Policy Studies Review, Yo/. 3, No. 2, February, 7984

C. The Future of Public Decisionmakina ~~

JON V A N TII,

CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN THE FUTURE

The par t ic ipat ion o f ci t izens in decisions t h a t a f fect t h e i r l ives i s a centra l issue in the s tudy o f po l i t ica l society. Th i s paper seeks t o extend the s tudy o f such par t ic ipat ion accord ing to several a l ternat ive scenarios which may emerge in the fu tu re .

B y way o f def in i t ion, c i t izen par t ic ipat ion is t ha t form o f vo lun ta ry action in which ind iv iduals con f ron t oppor tun i t ies and responsibi l i t ies o f ci t izenship. The oppor tun i t ies f o r such par t ic ipat ion inc lude jo in ing in the process o f self-governance, responding t o author i ta t ive decisions tha t impact on one's l i fe , and work ing cooperatively w i th others on issues o f mutual concern. The responsibi l i t ies o f t he cit izen role inc lude devot ing suf f ic ient energy and though t t o develop decisions tha t a re in the common in terest .

The f u t u r e o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion may inc lude several possibi l i t ies. Part icipation may wane decisively, y ie ld ing t o a f u t u r e o f apathy and authoritarianism. It i s also possible tha t par t ic ipat ion wi l l f l ou r i sh in the fu tu re , nour ished by information, leisure, and a rebo rn in terest in the common good.

ON THE METHODOLOGY OF FUTURES STUDY

Assessing f u t u r e a l ternat ives is a task i nvo l v ing considerable r i sks . Most obv ious ly , cons ider ing something that has y e t t o happen of fends some basic canons o f empirical methodology. How, a f te r all, i s it possible t o s tudy what is on ly a poss ib i l i ty?

The edi tors o f the Urbon Affairs Quar ter ly ( 1 9 8 2 , p. 399) recently demonstrated the s tandard academic uneasiness w i t h the fu tu r i s t ' s c r a f t in an expl ic i t reject ion o f f u t u r i s t submissions fo r a special issue, IITechnology and the Fu tu re o f the C i t y . " The edi tors wrote: "Relevant papers would address c u r r e n t l y emerging technologies and the i r implications for a l ternat ive pol icy d i rect ions in the immediate fu ture. We do not have in mind t h e speculat ive utop ian visions o f an Edward Bellamy o r a Buckminster Ful ler o r thoughts about what the c i t y wi l l b e l i ke in the twen ty - f i r s t cen tu ry , ra the r technologies tha t are c u r r e n t l y be ing employed."

Unfor tunate ly , the academic preference t o s t ick w i t h the facts and on ly t h e facts s t i f les ef fect ive f u t u r e s s tudy. One can b e an effec- t i v e s tudent o f t he f u t u r e on l y by consider ing what might be. The conventional academic approach t o fu tu res s tudy by ext rapolat ing ex i s t i ng t rends of ten leads to a b s u r d and un l i ke l y images o f tomorrow and ignores the fact t ha t few t rends develop in a l inear pa t te rn (Forrester , 1973).

A n a l ternat ive method o f cons ider ing the f u t u r e invo lves imaqining d i f f e ren t scenarios for f u t u r e development. Th i s method is recom- mended fo r t h e examination o f macrosocietal f u tu res , in which cul- t u ra l , organizational, pol i t ical, and economic factors are considered. The ev ident iary base o f such studies d i f f e r s from tha t o f empirical studies o f behavior in the recent past, obv ious ly , in tha t the f u t u r e has y e t t o happen. B u t it bu i l ds on the same base o f theory and

31 1

Policy Studies Review 3:2 Feb. 1984 31 2

tested behav io ra l f i n d i n g s as t h e s t u d y o f wha t has a l ready occu r red . What it a d d s i s a systemat ic e f f o r t t o imagine t h e s t r u c t u r e o f wha t m igh t come t o b e a n d a l te rna t i ve choices f o r seek ing p r e f e r r e d fu- tu res . It i s t h i s method t h a t gu ides t h i s essay (Amara, 1981; Van Til, 1982, pp. 21-27 ) .

IMAGES OF AMERICA'S FUTURE

T h e f u t u r e o f c i t i zen pa r t i c i pa t i on in t h e Un t ied States i s l i n k e d t o severa l genera l a l t e rna t i ves r e g a r d i n g American society. T h e water- shed p res iden t ia l campaign between Jimmy C a r t e r a n d Ronald Reagan p r o v i d e d a p a r t i c u l a r l y u n i q u e demonstrat ion o f these a l te rna t i ve scenarios.

T h e 1980 pres iden t ia l campaign re f l ec ted a deep nat ional uneasiness w i t h American l i fe . Many areas o f p r o g r e s s appeared t o b e a r r e s t e d o r dec l in ing. What Daniel Yankelov ich ( 1 9 8 1 ) cal led t h e "Great Re- versa l " was b e g i n n i n g because rea l income began t o dec l ine f o r many Americans. Fu r the rmore , pe r iod i c d i s r u p t i o n s in e n e r g y p r i c i n g a n d avai lab i l i ty were exper ienced.

I f t h e f u t u r e was t o u n f o l d a long the l ines o f t h e 1970s . it wou ld l i ke l y have emerged in a p a t t e r n l i k e t h i s :

Energy: Occasional shocks i n p r i c e and d i s - r u p t i o n s i n supply.

Economics: I n f l a t i o n steady a t 10 percent . Worsening o f unemployment through 1990,

Cont inu ing co rpo ra te i n f l u e n c e r e -

L i t t l e change i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

f o l l o w e d by some reduc t i on .

s t r a i n e d by government.

weal th and income.

Cul ture: Steady acceptance o f values o f common

Capaci ty t o cope w i t h demographic

Implementat ion o f i n f o r m a t i o n revo lu -

concern.

change.

t i o n .

Government: Development as respons ib le p lanner . Extens ion o f m i n o r i t y empowerment.

F l o u r i s h i n g of " A c t i v e Society . " Voluntary Ac t i on :

In almost e v e r y respect , t h i s good- luck scenar io was t h e one proposed t o t h e American c i t i z e n r y by candidate Reagan, a n d it was t h e one a ma jo r i t y co l lect ive ly des i red. D i f f e r as we m i g h t as t o how to achieve t h i s scenar io, i t i s i nd i spu tab le t h a t t h e goals conta ined w i t h i n it w e r e b r o a d l y cha rac te r i s t i c o f t h e American popu la t i on in 1980.

I f t h e choice we faced in 1980 was between o n l y t h e c o n t i n u i t y a n d good- luck scenar ios, we would h a v e been more f o r t u n a t e t h a n we h a v e

Van T i l / C i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Fu tu re 31 3

a right t o expec t . However , f u t u r i s t s have learned t h a t rea l a l t e rna - t i v e s genera l l y come in th rees . There fo re , f r o m a 1980 perspec t i ve , a h a r d - l u c k scenar io m i g h t h a v e appeared as fo l lows:

Energy: Severe s h o r t f a l l and d i s l o c a t i o n i n p r i c i n g .

Economics: I n f l a t i o n r a t e s w e l l above 10 percent .

unempl oymen t . government.

I nc reas ing l e v e l s o f l ong - te rm

Corporate dominat ion o f t h e economy and

Inc reas ing pove r t y and i n e q u a l i t y .

Cu l tu re : Triumph o f va lues o f p r i v a t i s m and

Inc reas ing r e g i o n a l , i n t e r a g e and i n t e r -

F a i l u r e t o implement i n f o r m a t i o n revo lu -

compet i t i veness .

group c o n f l i c t .

t i o n .

Government: Captured by t h e co rpo ra te r i c h . At tempted rep ress ion o f r e v o l u t i o n a r y

cha l lenges .

Vo lun ta ry Ac t i on : Demise o f t h e " A c t i v e Soc ie ty . "

Looked a t t oday , it i s s t r i k i n g t o no te t h e degree t o wh ich t h e h a r d - l u c k image dominates t h e 1980s. With t h e except ions o f o u r good l u c k in a s s u r i n g e n e r g y s u p p l y a n d r e d u c i n g i n f l a t i on , a long w i t h t h e u n i n t e r r u p t e d p r o g r e s s o f t h e i n fo rma t ion revo lu t i on , t h e h a r d - l u c k scenar io has become a r e a l i t y .

C R I T I C A L FORCES SHAPING C I T I Z E N P A R T I C I P A T I O N I N T H E FUTURE

Among t h e fac to rs t h a t w i l l i n f l uence Amer ica 's f u t u r e , f o u r de- s e r v e special a t t e n t i o n in cons ide r ing t h e f u t u r e o f c i t i zen pa r t i c i pa - t ion . These fac to rs a re : communicat ions, economy, l i fe -s ty le , a n d po l i t i ca l mob i l i za t ion .

Communicat ions a f f e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n because pe rsons mus t i n t e r a c t t o advance pe rsona l a n d economic i n te res ts . T h e deve lopment o f con tempora ry communicat ions, i n c l u d i n g mic roprocessors a n d comput - e rs , has mob i l i zed a n " i n fo rma t ion revo lu t i on . " T h e more pos i t i ve aspec ts o f t hese new techno log ies g r e a t l y reduce t h e t ime a n d e n e r g y r e q u i r e d t o communicate.

Economics, t h e second fac to r , a f f e c t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n p a t t e r n s be- cause most w o r k i s o rgan ized a n d p e r f o r m e d in social se t t i ngs , such as fac to r i es o r s to res , a n d in se rv i ce cen te rs , s u c h as hosp i ta ls , a n d it i s w i t h i n s u c h se t t i ngs t h a t cons ide rab le po l i t i ca l mob i l i za t ion takes place. Fu r the rmore , p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s i n f l uenced by t h e fac t t h a t economic r e w a r d s a r e n o t equa l l y s h a r e d in o u r society.

31 4 P o l i c y S t u d i e s Review 3:2 Feb. 1984

Life-style i s a third factor a f fect ing par t ic ipat ion. The Uni ted States is a consumer-oriented society in which ind iv iduals equate material possessions w i t h the good l i fe . For most Americans, t he largest consumer purchase is t he i r house, and the location o f t ha t house has been centra l t o i t s wor th and the satisfact ion p rov ided by it. In recent years, Americans have increas ing ly sought t o move beyond not on ly the c i t y but also beyond the metropoli tan area. In many cases, these spatial l i fe-style preferences have led Americans away from the u r b a n Northeast t o the sprawl ing acreage o f the Sun- belt .

Polit ical mobil ization is a f o u r t h major factor l i nked t o cit izen part icipation. Ways in which par t ic ipat ion is s t r u c t u r e d and en- couraged by governmental leaders and o the r power-holders a re o f cr i t ica l importance in af fect ing the orientat ions o f i nd i v idua l ci t izens.

Each o f these fou r factors may develop q u i t e d i f f e ren t l y in the years ahead. The communications factor, f o r example, may v a r y in i t s speed and pervasiveness o f development. It is possible tha t i t s development w i l l b e steady but no t explosive, cont inu ing along the l ines o f t he past two decades. In such a fu tu re , t he vast major i ty of Americans would remain touched by the information revolut ion v i a t h e use o f computers in t h e i r work, computer t ra in ing fo r t h e i r ch i l d ren at school, and video gaming on t h e i r television screens.

I t is also possible the communications factor may increase a t a more exponential ra te and tha t a more dramatic "communications revolut ion" wi l l take place. Such a revolut ion would lead t o a "w i red society" in which the home computer would be ubiqu i tous. Shopping and paid work could be done from home computer stat ions, and much par t ic ipa- t ion would take the form o f mediated communications t h r o u g h wi red referenda, elections, and issue dialogues (Moli tor, 1 9 8 1 ) . On the economic dimension, t h ree major possibi l i t ies may b e foreseen. There is cer ta in ly a poss ib i l i ty t ha t t he good-luck f u t u r e o f economic g rowth , recovery, and reorganization w i l l come in to existence. B u t it also i s possible tha t a con t inu i t y f u t u r e o f high unemploy- ment--"stagf lat ion"--and secular decl ine wi l l prevai l , pa r t i cu la r l y if the microprocessor continues t o displace large numbers o f workers. A third prospect is t ha t economic deter iorat ion and d is t ress wi l l emerge as a long-term real i ty .

In regard to l i fe-style, t h ree a l ternat ives a re possible. The f i r s t , the " in tens i f ied quest ,(I invo lves the t r i umph o f t he "me generation," pr ivat ism, and untrammeled in terpersonal competit ion. A n a l ternat ive, which might be termed the " rest ra ined quest ,I1 implies a cont inu ing and unresolved s t rugg le between the forces o f i nd i v idua l and social interests. A third option, "transformation ,I1 includes the widespread adoption o f values o f ecological rootedness and col lect ive concern (Harman, 1 9 7 9 ) .

Polit ical mobil ization, t he f o u r t h factor, suggests th ree major options o f author i tar ian, tuissez-fuire, or democratic po l i t ica l practice. Author i tar ian pol i t ical mobil ization invo lves "top-downll cont ro l by those who monopolize power. The luissez-fuire sty le o f pol i t ical mobil ization invo lves power to those w i t h most access and inf luence, wi thout concern over the d i s t r i bu t i on o f inf luences o r resources. Democratic po l i t ica l mobil ization i s characterized by widespread commu- nications between off icials and cit izens in which power flows in b o t h d i rect ions and in f luence i s broadly d is t r ibuted.

Van T i l / C i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Future 315

A SIMPLE MODEL OF PARTICIPATORY FUTURES

T h e f o u r factors--communicat ions, economic, l i fe-s ty le , a n d po l i t i - cal mobi l izat ion--may b e combined i n t o as many as 5 4 d i f f e r e n t com- b inat ions. These a l te rna t i ve p a t t e r n s may b e r e d u c e d by l im i t i ng t h e op t i ons f o r each fac to r t o those suggested by t h e good- luck, con t inu - i ty, a n d h a r d - l u c k scenar ios d iscussed ea r l i e r .

B y c rea t i ng t w o ve rs ions o f t h e good- luck scenar io ( see F i g u r e 1 ) . we may v iew f o u r poss ib le p a t t e r n s by w h i c h t h e Amer ican f u t u r e may develop. ’

Figure 1

Four elements o f t h e future--communicat ions, economics, l i f e - s t y l e , and p o l i t i c a l mobi l izat ion--emerge i n t h e con tex t o f f o u r scenar ios and thereby a f f e c t t h e shape o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

Scenar i 0 s Imply P a r t i c i p a t o r y Consequences

GOOD-LUCK SCENARIO, CONVENTIONAL IMAGE

Comnunications r e v o l u t i o n Uneven and unequal b u t widespread Economic recovery Restra ined quest l i f e - s t y l e s m a i l , and face - to - face organiza- Democratic po l i ti c a l mobi 1 i za-

p a r t i c i p a t i o n through PACs, d i r e c t

t i ons . t i o n s

GOOD-LUCK SCENARIO, TRANSFORMATIONAL IMAGE

Communications r e v o l u t i o n Economic s u f f i c i e n c y L i f e -s ty 1 e t r a n s f o rma t i on Coproduct ive p o l i t i c a l

m o b i l i z a t i o n

CONTINUITY SCENARIO

Cont inu ing communications

Continued s t a g f l a t i o n Restra ined quest l i f e - s t y l e Pseudo-democratic p o l i t i c a l

development

m o b i l i z a t i o n

HARD-LUCK SCENARIO

Widespread e g a l i t a r i a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n through va r ious neighborhood and workplace o rgan iza t i ons , r e g u l a t i o n o f f i n a n c i n g , and frequent re fe ren - da.

Manipulated p a r t i c i p a t i o n through oc- cas ional e l e c t o r a l a c t i v i t y , lobby- i n g by the monied, and ex tens i ve apathy.

Cont inu ing communications Neo-corporat i s t c o n t r o l by corporate, governmental, and un ion e l i t e s neg-

Economic d e c l i n e a tes e f f e c t i v e c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a - I n t e n s i f i e d quest l i f e - s t y l e t i o n . A u t h o r i t a r i a n p o l i t i c a l

development

m o b i l i z a t i o n

31 6 Policy Studies Review 3:2 Feb. 1984

The good-luck scenario, conventional image, suggests the utop ia commonly presented by o u r elected off icials. Here, technological change is encouraged, economic g r o w t h i s promoted, c i t izens are u rged to l ive comfortably but no t ext ravagant ly , and the prevai l ing "American way" o f pol i t ical access, inf luence, and par t ic ipat ion i s celebrated.

Th is scenario y ie lds an uneven and unequal pa t te rn o f par t ic ipa- t ion tha t may warp dramatical ly in light o f t h e information revolut ion. Power in th is system comes to cit izens who a re wi red i n to the pol i t ical system, whether as con t r i bu to rs t o pol i t ical act ion committees (PACs) o r by the i r ab i l i t y t o inf luence decisions by means o f computerized technology available t o them.

In th i s fu tu re , power is mobilized by the "call t o act ion" o f i n te r - est g roups l inked t o a centra l office, computerized mailing l ists, and bulk mailing. The grease in th i s system i s p rov ided by PACs backed by mass-mailed responses.

The good-luck scenario, transformational image, i s a second pos- s ib i l i ty , d i f f e r i ng in terms o f economic base, l i fe-style, and pol i t ical mobilization. In t h i s scenario, economic "suf f ic iency" replaces Ilrecov- e r y " as the key value, signal l ing acceptance o f an economy se rv ing needs ra the r than wants. The acceptance o f a transformational l i fe-style is also posited. Signif icant numbers o f Americans reject t he central tenets o f materialism and individual ism in t h i s scenario and commit themselves t o values o f community, self-help, and familism.

In such a future--widely viewed as possible by such f u t u r i s t s as Willis Harman, Daniel Yankelovich, John Naisbit t , and Mar i l yn Fergu- son--old forms o f pol i t ical mobil ization become rediscovered. Equali ty o f part icipation becomes more highly valued, and the impact o f f inan- cial g i v ing on pol i t ical l i fe becomes widely recognized and rest r ic ted. Public funding o f electoral campaigning is established; new forms o f community and neighborhood governance (such as people's cour ts , workers' democracy) and cooperative enterpr ise th r i ve ; and instant referenda gain consti tut ional power t o requ i re reexamination o f pend- ing governmental decisions.

As Naisbit t ( 1 9 8 2 ) described it, the par t ic ipatory f u t u r e i s t he beneficiary o f f ou r powerfu l "megatrends": the s h i f t from cen- tral izat ion to decentralization, from representat ive democracy to par t ic ipatory democracy, from hierarchies to network ing. In th i s perspective, we need on ly wait f o r t he pa r t i c i pa to ry fruit t o r i pen and fal l i n to o u r wait ing laps. "My God, what a fantastic time to b e a l i ve ! " (Naisb i t t , 1982 , p. 2 5 2 ) .

The third poss ib i l i ty , t he con t inu i t y scenario, invo lves r a p i d communications development, cont inued stagflat ion, rest ra ined quest l i fe-style, and the continuation o f laissez-faire models o f pol i t ical mobilization. It is the present extended in to the fu ture--po l i t ics dominated by money, cu l tu re preoccupied w i t h making it, in f la t ion and unemployment, and communications power in the hands o f the wealthy. Only the computer game d r i f t s in to the l ives o f t he poor , suggesting the aphorism "PACs for the well-off, PAC-MAN fo r t h e poor.l l C i t i - zen par t ic ipat ion in th i s possible f u t u r e remains more a potential t han a rea l i ty . Largely manipulated by a va r ie t y o f pseudo-democratic forms, such par t ic ipat ion takes the form o f low vo t i ng rates and much single-interest inf luence by direct-mail-based lobbies. Genuine pa r - t icipation, in terms o f informed ind iv idual and g r o u p ac t i v i t y t ha t might meet t h e c r i t e r i a o f classical theory, remains p a r t o f the myth ic

Van T i l K i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the Future 317

s t r u c t u r e o f a society in p u r s u i t o f essentially p r i v a t e goals (Barne- kov, Rich, and Warren, 1981; B e r r y , 1981; and Blaustein, 1 9 8 2 ) .

Final ly we con f ron t t he potential rea l i ty o f t he hard- luck scenario in which economic l i fe becomes so highly stressed t h a t it threatens the v e r y su rv i va l o f those elementary pol i t ical i ns t i t u t i ons o f "one person one vote" and respect f o r the freedom o f pol i t ical thought . In such a fu tu re , governmental cont ro l i s ceded t o a small g r o u p who represent the major corporate in terests o f a ga r r i son state. Threat - ened by possible nuclear war and domestic insurrect ion, these s t rong- men come to power in a declared e f f o r t t o preserve American values against alien threats. Such a I1neo-corporatist" takeover leaves cit izen par t ic ipat ion as we know it in a tho rough ly d iscredi ted stance. It becomes a l l luxury" t ha t cannot be af forded, a form o f cont ro l no longer su i ted t o the dangers o f a wor ld in collapse (Streeck, Schmit- t e r , and Mart inel l i , 1980; Harrison, 1980; and Meier, 1 9 8 2 ) .

Facing t h e poss ib i l i ty o f so d r e a r y a f u t u r e challenges the contem- po ra ry pract i t ioner o f democracy to focus at tent ion o f t he assurance o f one o f t he more favorable forces sustaining c i t izen part icipation. Rather than concede to the inev i tab i l i ty o f the hard- luck scenario, let u s consider two t rends w i th in the arena o f vo lun ta ry action tha t suggest a more promis ing pa r t i c i pa to ry f u t u r e more ak in t o t h e good- luck scenario.

SUSTAINING FORMS OF VOLUNTARY ACTION

Cit izen par t ic ipat ion is , a t base, t he application o f voluntarism to the realm o f pol i t ics. Without d i rec t rega rd to the i r own welfare o r personal r e t u r n , c i t izen par t ic ipants aim t o enhance the publ ic welfare (Van T i l , 1979; Checkoway and Van Ti l , 1 9 7 8 ) . Such vo luntary action develops th rough personal networks and underg i rd ing ide- ologies o f democracy o r empowerment. A review o f two major t rends in vo lun ta ry action may be usefu l in determing the prognosis for the f u t u r e o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion.

The f i r s t t r e n d is t ha t o f ci t izen coproduction. "Coproduction," notes Rick Wilson ( 1 9 8 1 , p. 4 3 ) . " involves the d i rec t transformation o f a p roduc t by c i t izen consumers and h i red producers. The contr i - but ion o f resource i npu ts by b o t h cit izens and producers to produc- t i on consti tutes an elemental l inkage between the two."

Thus, "publ ic o rde r " in a c i t y is produced no t merely by the police cou r t s , but by the in teract ion o f these of-ficiats w i t h an a ler t and watchfu l c i t izenry. As Jane Jacobs has noted, parents watching ch i ldren play in the s t reet o r ne ighbors cha t t i ng on t h e i r f ron t steps play important roles in sustaining u r b a n o r d e r . The i r v e r y presence dissuades criminals o r vandals more ef f ic ient ly than the l imited actions available t o t h e police.

As w i t h pub l i c o rde r , so w i t h near ly al l municipal services. Clean s t reets resu l t from the disposal o f t r a s h as well as ef fect ive col- lection. F i re protect ion is increased by c i t izen prevent ion and prompt repo r t i ng practices. The l i s t o f similar services to which coproduc- t i on may b e applied can inc lude drug abuse, family p lanning, and nu t r i t i on . Programs in each o f these areas depend "as much on the e f f o r t s o f c l ients t o secure and u t i l i ze information" as they do upon the abi l i t ies o f professionals. "Similarly," wr i tes pol i t ical scientist Richard Rich ( 1 9 8 1 ) . ( I one f requen t l y hears t h a t t he amount of education a ch i l d actual ly der ives f rom pub l i c school attendance i s

31 8 Policy Studies Review 3:2 Feb. 1984

determined a t least as much by h i s o r h e r own e f f o r t s t o learn and parents' suppor t o f educational norms as by the e f fo r t s o f classroom teachers and school administrators."

Service coproduct ion appears t o a f fo rd a powerfu l tool f o r redef in- ing the c l ient i n to a p roduc t i ve cit izen and pe rm i t t i ng many social services to b e redef ined so as no t t o su f fe r propor t ional ly w i t h the ongoing budge ta ry c u t s fo r t he i r prov is ion (Van Til, Margol in, and Culleton, 1982; Rosentraub and Sharp, 1981; and Whitaker, 1 9 8 0 ) .

Coproduction i s a concept tha t applies more b road ly than t o ser- vices alone. It can also b e used in neighborhoods t o faci l i tate co- operative pro jects for g row ing food o r col lect ing solar energy. lt may involve e f f o r t s t o impress upon t h e owners o f businesses and indust r ies the i r responsibi l i t ies t o p rov ide employment, and in the nation t o address press ing issues o f pub l i c po l icy which do no t re- ceive adequate attention. The widespread n a t u r e o f t h e "nuclear freeze" in i t ia t ive suggests one such issue, as cit izens seek t o copro- duce peace in the face o f apparent d i s rega rd by many pub l i c off icials.

Coproduction appears to b e a n idea well f i t t e d t o o u r times. It implies the need for new pa r tne rsh ips and fo r an awareness tha t o u r fu tu re is f i l l ed w i t h pe r i l s and p i t fa l ls un l i ke those faced by any prev ious society (Rosenbaum, 1982) . If we a r e t o build pa r tne rsh ips , it is important to recognize the stakes involved. To ta l k o f copro- duct ion in a time o f social c r i s i s i s t o set about the building o f new social inst i tu t ions: community economic ventures, worker-owned stores and factories, neighborhood-based cooperatives, a l l set on a legisla- t i ve base suf f ic ient t o res t ra in the flight o f capital f rom region t o region o r beyond o u r shores. Such people-run economic enterpr ises wi l l requi re capital, management experience, and pol i t ical suppor t . They wi l l , in shor t , be coproduced among local governments, vo lun- t a r y organizations, and those corporations and holders o f capital determined enough t o v e n t u r e i n t o new and unchar ted social and economic waters.

Th i s b r i n g s u s d i rec t l y t o a second concept tha t also possesses rev i ta l iz ing potential f o r t he f u t u r e o f c i t izen part icipation--the con- cept o f "mediation s t ruc tu res " (Be rge r and Neuhaus, 1977) . The need for new t ypes o f inst i tu t ions which mediate o u r social d i f ferences and generate consensus have been descr ibed c lear ly by economists Charles Wilber and Kenneth Jameson (1981, p. 2 8 ) :

Our modern p o l i t i c a l ph i losophies-- l ibera l ism, conservatism, socialism--have f a i l e d p rec i se l y because they have not understood the importance o f mediat ing i n s t i t u t i o n s . L ibera l ism has constant ly turned t o the s t a t e f o r so lu t i ons t o soc ia l problems wh i l e conservatism sought the same i n the corporate sector. Nei ther recognized the dest ruct iveness t o the soc ia l f a b r i c caused by r e l i a n c e on mega- inst i tu t ions. Social ism s u f f e r s from t h i s same myopia. Even though i t places i t s f a i t h i n renewed c o n u n i t y , i t f a i l s t o see t h a t s o c i a l i s t mega- inst i tu t ions are j u s t a s des t ruc t i ve a s c a p i t a l i s t ones.

Wilbur and Jameson also argue tha t we must b e pa r t i cu la r l y v igorous in o u r explorat ion o f new modes o f cont ro l o f economic enterpr ises in an era o f s h i f t i n g capital, and they po in t t o the need fo r creat ive explorat ion o f ci t izen-control led enterpr ise in the years ahead:

Van T i l K i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n fn the Future 31 9

The road ahead i s n o t easy and the prec ise d i r e c t i o n s o f change a re s t i l l unclear. One th ing , however, i s c l e a r : the choices made a t the na t i ona l l e v e l cannot be r e l i e d upon as the most e f f e c t i v e manner o f working toward r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f the U.S. economy. They w i l l c reate more mega- inst i tu- t i o n s and a t t h i s p o i n t many o f the na t i ona l programs such as f u l l employment and a decent l e v e l o f s e c u r i t y are about t o be j e t t i s o n e d i n the name o f c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l a t i o n . We are moving backwards (p. 28).

The implications o f creat ing new t ypes o f mediat ing s t ruc tu res are b o t h radical and far-reaching. For example, it suggests, as John Dewey did in h i s classic, The Public and I t s Problems ( 1 9 2 7 ) . t ha t the d is t inct ion between what is pub l i c and what i s p r i v a t e i s far more complex than conventional wisdom holds because many decisions which seem t o b e p r i v a t e are o f g rea t pub l i c concern. Moreover, as the l ine between pub l i c and p r i v a t e b l u r s , t he realm o f what has h i the r to been seen as t h e vo lun ta ry sector takes on s ta r t l i ng new roles and responsibi l i t ies. When viewed from i t s mediat ing potential, the realm o f t he vo lun ta ry expands toward the v e r y hea r t o f governmental and corporate systems. Rober t Bel lah and William Sull ivan ( 1 9 8 1 , p. 46) have put the matter po inted ly when they wr i t e :

To view economic i n s t i t u t i o n s as ' p r i v a t e ' made sense when most Americans spent t h e i r l i v e s on fam i l y farms o r i n fam i l y f i rms . But today, when most American men and a r a p i d l y increas ing p ropos i t i on o f American women spend much of t h e i r l i v e s i n l a rge economic s t ruc tu res t h a t are f o r most purposes ' p u b l i c ' except t h a t the p r o f i t s they make go t o an impersonal c o l l e c t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l and ind i v idua l ' p r i v a t e ' stockholders, i t becomes imperative t o b r i n g the forms o f c i t i z e n s h i p and o f c i v i c assoc iat ion more c e n t r a l l y i n t o the economic sphere.

O u r task in p rese rv ing and expanding c i t izen par t ic ipat ion may necessitate o u r i n fus ing inst i tu t ions w i t h genuinely humane standards and processes instead o f re in fo rc ing outworn pa t te rns o f in ter inst i tu- t ional l inkage. S tua r t Langton ( 1 9 8 2 , p. 1 9 ) has described well the posit ion o f vo lun ta ry organizations: "In real i ty , the vo lun ta ry sector is n o t an independent sector, but an in terdependent sector. I t s for tunes a re v e r y much caught up in decisions made in Washington and in state capitols, as well as in corporate boa rd rooms.Il

TOWARD GENUINE PARTICIPATION

A prominent antidemocratic t heo ry , "neo-corporatism," asserts tha t impor tant decisions should b e made by th ree bureaucrat ic inst i tu t ions act ing in concer t : the state, corporations, and labor unions. Those le f t ou t of these councils--most notably nea r l y all cit izens and most persons act ive in the vo lun ta ry sector--wil l su re l y learn to speak and act s t renuously against t h e imposition o f t h i s theo ry .

Nonetheless, t he re a re germs o f truth in the neo-corporate obser- vat ion tha t no single i ns t i t u t i on o r sector possesses a l l t he resources to create a heal thy society. Waldemar Nielsen ( 1 9 7 9 , p. 251) has pointed t h i s ou t in no t ing tha t t he vo lun ta ry sector "does no t o f fe r a

320 Pol icy Studies Review 3:2 Feb. 1984

subst i tu te fo r t h e social and humanitarian programs o f t he modern welfare state. B u t it does o f fe r a means o f supplementing and stim- u la t i ng them and o f lessening some o f t he most dangerous fiscal, psychological, and pol i t ica l side-effects o f excessive bureaucratization, central izat ion, and depersonalization o f governmental ly administered programs.

Nielsenls perspect ive reminds u s tha t it does l i t t l e good t o ra i l against the unproduc t i v i t y o f government o r t h e s te r i l i t y o f corpo- ra t ions o r t o in f la te claims fo r voluntarism o r c i t izen part icipation. We need a l l o u r major inst i tu t ions (churches, corporations, national government, vo lun ta ry social service organizations, schools, small businesses, un ivers i t ies, local governments, neighborhood organiza- t ions, colleges and univers i t ies, labor unions, c i t izen cooperatives, etc.) t o work in concert in meeting o u r needs. The task we face i s t o reg roup these inst i tu t ions ra the r than fantasize t h a t one o r a few can lead the way t o the f u t u r e we desire.

One might ven tu re onto a slender l imb in suggest ing tha t the f u t u r e o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion should be shared by a va r ie t y o f demo- c ra t i c theories and n o t solely by two theories f rom wh ich it i s custom- a r i l y approached: democratic p lura l ism and ideal ist populism (Wolin, 1960; Coodwyn, 1978). We should n o t omit f rom normative and empir- ical considerations classically corporat ive approaches in p lanning fo r t he f u t u r e o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion. Such approaches suggest t ha t par t ic ipat ion is o f ten appropr ia te ly s t r u c t u r e d t h r o u g h major forms o f g roups l i fe in society (Elbow, 1966; Bowen, 1971; and Oakeshott, 19801.

To be sure, as Leo Panitsch (1980) has recent ly argued, corpora- tism o f fe rs no t a un i f i ed theory o f society but a set o f perspectives. I f we can find ways to borrow from those perspectives, we may discover tha t corporatism as a p r inc ip le o f democratic representation i s no t outmoded. Indeed, such modern inst i tu t ions as neighborhood councils might well advocate "neighborhood seats" on c i t y council. Likewise, f u r t h e r ref lect ions on the role o f labor unions might lead to assigning the i r leaders seats on corporate boards. Perhaps reconsid- erat ion o f the role o f vo lun ta ry association leaders might lead t o the conclusion tha t they be assigned places on counci ls o f pub l i c author i - ty, o r t ha t b o t h parents and educators are appropr ia te ly assigned to boards o f education.

Cer ta in ly much o f o u r publ ic par t ic ipatory pol icy o f the past 20 years has been corporat ive in nature. Elections o f c i t izen boards in specif ied "pover ty" areas have been res t r i c ted t o e l ig ib le poor per- sons. Representation o f ind iv iduals on heal th p lanning boards has been carefu l ly apport ioned among "prov iders" and Ilconsumers. A n d neighborhood organizations have competed f ierce ly for cer t i f ied repre- sentation f rom the i r neighborhoods.

It seems appropr ia te t o ask i f these vestiges o f corporat ive theo ry , which so many have welcomed as appropr ia te extensions o f c iv ic r i g h t s , might well reformulate a theory o f democratic par t ic ipat ion in an organizational society. Corporatism, a f te r al l , i s a theo ry tha t weights societal in terests by the i r value to the co l lect iv i ty . I f com- pensatory pol icy i s t o be implemented, corporatism, un ique ly among major po l i t ica l theories, permits the rat ional adjustment o f pol i t ical weights. Af f i rmat ive action, representation o f t he poor, b lack power --all a re values tha t can well be accommodated by corporat ive s t ruc - t u res and pa t te rns .

Van Til/Citiren Participation i n the Future 321

The issue w i l l n o t b e pushed too far; it simply should b e raised. Nonetheless, t he quest ion i s a pointed one. If c i t izen par t ic ipat ion i s t o t h r i v e in t h e fu tu re , w i l l it b e by the Platonic model of rat ional ind iv idual is t act ion and pol i t ical dialogue, as so b r i l l i a n t l y rendered by Sheldon Wolin (1960) and h i s popul is t colleagues? O r w i l l it b e by the ongoing s t rugg le between in terest g roups as p resc r ibed by the p lura l is ts , despite the overwhelming power o f t he evidence tha t money so heavi ly outweighs ind iv idual e f fect? Against such theories, howev- e r b r i l l i an t l y exposed, r e s t the basic real i t ies o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion in an inegali tar ian society. As my former congressman put i t so inelegantly: "Money talks; bu l l sh i t walks." And, t o p u r s u e t h e same c rude image, we a re reminded by Robert Car0 ( 1 9 8 2 ) t ha t Lyndon Johnson's college nickname was llBull ,'I a d iminut ive tha t ref lected h is sk i l l in s l ing ing the same bovine excrement in h i s l i fe- long quest for b o t h money and power.

Against such elemental forces, it wi l l have been a genuine contr i - bu t i on t o have const ructed images o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion tha t prepare u s for the r i g o r s o f f u t u r e realit ies. A f t e r al l , t he re i s a fa i r chance tha t t he f u t u r e o f c i t izen par t ic ipat ion w i l l turn ou t t o be j us t so much more bull.

A n d such a f u t u r e is, it is cer ta in , one which b o t h cit izens and scholars a l ike w i l l w ish passionately t o p reven t .

FOOTNOTE

1. Bezold ( 1 9 8 0 ) has also found tha t f ou r scenarios most adequately represent the range o f choices embodied in the American fu tu re . He ident i f ies the fou r scenarios as nuclear, pr imi t ive, "extended ,I1

and " in tended."

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