classical schools of thought: scientific management 1 intro - evolved in the late 19 th & early...
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Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
Intro- Evolved in the late 19th & early 20th century- Perspective emerges from the industrial revolution & centers on theories of efficiency - Towards the end of 19th century, factory production became pervasive, time for large scale organizations & production- People have been looking ways to increase productivity - During this period, work was performed by skilled craftsmen who had learned their jobs in lengthy apprenticeships
F.W. Taylor- In 1911, Frederick Winslow Taylor published his work, The Principles of Scientific Management - With a background in Mechanical Engineering, Taylor had emphasized on ‘Efficiency’- Advanced his career at a US steel manufacturer, designed workplace experiments
Scientific Management
- Explained how application of scientific method to the management of workers could improve productivity - Converted skilled crafts into a series of simplified jobs
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
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Soldiering Taylor observed the phenomena of workers purposely operating below their capacity;- Universally held belief among workers that of they became more productive, fewer of them would be needed & jobs would be eliminated - Non- incentive wage systems, encouraged lower productivity. Employee received the same wages irrespective of how much they produced- A fear that faster pace would become the new standard . If employees were paid by the quantity they produce, they fear that management would decrease their per- unit pay, if the quantity increases- Workers relied on rule of thumb method rather than on optimal work
To counter soldiering & to improve efficiency, Taylor began to conduct experiments to determine the best level of performance for certain jobs, and what was necessary to achieve this performance.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
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Time Studies/ Time & Motion
Studies
- Taylor argued that most basic task could be planned in a way that dramatically could improve productivity - Initiative & incentive method offered an incentive to increase productivity but placed the responsibility on the worker to figure out how to do it- Taylor performed experiments that he called ‘Time Studies’
Pig IronIf workers were moving 12.5 tons of pig iron everyday, they could be incentivized to move 47.5 tons per day but that would depend on their own wits. They would get exhausted in few hours & fail to reach the goal
- Conducting experiments to determine the amount of resting that was necessary, using stop watch- Worker’s managers could determine the optimal timing of lifting & resting, so that the worker could move 47.5 tons per day
Not all workers were physically capable of moving 47.5 tons of pig iron per day. Only 1/8th of workers had the physical capabilities to do the same. This example suggests that ‘workers should be selected according to how well they are suited for a particular job’.
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
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Science of Shoveling
The optimal weight that a worker should shovel is 21 pounds.- The shovel should be sized to a weight of 21 pounds, so that workers could easily lift the iron- Factory provided the workers with optimal shovels
The result was a three fold increase in productivity & workers were rewarded with pay increases. Taylor believed in ‘A fair Day’s Pay for a Fair Day’s Work’
Taylor’s Principles of
Scientific Management
After several years of experiments, Taylor proposed four principles of Scientific Management;1. Replace rule of thumb method with methods based on a scientific
study of tasks2. Scientifically select, train & develop each worker rather than
passively leaving them to train themselves 3. Cooperate with the workers to ensure that the scientifically
developed methods are being followed4. Divide work nearly equally between managers & workers, so that the
managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work & the workers actually perform the tasks
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
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Critiques of Scientific
Management
- Increased the monotony of work- Core job dimensions of; - Skill variety - Task identity - Task significance - Autonomy - Feedback All were missing from the picture of scientific management- Use of stop watches were not accepted by workers in many US factories. It led to a strike in one of the factories where ‘Taylorism’ was practiced. - Complaints were registered that Scientific Management was dehumanizing
http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_Taylor.htm
Classical Schools of Thought: Scientific Management
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Classical Schools of Thought: Gantt Chart
What- Is a bar chart- Developed by Henry Gantt- In the year 1910s- Illustrates project schedule (start date, finish date, activities involved in the project)- Measures planned and completed work along each stage of production, based on time instead of quantity, volume, or weight
How Schedule for Blood Donation Camp in the Campus on December 25, 2014
S.No ActivityDec-14
I week II week III week IV week
1 Venue
2 Logistics
3 Marketing
4 Doctors
5 Drinking Water Area
6 Ambulance
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Classical Schools of Thought: Bureaucratic Management
Background- Max Weber disliked that many European organizations were managed on a “personal” family like basis and that employees were loyal to ‐ individual supervisors rather than to the organization- He believed that organizations should be managed impersonally having a formal organizational structure, where specific rules were followed
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/more-subjects/principles-of-management/the-evolution-of-management-thought/classical-schools-of-management
Bureaucracy1. A well defined hierarchy: ‐ - Structured positions - Higher positions to supervise & control lower positions - Clear chain of command2. Division of labor and specialization: - Specialized roles & responsibilities - Expertise in any particular task3. Rules and regulations: - SOP (Standard Operating Procedures)4. Impersonal relationships between managers and employees: - No favoritism and personal prejudice to influence decisions making5. Competence: - Competence should be the basis for all decisions made in hiring, job assignments, and promotions6. Records: - Maintenance of files regarding all activities
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Classical Schools of Thought: Bureaucratic Management
http://danawilliams2.tripod.com/authority.html
Forms of Authority
Traditional Authority- Ability & right to rule is passed down- Tends to be irrational and inconsistent- Maintains Status Quo
Charismatic Authority- A leader whose mission and vision inspire others- A head of a new social movement- Example: Martin Luther King, Mahatma Gandhi
Legal rational Authority- Empowered by a formalistic belief in the content of the law- Obedience is given to a set of rational principles- Example: Bureaucracy, Modern States
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Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Background- Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841- When he was 19, he began working as an engineer at a large mining company in France. - He eventually became the director, at a time when the mining company employed more than 1,000 people- Fayol developed 14 most important principles of management Essentially, these explained how managers should organize and interact
with staff- Fayol's "14 Principles" was one of the earliest theories of management to be created
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htmhttps://managementinnovations.wordpress.com/2008/12/04/henri-fayols-14-principles-of-management/
Fayol's 14 Principles of
Management
1. Division of Work – When employees are specialized, output can increase because they become increasingly skilled and efficient
2. Authority – Managers must have the authority to give orders, but they must also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility
3. Discipline – Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods for doing so can vary. Penalties should be applied, if not followed.
4. Unity of Command – Employees should have only one direct supervisor
5. Unity of Direction – Teams with the same objective should be working under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that action is properly coordinated
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Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Fayol's 14 Principles of
Management
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest – The interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important than those of the group. This includes managers
7. Remuneration – Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation
8. Centralization – This principle refers to how close employees are to the decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance
9. Scalar Chain – Employees should be aware of where they stand in the organization's hierarchy, or chain of command
10. Order – The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for employees. Everything should have its place
11. Equity – Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel – Managers should strive to minimize employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority
13. Initiative – Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom to create and carry out plans
14. Esprit de Corps – Organizations should strive to promote team spirit and unity
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htm
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Classical Schools of Thought: Administrative Management
Fayol's 6 Functions of Management
1. Forecasting2. Planning: What, When, Why, Where, Who, How3. Organizing: raw materials, tools, capital and human resources.
Identifying responsibilities, grouping them into departments or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships
4. Commanding: Managers need to implement the plan. They must have an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their personnel. Leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization requires proper allocation of resources and an effective support system.
5. Coordinating: to harmonize all the activities to facilitate organizational success. Communication is the prime coordinating mechanism
6. Controlling: Monitoring function that evaluates quality in all areas . Ensuring high-quality performance and satisfactory results while maintaining an orderly and problem-free environment
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayolism
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Behavioral Perspective: Human Relations Approach: Elton Mayo
Background - In the early 1920s, a shift began towards human side & social needs of the employees- Neo classical theories answered questions related to the best way to motivate, structure, and support employees within the organization- Classical theories created an attitude among managers that employees were nothing more than an accessory to a machine- It was unrealistic to expect standardization among emotional beings
http://education-portal.com/academy/topic/behavioral-school-of-management-theory.htmlhttp://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/neo-classical-theory-of-management-the-human-relations-approach.htmlhttps://www.boundless.com/management/textbooks/boundless-management-textbook/organizational-theory-3/behavioral-perspectives-30/the-human-side-hawthorne-170-8381/
Hawthorne Studies:
Conclusions
1. Workers' attitudes are associated with productivity2. Workplace is a social system and informal group’s influence could
exert a powerful effect on individual behavior3. Style of supervision is an important factor in increasing workers' job
satisfaction- Began in 1924 till 1930s with the workers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company - Elton Mayo & Roethlisberger are the main names associated with it-The studies originally looked into whether workers were more responsive and worked more efficiently under certain environmental conditions, such as improved lighting- Studies found that workers were more responsive to social factors; such as people they worked with in a team, the amount of interest their managers had in their work
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Behavioral Perspective: Mary Parker Follett
http://www.business.com/management/management-theory-of-mary-parker-follett/http://womenshistory.about.com/od/business/p/m_p_follett.htm
Mary Parker Follett
- Power: “Power Over” & “Power With”, differentiate coercive power from participative decision making- True leaders create group power, rather than expressing personal power- Conflict resolution through Integration
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Behavioral Perspective: Chester Barnard
Acceptance Theory to Authority
- Manager's authority rests on workers' acceptance of his right to give orders and to expect compliance- There are a reasons for this expectation:•Workers will be rewarded for compliance •There will be discipline for non-compliance •Workers respect the manager for his experience -Effective & Efficient Organizations: When organizations meet their
goals on time, its effective. Efficient means the degree to which the organization can satisfy the motives of its employees
http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/chester-barnard-informal-organizations-and-acceptance-theory.html
Informal & Formal
Organizations
- Formal organizations operate under a set of rules and policies designed to carry out the organizational purpose- Organizations are made up of groups of individual workers. Naturally, these individual workers form informal social groups that become the informal organization. The informal organization exists within a larger formal organization
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Behavioral Perspective: Hierarchy of Needs: Abraham Maslow
http://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
Self-Actualization needs- realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences
Esteem needs- achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, respect from others
Social Needs/ Love and belongingness needs- friendship, intimacy, affection and love, from work group, family, friends, romantic relationships
Safety needs- protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear
Biological and Physiological needs- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep
Reputation: how other people see them, fish for compliments
What we think of ourselves, Self confidence we have, Internal environment, 50% of people are satisfying our internal needs
Basic level of survival
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Behavioral Perspective: Theory X-Y: Douglas McGregor
Theory X Assumptions
- The average person dislikes work and will avoid it as much as one could- Most people must be forced with the threat of punishment to work towards organizational objectives-The average people prefers to be directed; dislikes responsibility- Wants security above all else- Theory X managers, do not give their staff the opportunity to explore so that they behave in an expected fashion
http://www.businessballs.com/mcgregor.htmhttp://www.accel-team.com/human_relations/hrels_03_mcgregor.html
Theory Y Assumptions
- Control & punishments are not the only ways to make people work- Man will direct himself if he is committed to the aims of the organization - If a job is satisfying, then the result will be commitment to the organization- The average man learns under proper conditions, to accept & carry out responsibility - Imagination & creativity can be used to solve large number of problems
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Systems Theory
What- Systems theory (new way of conceptualizing and studying organizations) was proposed in the 1940's by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy- Real systems are open to, and interact with, their environments- There happens continual evolution- Rather than reducing an entity (e.g. the human body) to the properties of its parts- Systems theory focuses on the arrangement of and relations between the parts which connect them into a whole (holism)- Systems concepts include: system-environment boundary, input, output, process, state, hierarchy, goal-directedness, and information
http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/systheor.html
Process
InputResources(Goods,Funds, People)Services(Financialconsulting, Legal)
OutputSystems return product to the environment
FeedbackPositiveNegative
Environment
- Synergy- Interdependence- Interconnection - within the org. - B/w the org.- env. - Org. as organism
Structure of an Organization as Per Systems Theory Explanation
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Systems Theory
DifferentiationClassical Theory
- Worker as a tool for improving efficiency- Not applicable to tasks that are not simple & homogeneous- Increased Labor- Management conflict
& strengthening of labor union
Humanistic Theory- Manipulating people
to comply with management directives, instead of understanding human behavior & mankind desirable changes in the org.- Overemphasized human needs, & not on org. tasks & process
Systems Theory- Provides an analytical framework for viewing an org. in
general (organism) - Recognizes;1. Interdependence
of personnel2. Impact of
environment on organizational structure and function
3. Affect of outside stakeholders on the organization
Properties of System
Environmental Interaction
- Open system’s interaction with the outside environment- Parts that make up a system are interrelated
Synergy- When all organizational subsystems work together making the whole greater thanthe sum of it’s parts
Entropy- The tendency for systems to decay over time
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Systems Theory
Characteristics of Organization
- Role of Communication: - Inter communication: exchange information b/w organization & environment - Intra communication: exchange information within various systems
- Types of Subsystems: - Production (technical) Subsystems - concerned with outputs, eg; assembly line - Supportive Subsystems - ensure production inputs are available, eg; import raw material, Procurement - Maintenance Subsystems - social relations in the system, eg; HR - Adaptive Subsystems - monitor the environment and generate responses, eg; PR - Managerial Subsystems - coordinate, adjust, control, and direct subsystems, eg; Senior Management
- Boundaries: - Physical Boundary - prevents access (security system) - Linguistic Boundary - specialized language (jargon) - Systemic Boundary - rules that regulate interaction (titles) - Psychological Boundary - restricts communication (stereotypes, prejudices)
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Contingency Approach
Contingency Approach
- Research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s focused on situational factors that affected the appropriate structure of organizations and the appropriate leadership styles for different situations- There is no one best way to manage- To be effective, planning, organizing, leading, and controlling must be tailored to the particular circumstances faced by an organization- Stable Environment: Centralization, formalization, standardization, and specialization- Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch- suggest that organizational units operating in differing environments develop different internal unit characteristics, and that the greater the internal differences, the greater the need for coordination between units- Joan Woodward- financially successful manufacturing organizations with different types of work technologies; 1. unit or small batch 2. large-batch or mass-production 3. continuous-process differed in the number of management levels, span of management, and the degree of worker specialization
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Contingency Approach
Contingency Approach
- Organizational Size- Small organizations can behave informally while larger organizations tend to become more formalized. Small Organization: owner of a may directly control most things Large organizations: complex and indirect control mechanisms, specialized staff, units, and jobs.
Contingency Perspective &
Leadership
- Fred Fiedler, in the 1960s and 1970s, was an early pioneer in this area- Task-oriented or relationship oriented leadership - Fiedler believed that leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed called Least-Preferred Co-Worker- The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed/
most enjoyed working with
The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively, resulting in a lower score. He said that low LPCs are very effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get tasks and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.
However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal connections, and they're good at avoiding and managing conflict. They're better able to make complex decisions.
http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Comp-De/Contingency-Approach-to-Management.htmlhttp://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/fiedler.htm
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Total Quality Management
Contingency Approach
- Total Quality Management (TQM) is a management approach that originated in the 1950s & gained momentum in 1980s- All members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services, and the culture in which they work- ‘Customer Satisfaction’ is the end result
http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/total-quality-management/overview/overview.html
Elements of TQM
- Customer Satisfaction- Employee Involvement: Styles of Leadership, Employee relating to co. vision & mission, flow of communication, proper environment to work, self managed work teams- Process centered- Integrated systems: horizontal processes interconnected. Eg; HR process of ‘PMS’- Individual Goal Setting – Manager Goal Setting – Mid year review – Departmental Discussion – Calibration Meeting (HR) – Final review - Strategic and systematic approach: To achieving an organization’s vision, mission, and goals, the formulation of a strategic plan that integrates quality as a core component- Continual Improvement- Fact based decision making- Communication
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Total Quality Management
14 Principles of TQM By W.
Edward Deming
- Create loyalty of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with the aim to become competitive and to stay in business, and to provide jobs- Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. Western management must awaken to the challenge, must learn their responsibilities, and take on leadership for change- Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product- Move towards a single supplier for any one item, on a long term relationship of loyalty & trust - Improve constantly the system of production & service to improve quality & productivity - Institute training on the job- Institute Leadership. The aim of leadership should be to help people & gadgets to do a better job- Drive out fear. So that everyone can work effectively for the company- Break down barriers between department. People in research, design, production must work as a team, to foresee problems- Eliminate work standards (quotas)/ Eliminate management by objectives (numbers, numerical goals). Substitute leadership for both
https://www.deming.org/theman/theories/fourteenpoints
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Total Quality Management
14 Principles of TQM By W.
Edward Deming
- The responsibility of workers must be changed from number to quality- Institute a vigorous program of education & self improvement- Transformation is everybody’s job
https://www.deming.org/theman/theories/fourteenpoints
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Theory Z: William Ouchi
Background- Back in the '70s and '80s, Japanese organizations were arguably the most productive and efficient in the world- The secret to their success was how they were managing their people –
Japanese employees were engaged, empowered, and highly productive- Ouchi first wrote about Theory Z in his 1981 book, "Theory Z: How American Management Can Meet the Japanese Challenge." He created the theory after conducting research designed to help American companies compete with Japanese businesses
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/theory-z.htm
Theory Z - A Strong Company Philosophy and Culture: The company philosophy and culture needs to be understood and embodied by all employees, and employees need to believe in the work they're doing- Long-Term Staff Development and Employment: The organization and management team has measures and programs in place to develop employees. Employment is usually long-term, and promotion is steady and measured. This leads to loyalty from team members.- Consensus in Decisions: Employees are encouraged and expected to take part in organizational decisions.- Generalist Employees: Because employees have a greater responsibility in making decisions, and understand all aspects of the organization, they should be "generalists." However, employees are still expected to have specialized career responsibilities.
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Theory Z: William Ouchi http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/theory-z.htm
- Concern for the Happiness and Well-Being of Workers: The organization shows sincere concern for the health and happiness of its employees, and for their families. It puts measures and programs in place to help foster this happiness and well-being- Informal Control with Formalized Measures: Employees are empowered to perform tasks the way they see fit, and management is quite "hands off." However, there should be formalized measures in place to assess work quality and performance- Individual Responsibility: The organization recognizes the contributions of individuals, but always within the context of the team as a whole
Theory Z
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Unfreeze – Change – Free: Kurt Lewinhttp://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html
Stage 1: Unfreeze- This stage is about getting ready to change- It involves getting to a point of understanding that change is necessary- Force Field Analysis: Change is all about weighing up the 'pro's' and 'con's' and deciding if the 'pro's' outnumber the 'con's' before you take any action- If there are more ‘cons’ to change than the motivation to change would
be low- This first 'Unfreezing' stage involves moving ourselves, or a department, or an entire business towards motivation for changeStage 2: Change- Change is not an event but a process (transition- the inner movement or journey we make in reaction to a change) - People are 'unfrozen' and moving towards a new way of being- Hardest stage, as people are unsure or fearful- Support is really important in the form of training, coaching, and expecting mistakes as part of the process- Communication is an important aspect to keep people together
Details
- Kurt Lewin emigrated from Germany to America during the 1930's - Recognized as the "founder of social psychology” - Highlights his interest in the human aspect of change, factors that influence people to change
Kurt Lewin
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Unfreeze – Change – Free: Kurt Lewinhttp://www.change-management-coach.com/kurt_lewin.html
Stage 3: freeze- This stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been made- The changes are accepted and become the new norm- People form new relationships and become comfortable with their routines
Details
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MBO: Peter Druckerhttp://kalyan-city.blogspot.com/2010/06/management-by-objectives-mbo-peter.html
- The genesis of MBO is attributed to Peter Drucker who has explained it in his book 'The Practice of Management‘ in 1954- Objectives should not be imposed on subordinates but should be decided collectively by a concerned with the management- It is a demanding and rewarding style of management- MBO is based on the assumption that people perform better when they know what is expected of them and can relate their personal goals to organizational objectives- It is a result-oriented philosophy and offers many advantages such as employee motivation, high morale, effective and purposeful leadership and clear objectives before all concerned persons- MBO involves the establishment of goals by managers and their subordinates acting together, specifying responsibilities and assigning authority for achieving the goals and finally constant monitoring of performance
MBO
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Cognitive Dissonance: Leon Festinger http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html
- Festinger's (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in harmony and avoid
disharmony (or dissonance)- According to Festinger, we hold many cognitions about the world and ourselves; when they clash, a discrepancy is evoked, resulting in a state of tension known as cognitive dissonance- The situation can be divided into three main areas: - Forced compliance behavior - Decision-making - Effort- Dissonance can be reduced in one of three ways: - Change one or more of the attitudes - Acquire new information - Reduce the importance of the cognitions
Details
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Leadership Pattern: Robert Tannenbaum & Warren H. Schmidt https://hbr.org/1973/05/how-to-choose-a-leadership-pattern
- How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” describes ”democratic management” and devises a leadership continuum ranging from authoritarian to democratic (1958)
Details
Manager makes decision & announces it
Manager sells discussion
Manager presents decision & invites questions
Manager presents tentative decisions subject to change
Manager presents problem, gets suggestions, makes decision
Manager defines limits, asks group to make decision
Manager permits subordinates to function within limits defined by superior
Use of authority by the manager Area of freedom for
subordinates
Boss centered Leadership Subordinate centered Leadership
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Transactional Analysis: Eric Bernehttp://www.businessballs.com/transact.htmhttp://www.ericberne.com/transactional-analysis/
- Eric Berne, in his book Games People Play (1964), identified three ego states for studying the psychology of human relationships-Transactional Analysis is the method for studying interactions between individuals
Transactional Analysis
- A consistent pattern of feeling and experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior- Berne defined the three ego states as: Parent, Adult, and Child
Ego State
Parent
Child
Adult
- Represents a massive collection of recordings in the brain of external events- The majority of the external events experienced by a child are actions of the
parent, the ego state was appropriately called Parent- Parent is our 'Taught' concept of life- Our internal reaction and feelings to external events- Our internal reaction and feelings to external events- Child is our 'Felt' concept of life
- Our 'Adult' is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves- The Adult allows the young person to evaluate and validate Child and Parental data- Adult is our 'Thought' concept of life
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Organization
• http://www.uk.sagepub.com/upm-data/27411_7.pdf