CINEMATOGRAPHY

ESSENTIALCONCEPTS

•  Thefilmmakercontrolsthecinematographicqualitiesoftheshot –notonlywhatisfilmed butalsohowitisfilmed

•  Cinematographicqualitiesinvolvethreefactors:

1.thephotographicaspectsoftheshot2.theframingoftheshot3.thedurationoftheshot

Inotherwords,cinematographyisaffectedbychoicesin:

1.  Photographicaspectsoftheshot2.  Framing3.  Durationoftheshot

1.Photographicimage

•  Thestudyofthephotographicimageincludes:

A.RangeoftonalitiesB.SpeedofmotionC.Perspective

1.A:Tonalitiesofthephotographicimage

Therangeoftonalitiesinclude:I.  Contrast–black&white;color

Itcanbecontrolledwithlighting,filters,filmstock,laboratoryprocessing,postproduction

II.  Exposure–howmuchlightpassesthroughthe

cameralensImagetoodark,underexposed;ortoobright,overexposedExposurecanbecontrolledwithfilters

1.A.Tonality-cont

Tonalitycanbechangedafterfilming:

Tinting–dippingdevelopedfilmindye Darkareasremainblack&gray; lightareaspickupcolor

Toning-dippingduringdevelopingofpositive print Darkareascoloredlightarea; white/faintlycolored

1.A.Tonality-cont

•  Photochemically–basedfilmmakingcanhavethetonalityfixed.Donebycolortimerorgraderinthelaboratory

•  Digitalgradingusedtoday.Ascannerconvertsfilm

todigitalfiles,creatingadigitalintermediate(DI).DIisadjustedwithsoftwareandscannedbackontonegative

1.B.:Speedofmotion•  Dependsontherelationbetweentherateatwhichthe

filmwasshot&therateofprojection•  Bothratesarecalculatedinframespersecond•  Inthesilentera,filmswereshotatavarietyof

speeds,usualrangingfrom16to20framespersecond,graduallygettingabitfasterinthemid-1920s

•  Oncesoundwasadoptedinthelate1920s,itwasnecessarytorecordbothsoundandimageatauniformspeed,sothattheycouldbesynchronized

•  Therateofshooting&projectionforthesoundcinemawasstandardizedat24framespersecond

1.B.:Speedofmotion-cont

ObservethatifItherearefewerframespersecondthantheprojectionrate,thescreenactionlooksspeededup

•  Slowmotion:moreframespersecond,theprojectionactionlooksinslowmotion

•  Ramping:varyingframerateduringshooting•  Timelapse:oneframeperminute,ormoretime,

whenprojected,looksspeededup•  Highspeed:hundredsofframespersecond

1.B.:Speedofmotion-cont

•  Fordepictedmovementtolookaccurate,then,therateofshootingmustcorrespondtotherateofprojection

•  Thejerkinessoftheimagesinasilentfilmisusuallytheresultofprojectingafilmshotat16to20framespersecondat24framespersecond

•  Thefilmmakercancontroltherateofthefilm’smovementthroughthecamera

1.C.:Perspective

Perspective:setofspatialrelationsorganizedaroundapointofview

Itcomprises:A.Focallength-wideangle middlelens longlensortelephoto

B.Depthoffieldandfocus

1.C.:Perspective

Perspectiverelationscanbemanipulatedthroughspecialeffects:

•  Superimposition•  Rear&backprojection•  Mattework

2.FramingtheimageFramingisapowerfulcinematictechniqueItcomprises:•  Dimensionsoftheframingspace•  Space–onscreen/offscreen•  Cameraposition

Angle–straight,high,lowLevel–paralleltothehorizonorcantedHeightDistanceofframing

•  Functionsofframing•  Mobileframing

2.Framing

Framedimensions&shape

Theratioofframewidthtoframeheightiscalled aspectratioTheroughdimensionsoftheratioweresetquite earlyinthehistoryofcinemabyEdison, Dickson,Lumière&otherinventorsThefilmframewastoberectangular,itsproportion approximatelythreetotwo,yieldingan aspectratioof1.33:1,orAcademyratioSincethe1950s,avarietyofwidescreenratios havedominated35mmfilmmaking

2.Framing:Distanceofframing

Framingsuppliesnotonlyanangle&heightandonalevelplaneoratacantbutalsowithrespecttodistance

Itgivestheviewerthesenseofbeingfarawayorclose tothemise-en-scèneoftheshotThisaspectofframingiscalledcameradistance

–thescaleisthehumanbodySeveraltypesofshots,rangingfromfarthesttoclosest

2.Framing:Distanceofframing

Typesofshotsaccordingtocameradistance:•  Extremelongshot•  Longshot•  Mediumlongshot•  Mediumshot•  Mediumclose-up•  Close-up•  Extremeclose-up

2.Framing:Typesofshots

•  Extremelongshot–thehumanfigureisbarelyvisible;framingforlandscapes,bird’s–eyeviewsofcities&othervistas

•  Longshot–figuresaremoreprominent,butthebackgroundstilldominates

•  Mediumlongshots–fromaboutthekneesup;verycommon;theypermitagoodbalanceoffigure&surrounding

•  Mediumshot– framesthehumanbodyfromthewaistup;gesture&expressionsbecomemorevisible

2.Framing:Typesofshots-cont

•  Mediumclose-up–framesthebodyfromthechestup

•  Close-up–traditionallytheshotshowingjustthehead,hands,feet,orsmallobjects;itemphasizesfacialexpression,thedetailsofagesture,orasignificantobject

•  Extremecloseup–singlesoutaportionoftheface(eyesorlips),isolatesadetail,&magnifiestheminute

2.Functionsofframing

Thecontextofthefilmwilldeterminethefunctionoftheframing,justasitdeterminesthefunctionofmise-en-scène,photographicqualities&othertechniques

Wemustlookforthefunctionsthetechniqueperforms

intheparticularcontextofthetotalfilmFramingcanbeusedforemphasis,subjectivity(point-

of-viewshot)&motif

2.Framing:Mobileframe

MobileframeisspecifictocinemaTheframemoveswithrespecttotheframedmaterialMobileframingmeansthatwithintheimage,the

framingoftheobjectchangesThemobileframeproduceschangesofcameraheight,

distance,angle,orlevelduringtheshot

2.Framing:Typesofmobileframing

Thecamerausuallyrestsonasupportwhilefilming;thissupportisdesignedtomovethecamera

Eachcameramovementcreatesaspecificeffectonscreen•  Thepan(shortfor‘panorama’)rotatesthecameraona

verticalaxis.Thecameradoesnotdisplaceitself,itturnsits‘head’rightorleft•  Thetiltrotatesthecameraonahorizontalaxis.The

cameradoesnotchangeposition,butits‘head’swivelsupordown

2.Typesofmobileframing-cont

•  Trackingshot(ordolly)–thecameraasawholedoesnotchangeposition;ittravelsinanydirectionalongtheground–forward,backward,circularly,diagonally,orfromsidetoside

•  Craneshot–thecameramovesabovegroundlevel;itrisesordescends,oftenthankstoamechanicalarmwhichliftsandlowersit

2.Typesofmobileframing-cont

Pan,tilts,trackingshots&craneshotsarethemostcommonframingmovements,butvirtuallyanykindofcameramovementcanbeimagined:somersaulting,rolling,andsoon

Rememberthatinboththepan&thetilt,thebodyof

thecameradoesnotchangeposition;itsimpleswivelsleftorright,upordown

Rememberalsothattypesofcameramovementscan

becombined

2.Mobileframing:Movement&machinery

Manycameramovementsaremadewiththecameraonadolly

Beforethe1970s,itwasstandardpracticetomount

thedollyonrailsforlengthymovements–‘tracking’shot

Today,aSteadicamisused–acameramount,attached

totheoperator’sbodybymeansofabrace.Theoperatorcanwalkwiththecamera,guidingtheframingbyminimalhandmovementswhileviewingtheimageonavideomonitor.Anotheroperatoradjustsfocusbyremotecontrol

2.Mobileframing:Movement&machinery

Sometimesthefilmmakerdoesnotwantsmoothcameramovements,preferringabumpy,jigglinghand-heldimage.Thisisachievedthroughtheuseofthecamera.Itbecamecommoninthelate1950swiththecinemaveritédocumentary

Eventhoughcameramovementisthemostcommon

wayofmakingtheframemobile,thezoomlenscanalsobeused(thecameradoesn’tmove–thelenscreatestheillusionthatitismoving)

2.Functionsofframemobility

Considerhowframingstrategiesfunctionsystematicallywithinfilms–howdoesmobileframingrelatetocinematicspace&time?howarepatternscreated?

Themobileframeneednotbesubordinatetothe

movementoffiguresatall.Itcanmoveindependentlyofthem,too.Often,thecameramovesawayfromthecharacterstorevealsomethingofsignificancetothenarrative

3.Durationoftheimage:thelongtake

ItispossibletomanipulatescreendurationwithinasingleshotAtake: onerunofthecamerathatrecordsasingleshotLongtake: unusuallylengthyshotWhenanentiresceneisrenderedinonlyoneshot,thelongtakeis

knownbytheFrenchterm‘plansequence',orsequenceshot

Mostcommonly,thefilmmakerusesthelongtakeselectivelyAlternatively,thedirectormaydecidetobuildtheentirefilmout

oflongtakes,e.g.Rope(Hitchcock,1948),withonlyeightshots,eachrunningthefulllengthofareelofilminthecamera

3.Thelongtake&themobileframe

ThelongtakeoftenreplaceseditingItisfrequentlyalliedtothemobileframe:byusing

panning,tracking,craning,orzooming,itpresentscontinuallychangingvantagepointsthatarecomparabletotheshiftsofviewsuppliedbyediting

Aclassicexampleofhowthelongtakecanconstitutea

formalpatternistheopeningsequenceofWelles’TouchofEvil(1958)

Summary•  Thefilmshotisaverycomplexunit

•  Mise-en-scènefillstheimagewithmaterial,arrangingsetting,lighting,costume&figurebehaviorwithintheformalcontextofthetotalfilm

•  Withinthatsameformalcontext,thefilmmakeralsocontrolsthecinematographicqualitiesoftheshot–howtheimageisphotographed&framed,howlongtheimagelastsonthescreen

•  Digitalpostproductionhasreshapedeveryareaoftechnique:editing,cinematography,sound&mise-en-scène

Filmssuggestedasexamples

•  Tonality– TheBattleofAlgiers(1967,Pontecorvo)SavingPrivateRyan(1998,Spielberg)

•  Telephoto– Tootsie(1982,Pollack)•  Zoom– TheConversation(1974,Coppola)•  Slowmotion– TheWildBunch(1969,Peckinpah)•  Deepfocus–CitizenKane(1941)•  Splitscreen– TimeCode(2000,Figgis)

•  Mobilecamera-Saboteur(1942,Hitchcock) YoungandInnocent(1937,Hitchcock) Notorious(1946,Hitchcock) GrandIllusion(1937,Renoir)

•  Hand-heldcamera– Primary(1960,Drew)•  Longtake–TouchofEvil(1958,Welles)

Gravity(2013,Cuarón) StationsoftheCross(2014,Brüggemann) Birdman(2015,GonzálezIñárritu)

•  Steadicam&longtake– SnakeEyes(1998,DePalma)

Source:

ThisoutlinefollowstheconceptsoncinematographydevelopedbyDavidBordwell&KristinThompsonintheirFilmArt,AnIntroduction(2001&2010)

Thelistoffilmexampleshasbeenpreparedby

MaríaElenadelasCarreras