clarity 2012 presentation draft - victoria law foundation · expert advice on legal writing ... set...

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Karen Schriver, Ph.D.

Plain Legal Language: The Underlying Research

© 2012 Karen Schriver | KSA Communication Design & Research

Overview

!  What are typical guidelines from experts in plain legal language?

!  Do guidelines for plain legal language have empirical support?

!  What aspects of good writing and design do plain legal language guidelines miss?

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Research Process

!  Identify typical guidelines for legal writing

!  Use my research review as a framework to sort guidelines

!  Determine empirical support for guidelines

!  Assess coverage and gaps

Expert Advice on Legal Writing

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Guidelines for Plain Legal Writing (randomly ordered :-)


Omit unnecessary detail.

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Order the parts in a logical sequence.


Use ample white space—and use it meaningfully. Space should convey structure.

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Use between 50 and 70 characters per line.


Avoid using capital letters.

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Use a topic sentence to summarize the main idea of each paragraph or of a series of paragraphs on the same topic.


Use a topic sentence to summarize the main idea of each paragraph or of a series of paragraphs on the same topic.

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Keep sentences to an average length of about 20 words.


Sentences on average should be short, but it’s also important to vary your style.

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Don’t pile up a series of conditions or qualifiers before the main clause. Put them after the subject and verb. Itemize conditions separately if it will help the reader.


Keep the subject near the verb.

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Prefer familiar words–usually shorter ones—that are simple and direct and human.


Avoid unnecessary jargon.

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Use page layout and space to convey the text’s structure.


Adopt a “you” style: use personal pronouns, including we and you.

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Avoid multiple negatives.


Use informative headings.

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Try putting the main headings in the form of a question.


Use headings to provide readers with a road map.

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Simplify wordy phrases. Watch out for too many prepositional phrases.


Use concrete words.

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Use a readable typeface.


Use diagrams, tables, and charts as needed to help explain the text.

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Use highlighting techniques (itemized lists, boldface, italics, color), but do not over use them.


Set the text using “ragged right” rather than “justified” margins (set with parallel margins).

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Vary the length of paragraphs, but generally keep them short.


Whenever possible, test your document.

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For long documents, make a table of contents.


Know your reader.

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Use the right tone.


Use contractions to achieve a more conversational tone.

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Research Review (1980–2010)

Consolidates 500+ empirical studies

!  How people read functional texts

!  How reading may be shaped by

–  Writing

–  Visual design

–  Technology


Interdisciplinary Perspective

!  Information design

!  Technical communication

!  Rhetoric

!  Reading & literacy

!  Library science

"   Cognitive psychology

"   Educational psychology

"   HCI & human factors

"   Psycholinguistics

"   Technology studies

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Findings: Writing & Visual Design

Writing – Whole-text level: Verbal

– Sentence-level

– Word-level

Visual Design – Whole-text level: Graphic

– Layout features

– Typographic features


Whole-text Level: Verbal

!  Previews, advance organizers, summaries

!  Headings

!  Connectives and structural signals

!  Organization and genre cues

!  Repetition and redundancy

!  Grouping and clustering

!  Topical structure

!  Text density

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Features Characteristics Findings Implications Research

Text Density Ratio of content words to total words Many concepts vs few concepts Amount of modification before nouns Number of words before verb

• Texts with a greater ratio of content words (adjectives, adverbs, nouns, verbs) to total words tend to be dense and make remembering the main points more difficult. • Fewer concepts per paragraph are more easily understood than many concepts per paragraph. • The greater the number of adjectives and adverbs before a noun, the more difficult the sentence is to process. • The more words before the verb, the more dense the sentence and the greater the cognitive load.

• Consider the demands that dense text can place on readers and edit for comprehension. • Make text simpler to process by reducing the number of adjectives or adverbs before nouns. • To avoid taxing working memory, reduce the number of words that come before the verb. • Avoid dense paragraphs and strive to reduce the number of inferences readers must make.

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[1] A. C. Graesser, D. S. McNamara, and M. M. Louwerse, "What do readers need to learn in

order to process coherence relations in narrative and expository texts," in Rethinking reading comprehension, A. P. Sweet and C. E. Snow, Eds., ed NY: Guilford Publications, 2003, pp. 82-98.

[2] G. R. Klare, "Assessing readability," Reading Research Quarterly, vol. 10, pp. 61–102, 1974.

[3] C. A. Perfetti, "Lexical density and phrase structure depth as variables in sentence retention," Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, vol. 8, pp. 719-724, 1969.

[4] M. A. K. Halliday, Spoken and written language, 2nd ed. ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

[5] E. W. Dolch, "Fact burden and reading difficulty," Elementary English Review, vol. 16, pp. 135-138, 1939.

[6] W. Kintsch and J. Keenan, "Reading rate and retention as a function of the number of propositions in the base structure of sentences," Cognitive Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 257-274, 1973.

[7] S. Kemper, "Measuring the inference load of a text," Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 75, pp. 391-401, 1983.

[8] J. R. Bormuth, "Development of readability analyses," Office of Education, Bureau of Research, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, DC, Final Report, Project No. 7-0052 Contract No. OEC-3-7-070052-0326, 1969.

[9] J. N. Ure, "Lexical density and register differentiation," in Applications of linguistics: Selected paper of the Second World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Cambridge 1969, G. E. Perren and J. L. M. Trim, Eds., ed London: Cambridge University Press, 1971, pp. 443-452.

[10] D. S. McNamara, M. M. Louwerse, Z. Cai, and A. Graesser. (2005, January 1, September 8, 2006). Coh-Metrix version 2.0. [Report]. Available: http://141.225.14.229/CohMetrixDemo/demo.htm

Example: Text Density


Sentence-level Features

!  Syntax

!  Voice

!  Anaphora

!  Prepositions

!  Given-new

!  Negatives

!  Embedding

!  Conditionals

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Word-level Features

!  Length

!  Frequency

!  Complexity

!  Concreteness

!  Noun strings

!  Nominalizations


Whole-text Level: Graphic

!  Visual impression

!  Hierarchy

!  Grouping

!  Proximity

!  Lists

!  Images

!  Repetition

!  Contrast

!  Density

!  Consistency

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Layout Features

!  Line length

!  Columns

!  Whitespace

!  Alignment


Typographic Features

!  Typeface (serif versus sans serif)

!  Typesize

!  Case

!  Line-spacing

!  Justification (justified or ragged right)

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Sorting the Legal Guidelines

!  Raters provided with summary tables of research findings

– six categories from review

!  Raters read the 32 guidelines on separate 3x5 cards and sorted them into the six categories


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Results

!  Raters agreed (94% of the time)

!  Differed on categories for:

– Adopt a “you” style; use personal pronouns

– Use highlighting techniques (lists, boldface, italics, color)


Legal Writing: Whole-text Guidelines

!  Use informative headings.

!  Order the parts in a logical sequence. !  Omit unnecessary detail. !  Vary the length of paragraphs, but generally

keep them short.

!  Use a topic sentence to summarize the main idea of each paragraph or of a series of paragraphs on the same topic.

!  Whenever possible, test your document.

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Legal Writing: Whole-text Guidelines

!  Use the right tone.

!  Try putting the main heading in the form of a question.

!  Adopt a “you” style: use personal pronouns, including we and you.

!  Know your reader.

!  For long documents, make a table of contents.

!  Use headings to provide readers with a road map.


Legal Writing: Sentence-level Guidelines

!  Keep the subject near the verb.

!  Avoid multiple negatives.

!  Prefer the active voice.

!  Simplify wordy phrases. Watch out for too many prepositional phrases.

!  Sentences on average should be short, but it’s also important to vary your style.

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Legal Writing: Sentence-level Guidelines

!  Keep sentences to an average length of about 20 words.

!  Don’t pile up a series of conditions or qualifiers before the main clause. Put them after the subject and verb. Itemize conditions separately if it will help the reader.


Legal Writing: Word-level Guidelines

!  Avoid unnecessary jargon.

!  Prefer familiar words—usually shorter ones—that are simple and direct and human.

!  Use concrete words.

!  Use contractions to achieve a more conversational tone.

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Legal Writing: Whole-text Graphic Guidelines

!  Use diagrams, tables and charts as needed to help explain the text.

!  Use highlighting techniques (itemized lists, boldface, italics, color), but do not overuse them.


Legal Writing: Layout Guidelines

!  Use ample white space—and use it meaningfully. Space should convey structure.

!  Use between 50 and 70 characters per line.

!  Use the page layout and space to convey the text’s structure.

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Legal Writing: Typographic Guidelines

!  Use a readable typeface.

!  Avoid using capital letters.

!  Set the text using “ragged right” rather than “justified” margins (set with parallel margins).

!  Set the point size for the type between 10 and 12 points for body text in printed documents; for online, use 12 to 14 points.


Were the legal writing guidelines supported by research?

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– Use informative headings.

– Structure a logical sequence.

– Employ topic sentences.

– Test your document.

– Use right tone.

– Frame headings as questions.

– Adopt a “you” style.

– Make a TOC.

– Use headings as roadmaps.

– Know your reader.

– Omit unnecessary detail.

Whole-text Level: Supported by Research


Whole-text Level: Not Supported by Research

– Vary length of paragraphs.

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Sentence-text Level: Supported by Research

– Put subjects near verbs.

– Avoid double negatives.

– Prefer active voice.

– Don’t pile up prepositional phrases.

– Keep sentences to about 20 words.

– Don’t pile up conditionals.


Sentence-text Level: Not Supported by Research

–  It’s important to vary your sentence style.

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Word-text Level: Supported by Research

– Avoid jargon.

– Choose familiar words.

– Use shorter words.

– Select concrete words.


Word-text Level: Support is “iffy”

– Use contractions.

Conflict between friendly and clear for some audiences

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Whole-text Graphics: Supported by Research

– Use diagrams, tables, and charts.

– Use highlighting techniques.


Layout Guidelines: Supported by Research

– Use whitespace meaningfully.

– Use between 50-70 characters per line.

– Use layout and space to convey structure.

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Typographic Guidelines: Supported by Research

– Use a readable typeface.

– Avoid using all capital letters.

– Use ragged right.

– Set the type 10-12 print, 12-14 online.


Coverage and Gaps

!  Most guidelines are on writing (72%)

!  More attention to graphics needed

!  Almost nothing on writing/design of legal materials for the Web

!  Little on achieving an appropriate tone

!  Some guidelines are too vague

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Omissions in Legal Writing Guidelines

!  Research tells us much more than is reflected in legal writing guidelines

Visual impression, hierarchy, grouping, contrast, density, given-new, tabular formats

!  More evidence-based guidelines need to be developed


Summary

!  My framework for writing and design research can be applied to legal writing.

!  Most legal writing guidelines do have empirical support, but new ones need to be developed.

!  Legal texts designed using plain language principles are likely to be read faster, understood better, and preferred.

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References for Legal Guidelines

Butterick, M. (2010). Typography for lawyers: Essential tools for polished and persuasive documents. Houston, TX: Jones McClure Publishing.

Felsenfeld, C., & Siegel, A. I. (1981). Writing contracts in plain English. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co.

Flesch, R. (1979a). The art of readable writing, with the Flesch readability formula (25th Anniversary Edition ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Flesch, R. (1979b). How to write plain English: A book for consumers and lawyers. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Garner, B. A. (2001). Legal writing in plain English: A test with exercises. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Kimble, J. (1992). Plain English: A charter for clear writing. Thomas M. Cooley Law Review, 9(1), 1–58.

Kimble, J. (2006). Lifting the fog of legalese: Essays on plain language. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.

Law Reform Commission of Victoria. (1987). Plain English and the law (Vol. 9). Melbourne, Australia: Law Reform Commission of Victoria.


Schriver Refs Schriver, K. A. (1997). Dynamics in document design: Creating texts for

readers. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Schriver, K. A. (2009). Using design to get people to read and keep reading. Health Literacy Out Loud Podcast (HLOL), (Dec. 12). Retrieved from http://www.healthliteracyoutloud.com/?s=schriver

Schriver, K. A. (2010). Reading on the Web: Implications for online information design. Ljubljana Museum of Architecture and Design Lecture Series on Visual Communications Theory: On Information Design. Retrieved from http://videolectures.net/aml2010_schriver_rotw/

Schriver, K. A. (2011). La retórica del rediseño en contextos burocráticos (The rhetoric of redesign in bureaucratic settings). In J. Frascara (Ed.), Information design (pp. 156-165). Buenos Aires: Ediciones Infinito (Available in English from the author at [email protected]).

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Schriver Refs Schriver, K. A. (2012). What we know about expertise in professional

communication. In V. W. Berninger (Ed.), Past, present, and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology (pp. 275-312). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

Schriver, K. A. (forthcoming 2012a). The ebb and flow of plain language in the United States: A brief history from 1940–2012. Technical Report. KSA Communication Design & Research. Pittsburgh, PA.

Schriver, K. A. (forthcoming 2012b). What do technical communicators need to know about information design? In J. Johnson-Eilola & S. Selber (Eds.), Solving problems in technical communication (pp. 495-531). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Schriver, K. A. (in preparation). Information design moves for Web and print: Evidence-based practice. Manuscript in preparation. Pittsburgh, PA.

Thank you!

For more information...

Karen Schriver, PhD

KSA Communication Design & Research

Pittsburgh, PA

412.828.8791

[email protected]

Communication Design & Research

clarity 2012 presentation draft - victoria law foundation · expert advice on legal writing ... set...

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