and Water Supplies RuinedFood and Water Supplies Ruined

Millions Still ThreatenedMillions Still Threatened

Mass StarvationMass Starvation

Rape and Murder of CiviliansRape and Murder of Civilians

Children At RiskChildren At Risk

Abduction of ChildrenAbduction of Children

Impact on the Next GenerationImpact on the Next Generation

““Now my nights are hard because I feel frightened…“Now my nights are hard because I feel frightened…“-Taha, age 13-Taha, age 13

““They know what they are doing…they are They know what they are doing…they are doing it with purpose.”doing it with purpose.”- Ali, Refugee Teacher- Ali, Refugee Teacher

International ResponseInternational Response

United Nations United Nations African Union African Union NATONATO United States of AmericaUnited States of America