• CinematographyCinematography – Camera movements, lighting, single shots – Camera movements, lighting, single shots• EditingEditing – pace, structure, repetition. – pace, structure, repetition.• Mise-en-sceneMise-en-scene – props, setting, location, costume – props, setting, location, costume• PerformancePerformance – actors, body language – actors, body language• SoundSound – narration, diegetic, non-diegetic, contrapuntal (contrasting but – narration, diegetic, non-diegetic, contrapuntal (contrasting but

adding new meaning)adding new meaning)

• These aspects are all These aspects are all directly manipulateddirectly manipulated either by either by technicians or by the director in order to technicians or by the director in order to maximize the maximize the opportunityopportunity to ensure an audience is to ensure an audience is exposed to an exposed to an intended meaning. intended meaning.

• These are elements that are These are elements that are absolutely in the control of a absolutely in the control of a filmmakerfilmmaker: there should be nothing in a shot, scene, : there should be nothing in a shot, scene, sequence or film that is there accidentally, as all these sequence or film that is there accidentally, as all these ingredients should have been within the filmmakers' ingredients should have been within the filmmakers' control. control.

• They play a significant part in the construction of They play a significant part in the construction of narrative and genrenarrative and genre

Loose definitions:Loose definitions:

• NARRATIVE: NARRATIVE: a structuring devicea structuring device, both across a , both across a whole film and across a single scene or whole film and across a single scene or sequence. The ordering of information within a sequence. The ordering of information within a practical piece of work is of vital significance to practical piece of work is of vital significance to how a spectator will make meaning from it.how a spectator will make meaning from it.

• GENRE: the use of GENRE: the use of signifying devicessignifying devices within a within a practical piece of work that are recognizable as practical piece of work that are recognizable as belonging to a group of filmsbelonging to a group of films. Use of . Use of codes and codes and conventionsconventions will help structure a work and will help structure a work and ensure that the spectator views it in terms of ensure that the spectator views it in terms of other, similar, films.other, similar, films.

Task:Task:• In groups, list the generic conventions for

the following genres:• Romantic comedy• Action• Blockbuster• Comedy• Horror• Thriller• Sci-Fi

Storytelling expectationsStorytelling expectations

• The use of narrative is one of the fundamental ways in The use of narrative is one of the fundamental ways in which we make sense of the world. which we make sense of the world.

• Stories could be said to bring order and structure to our Stories could be said to bring order and structure to our otherwise chaotic experiences. As a result, as viewers otherwise chaotic experiences. As a result, as viewers who are already familiar with the storytelling conventions who are already familiar with the storytelling conventions of narrative structure we approach film with of narrative structure we approach film with definite definite expectationsexpectations. We expect to see a range of characters, or . We expect to see a range of characters, or character types, involved in a series of character types, involved in a series of structured eventsstructured events that occur in certain places and at certain moments in that occur in certain places and at certain moments in time. There are likely to be problems and conflicts, and time. There are likely to be problems and conflicts, and these are likely to be finally these are likely to be finally resolvedresolved in some way after in some way after having reached some climactic moment of confrontationhaving reached some climactic moment of confrontation

• Using Using The MatrixThe Matrix as an example: as an example:• EquilibriumEquilibrium – Neo is introduced in his hum-drum world – Neo is introduced in his hum-drum world• Dis-EquilibriumDis-Equilibrium – Neo is ‘unplugged’ and the ‘matrix’ is – Neo is ‘unplugged’ and the ‘matrix’ is

explained (Agents are the bad guys)explained (Agents are the bad guys)• New EquilibriumNew Equilibrium – Through a series of events, and – Through a series of events, and

eventually when he is ‘resurrected’ a new equilibrium is eventually when he is ‘resurrected’ a new equilibrium is established. The character and his ‘world’ have established. The character and his ‘world’ have changed.changed.

• Story arcStory arc• Character arcCharacter arc

Storytelling expectationsStorytelling expectations

NarrativeNarrative• Usually, our concern in studying film will be with Usually, our concern in studying film will be with

works of fiction, narratives with characters and a works of fiction, narratives with characters and a setting that are setting that are told to us in a certain waytold to us in a certain way and and claim claim to represent the world to usto represent the world to us. .

• We need to consider the We need to consider the fundamental nature of fundamental nature of narrativesnarratives, or stories, and the role and use to which , or stories, and the role and use to which they are put within human society.they are put within human society.

• Narratives seems to be integral to human experience Narratives seems to be integral to human experience of the world. of the world. We constantly use storiesWe constantly use stories to make to make sense and to create meaning out of our otherwise sense and to create meaning out of our otherwise chaotic experiences. chaotic experiences. In telling stories we give order In telling stories we give order and shape to a series of events.and shape to a series of events.

Narrative structureNarrative structureNarratives may be seen as particular Narratives may be seen as particular arrangements of events within a structurearrangements of events within a structure. This . This structure may be the simplest one of relating structure may be the simplest one of relating events in events in chronological orderchronological order, or it may be more , or it may be more complex. It could, for instance, involve the use of complex. It could, for instance, involve the use of parallel episodes parallel episodes (Pulp Fiction) that form a (Pulp Fiction) that form a deliberate contrast to each other, or the deliberate contrast to each other, or the repetition of events seen from repetition of events seen from different different perspectives perspectives (Rashomon, Vantage Point) or the (Rashomon, Vantage Point) or the integration of symbolic events or images used in integration of symbolic events or images used in order to create significance.order to create significance.

Task 2:Task 2:

In the same groups, make a list of the In the same groups, make a list of the structuring devicesstructuring devices for your chosen genre. for your chosen genre.

How is the story told?How is the story told?

E.G.E.G.

Rom Coms: Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, Rom Coms: Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy spends entire film trying to win her boy spends entire film trying to win her back, girl has moved on, eventually they back, girl has moved on, eventually they get back together get back together

• If there is no apparent relation between the events in a film it is without plot.• It may be that what is being represented to us is the chaotic nature of human

experience, or a lack of meaning in the universe. (Or perhaps we are dealing with a surrealist that aims to delve into the unconscious or the subconscious.)

• But such lack of structure is extremely rare, and not something that will be found in mainstream cinema; the very nature of storytelling is essentially that of giving order to events.

• Even if the structure is extremely complex, involving unexpected time shifts and demanding that the viewer should keep elements of the story on hold until the bigger picture becomes clearer (Tarantino's Pulp Fiction (1994), order and shape will eventually be found.

• Indeed, the sense of achievement that comes from eventually recognizing and understanding the shape and form of the narrative is one of the pleasures offered by film. Through narrative we are reassured that any events that may happen are not random, and that the world we face is not a place of chaos but one of order.

• N.B. Films still have to be different in some way.

EverythingEverything is planned (mostly) is planned (mostly)

The Role of the NarratorThe Role of the Narrator• One (or more than one person) who tells the story. One (or more than one person) who tells the story. • EXAMPLE:EXAMPLE: Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (Jackson, (Jackson,

2001) and 2001) and Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (Ritchie, 1998), (Ritchie, 1998), both use the device of having a formal narrator's voice. both use the device of having a formal narrator's voice.

• The narrator's role is in effect The narrator's role is in effect fulfilled by the filmmakersfulfilled by the filmmakers who position who position themselves outside of the story and decide what to include, what not themselves outside of the story and decide what to include, what not to include and the order in which to place events. to include and the order in which to place events. It is they who are It is they who are narrating the story for usnarrating the story for us, but we will usually be barely aware of the , but we will usually be barely aware of the filmmakers' presence as narrator.filmmakers' presence as narrator.

• (Using the above examples)(Using the above examples) If the device of a narrator as a If the device of a narrator as a character or presence within the film itself is used it may be more character or presence within the film itself is used it may be more obvious that the narrator has obvious that the narrator has a particular perspective on eventsa particular perspective on events. If . If such a narrator is also a character within the story it will be clear such a narrator is also a character within the story it will be clear that this person will see things from a certain perspective and will that this person will see things from a certain perspective and will have his or her own relationship to events and characters. have his or her own relationship to events and characters.

• If an If an internal narratorinternal narrator is positioned outside is positioned outside of the main story and appears to be telling of the main story and appears to be telling us what happened in an apparently us what happened in an apparently objective way, he or she may be reliable or objective way, he or she may be reliable or unreliable unreliable (Me, Myself and Irene, American (Me, Myself and Irene, American BeautyBeauty). The key point is that ). The key point is that as readers of as readers of filmsfilms we always need to ask ourselves who we always need to ask ourselves who the narrator might be, what he or she can the narrator might be, what he or she can and cannot know about events within the and cannot know about events within the narrative, and what his or her perspectives narrative, and what his or her perspectives might be on any narrative event. might be on any narrative event.

The Role of the NarratorThe Role of the Narrator

• The story is the basic chronological order of events: the plot is the rearranged, highly selected chain of events in the film that has been given its own internal logic.

• By using narrative's ability to move backwards and forwards through time and space and rearranging the elements of simple stories, let us say 'Little Red Riding Hood' or 'Cinderella', we can create individual plot arrangements of the basic story events.

• For example, we could start our story of Cinderella at the ball or our story of Little Red Riding Hood at the point at which she is about to be eaten, and then in both cases use flashback sequences to tell the story. In fact, we could start our narrative at any point within the chronology of the story that we chose. But what will always happen in a mainstream cinema narrative is that the plot will consist of a cause-and-effect flow of actions. You should be able to take any film and see how the sequence of events has been rearranged into a particular cause-and-effect chain.

Plot StructurePlot Structure

Task:Task:• In groups, take a well known children’s In groups, take a well known children’s

story/Fairy Tale and story/Fairy Tale and write down key eventswrite down key events, , leaving two lines between each event.leaving two lines between each event.

• Tear the events out of the page so that each Tear the events out of the page so that each strip of paper has one event written on itstrip of paper has one event written on it

• Re-arrange the events to create a new structure.Re-arrange the events to create a new structure.

• Does the story have the same impact? Is a new Does the story have the same impact? Is a new meaning created? meaning created?

CharactersCharacters• When approaching a film we should also consider carefully each of

the main characters. Usually they will provide the filmmakers with a means of exploring various aspects of the human experience.

• Often they display particular commonly recognized traits of human nature, or complex inner conflicts of values and emotions.

• Often there will be contrasting, or parallel characters, that are used to highlight the oppositional possibilities open to human beings: love and hate, compassion and brutality, vengeance and forgiveness and so on.

• Sometimes characters are dramatized as unique individuals, and at other times they are presented as symbolic representations of what are seen to be particular types of character (perhaps a Christ-like character, perhaps a satanic character, perhaps something on that broad spectrum in between).

• Certainly characters and the relationships between characters will be a key element of any film's approach to storytelling.

Sound Techniques:Sound Techniques:• Non-diegetic soundNon-diegetic sound::

the sound that is the sound that is outside the fictional worldoutside the fictional world, and that , and that characters in the fictional world cannot hear. This would characters in the fictional world cannot hear. This would include overlays of include overlays of soundtrack musicsoundtrack music and any and any voiceover voiceover narrationnarration..

• Contrapuntal sounds Contrapuntal sounds (image and sound in juxtaposition)(image and sound in juxtaposition):: a great technique where the a great technique where the sound is not directly related to the sound is not directly related to the imageimage, but when placed together an , but when placed together an additional meaning (or depth of (or depth of meaning) meaning) is created. Thus the sound of a boxing match playing on . Thus the sound of a boxing match playing on a television in shot becomes more significant when the person a television in shot becomes more significant when the person watching the match walks into another room and begins beating an watching the match walks into another room and begins beating an elderly person in there. The sound carried across from the elderly person in there. The sound carried across from the television to the room where the beating is taking place is in television to the room where the beating is taking place is in counterpoint to the image of the abuse, yet counterpoint to the image of the abuse, yet serves to make a bigger serves to make a bigger statement about violence in generalstatement about violence in general. It may be that a mix of . It may be that a mix of contrapuntal sound and the diegetic sound of the beating may contrapuntal sound and the diegetic sound of the beating may heighten this statement further.heighten this statement further.

• Lock Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (Ritchie, 1998) Head slam• This Is England (Meadows, 2006) Milky gets beaten up• Snatch (Ritchie, 2000) Brick Top pig pen scene• Saving Private Ryan (Spielberg, 1998) Opening scene• Blade Runner (Scott, 1982) Shooting of first replicant• Jaws (Spielberg, 1975) First beach attack• The Shining (Kubrick, 1980) Opening with and without sound• Seven (Fincher, 1997) Meeting of detectives at first crime scene• Face/Off (Woo, 1997) Over the rainbow@01:27:00

Sound examples:Sound examples:

Editing TechniquesEditing Techniques

• Dissolve An image fades out as another fades in, making a connection between the two (girlfriend fades out as mother fades in).

• Fade Often to black but can be to any colour. The duration of screen time given over to the fade and the end colour can suggest particular meanings.

• Graphic Match Two shots can be connected through shapes within the frame (a clock matched to a car wheel). (Psycho/2001)

• Match on Action Two shots can be connected by the replication of an action across each (character begins putting drink down in seedy Soho bar, and cuts to drink reaching bar counter of Caribbean beach bar).

• Montage Placing one image next to another creates meaning (person's face with apple pie = hungry, person's face with coffin = sadness).

• Parallel editings this refers to moving back and forth between two or more narrative lines of action supposedly occurring at the same time.

You do not notice good editing

Editing examples:Editing examples:

• The Lost World (Spielberg, 1997) Opening sequence Match on action

• 2001: A Space Odyssey (Ritchie, 1998) Graphic match• Psycho (Hitchcock, 1960) Shower scene graphic match• Toy Story 2 (Lasseter, 1999) @00:30:00 background transition and

00:40:00 audio/visual match • Trainspotting (Boyle, 1996) Opening chase scene +V/O• Casino Royale (Campbell, 2006) Opening chase scene

Do all stories have the some basic structure?

• Theorists interested in narrative structure have suggested that all Theorists interested in narrative structure have suggested that all films (indeed all films (indeed all stories) are structurally the samestories) are structurally the same::

• we are introduced to a hero/heroine and shown the world in which we are introduced to a hero/heroine and shown the world in which they live (equilibrium)they live (equilibrium)

• the normality of this world is disrupted (dis-equilibrium)the normality of this world is disrupted (dis-equilibrium)• the hero/heroine sets out to restore order (new equilibrium)the hero/heroine sets out to restore order (new equilibrium)

In basic terms we deal with a scenario of In basic terms we deal with a scenario of good versus evilgood versus evil, and a , and a world in which world in which order is set against chaosorder is set against chaos. . Experience would tend to suggest that all stories are founded upon Experience would tend to suggest that all stories are founded upon the idea of a conflict between two or more central characters or the idea of a conflict between two or more central characters or groups of characters.groups of characters.

Tzvetan TodorovTzvetan Todorov

• Wrote “Structural Analysis of Narrative” (1969)Wrote “Structural Analysis of Narrative” (1969)

• The conventional narrative structure pointed The conventional narrative structure pointed out by Tzvetan Todorov as a rule has out by Tzvetan Todorov as a rule has five five stages stages though this can be rudimentary broken though this can be rudimentary broken down to three stages, a beginning (state of down to three stages, a beginning (state of equilibriumequilibrium), middle (), middle (disruption to the disruption to the equilibriumequilibrium) and end/resolution () and end/resolution (reinstate the reinstate the equilibriumequilibrium).).

• Tzvetan Todorov’s conventional narrative Tzvetan Todorov’s conventional narrative structure complete with five stages:structure complete with five stages:

• Stage 1 Stage 1 A state of equilibrium is defined. A state of equilibrium is defined.

• Stage 2 Stage 2 Disruption to the equilibrium by some action or crisis. Disruption to the equilibrium by some action or crisis.

• Stage3 Stage3 The Character(s) recognition that there has been a disruption, setting The Character(s) recognition that there has been a disruption, setting goals to resolve problem.goals to resolve problem.

• Stage4Stage4 The Character(s) attempt to repair the disruption, obstacles need to be The Character(s) attempt to repair the disruption, obstacles need to be overcome to restore order. overcome to restore order.

•Stage5 Stage5 Reinstatement to the equilibrium. Situation is resolved, a conclusion is Reinstatement to the equilibrium. Situation is resolved, a conclusion is announced. announced.

• With the five stage layout the With the five stage layout the narrative becomes more narrative becomes more comprehensivecomprehensive. However its essential to remember films need to . However its essential to remember films need to be be seamless as the chain of events unfoldseamless as the chain of events unfold, with all the questions , with all the questions raised answered and all the loose ends tied up unless you want to raised answered and all the loose ends tied up unless you want to break the conventions, induce a cliff hangar, intentionally create break the conventions, induce a cliff hangar, intentionally create doubt in the minds of the audience and leave them questioning. doubt in the minds of the audience and leave them questioning.

• Even though these stages are presented here as a linear Even though these stages are presented here as a linear structure structure there is no golden rule there is no golden rule that it has to be this way, that it has to be this way, especially if you wish to create a non-linear structure. Should you especially if you wish to create a non-linear structure. Should you wish to you can always muddle up the chronological order and wish to you can always muddle up the chronological order and have the end at the beginning. Remember a film should have have the end at the beginning. Remember a film should have clear goals with believable characters if its to maintain a sense of clear goals with believable characters if its to maintain a sense of credibility.credibility.

Vladimir ProppVladimir ProppA Russian scholar who analysd the basicA Russian scholar who analysd the basic

plot components of Russian folk tales to plot components of Russian folk tales to

identify their simplest narrative elements.identify their simplest narrative elements.

Morphology of the Folktale (1928)Morphology of the Folktale (1928)

After the initial situation is depicted, the tale takes the following sequence of 31 functions. Some examples include:

1. ABSENTATION: A member of a family leaves the security of the home environment for some reason

2. INTERDICTION: An interdiction is addressed to the hero ('don't go there', 'don't do this')The hero is warned against some action.

3. VIOLATION of INTERDICTION. The interdiction is violated (villain enters the tale). The hero ignores the interdiction (warning not to do something) and goes ahead anyway.

(Advising on Scriptwriting)

Good scripts comprised three clear acts.

The first gave the set-up showing where the action was taking place, introducing who was involved and suggesting in broad terms what was going to happen. At the end of the first act there was a crucial point at which the direction of the whole of the rest of the film was set up.

Second act with a key note of confrontation as the main character faced a series of obstacles to completing the central dramatic need of the film. At the end of this act there should be a further crucial point, he said, at which the central character would seem to have their goal in sight but would be faced with one final problem.

In act three all the plots and sub-plots would be resolved.

Syd FieldSyd Field

When we watch a film, we have to hold in mind at least three When we watch a film, we have to hold in mind at least three

different time frames. There is:different time frames. There is:

• story durationstory duration (the time frame in which we conceive of the (the time frame in which we conceive of the

story taking place), story taking place),

• plot durationplot duration (the time frame within which we conceive of (the time frame within which we conceive of

ourselves being told the story) and ourselves being told the story) and

• screen durationscreen duration (the amount of time we are actually sitting (the amount of time we are actually sitting

in front of the screen). The story is the simple chronology of in front of the screen). The story is the simple chronology of

narrative events: the plot is the arrangement of these events narrative events: the plot is the arrangement of these events

within the film.within the film.

The Use of Time in StoriesThe Use of Time in Stories

In In spatial termsspatial terms watching a film watching a film involves us in exploring at least two involves us in exploring at least two spatial dimensions. spatial dimensions.

1.1.There is There is screen spacescreen space visible within visible within the frame,the frame,

2.2. There is There is off-screen spaceoff-screen space that we that we are asked to imagine or remember are asked to imagine or remember from earlier. from earlier.

In effect we are asked to contain In effect we are asked to contain a a whole imagined worldwhole imagined world within our within our minds.minds.

The Use of Imagined Space The Use of Imagined Space Within Stories Within Stories

Cause and Effect Cause and Effect As we are watching we expect each element within the narrative to As we are watching we expect each element within the narrative to be seen to have both cause(s) and effect(s); be seen to have both cause(s) and effect(s); we expect events to be we expect events to be motivated in some waymotivated in some way, to have been caused by something we have , to have been caused by something we have seen in the film and to have some discernible outcome. seen in the film and to have some discernible outcome.

Without this all we would have would be a random series of Without this all we would have would be a random series of unconnected scenes leading from nowhere to nowhere. By its very unconnected scenes leading from nowhere to nowhere. By its very definition a story has an ordered series of events that leads to a definition a story has an ordered series of events that leads to a conclusion.conclusion.

cause and effectcause and effect also refers to the way in which also refers to the way in which mainstream filmsmainstream films are moved forward by one scene or event having been caused by an are moved forward by one scene or event having been caused by an earlier one and in turn giving rise to an effect which is seen in a earlier one and in turn giving rise to an effect which is seen in a subsequent scene or event. What this means is that everything we subsequent scene or event. What this means is that everything we see has been motivated by something we have seen earlier and in see has been motivated by something we have seen earlier and in turn motivates something we see further on in the film.turn motivates something we see further on in the film.

Film Making tips

• Always use a tripod to support the camera, unless you have a specific reason for wanting the shaky look that handheld will give you. This can be dynamic in certain situations (e.g. chase sequences) but often it simply makes a production appear lazy or amateurish.

• If something is wrong in shot, call 'cut' and retake the shot. If you accept a shot that has problems, then that will be the shot that creates problems for you in post-production.

• Always adhere to the 30° rule. This states that to avoid 'jump cuts' (where the camera appears to lurch towards a subject or the subject appears to 'jump' position between shots) any shots that are intended to be joined with each other in editing should be shot from camera positions that have at least 30° between them.

• Avoid cutting while in mid-camera movement - let the shot come to a 'rest' position, as this will benefit the editing.

• Let the camera run for five seconds prior to calling Action' and after calling 'Cut'. This not only serves the editing, but it also gives some 'moments' where the actors' bodies and expressions are relaxed - these are often valuable.

• Always adhere to the 180° rule. This rule is often complex to under stand and even more complex to implement. The 'line of action' is an imaginary line - usually between two people, but it can run through one person - that the camera must stay one side of. The camera can travel anywhere on a 180° axis as long as it does not 'cross the line'; as soon as it does that then all spatial continuity is lost and editing becomes an exercise in confusion.

• Add film clips• Mythology, Propp, Fabula and sujet etc…• V. Propp • T. Todorov • Greimas• Claude Bremond • Roland Barthes • Levi Strauss