ti\I..~1I

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARYroUNDBD BY JAHES LOEB, LL.D.

c..ne. 3'2.6::1EDITED BY

tT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D.

E. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. W. H. D. ROUSE, LITT.D.

L. A. POST, M.A. E. H. WARMINGTON,M.A.., F.R.mST.SOC.

CICERO

DE INVENTIONE

DE OPTIMa GENERE ORATORUM

TOPICA

CICERODE INVENTIONE

DE OPTIMO GENEREORATORUM

TOPICA1'. "~,.

WlT~ AN 8NGLIS~ tRANSLATION BY

II. M. HUBBELL~ PaOJ'iIlBBOB.OI' Q\UIIk

YALR 'UlmBIUltrt

CAIlBRlDOB, MASSACHU$KT'l'8

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRF."lSLONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD~",. IWIaLIx',"','"

I.

CONTENTSPAGIt

DE INV:BNTIONE-

INTRODUCTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOK I

BOOK II .

viixv1

160DE OPTIMO GEN:BRE OBA.TORUM-

INTRODUCTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT.

349352354

TOPICA-

INTRODUCTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

TEXT

377379382

461INDlIX

•

I} i. II

I

ITOPICA

•

f

I INTRODUCTION

Ii

IiII:j

II

INTRODUCTION

It must also be noted that the Topica deals withmore than topics of argumentation. At § 72 Ciceroapologizes to Trebatius for going beyond his originalplan. The following sections discuss testimony,and are succeeded by an enumeration of the threekinds of oratory, the parts of a speech, etc. Whatemerges is a miniature treatise on Invention, andit seems clear that Cicero is adapting, perhapsfrom memory, some late Hellenistic treatise, andthat he was misled by the mention of Aristotle(~ 6) as the first writer on Topics into thinking thathis source really represented Aristotle's work.

Attempts have been made to determine moreprecisely the author of the work which Ciceroreproduces. Wallies suggested Antiochus of Asca-lon, and his view was followed by Kroll; Hammerthought of Diodotus. Both snggestions are plausible,but not much moreean be said for them.

Trebatius, to whom the book is dedicated, wasGaiu~Tre,batius Testa, a jurisconsult of repute, whoon CIcero S' recommendation had served with Caesarin Gaul. Cicero addressed to him the letters adFamiliar" vii, 6-22 (cf. also ad Fam. vii, 5, Cicero'sletter commending him to Caesar), and Horacemakes him a speaker in the first Satire of the secondbook.

OurLINE OF CoNTENTS

1-5. Introduction. Dedication to Trebatius.This is to be an interpretation. of the .. Topics It ofAristotle.

6-8. Definition of " Topics .. or the art of inven-tion. Topics, are intrinsic or. extrinsic.378

INTRODUCTION

9-23. The intrinsic topics are enumerated, witha brief example of each.

24. The extrinsic topics. .25. Interlude: We shal1 now take up the top"'"

in detail. ..'26-7L The intrinsic topics are. discussed. agam,

this time with a ful1analysis of each.., to Ice are" not72. Interlude: The extriDSlC p' . .pertinent to jurisprudence, but will be Included forthe sake of completeness.

73--78 The extrinsic topics are ful1y treated.79--ll6:There aretwokindsofsubjectsforspeech~

the general proposition and the specla~ case. .general proposition is cllacussed.atle~thhm conn,£,;with the "issues" (8t6W) r6lSed .m em~. a(nine) of definition (quid IS£), of quality ('1":~1St). f

87-90. Certain topics are suited to eac orm 0

the general proposition. . d lib tive or91-96. Special cases are forensic, . e era

epideictic: certain topics are approech-pna~t;::a:::~n97-99. The four parts of aspe m u 'at;

narrative, proof, peroratiolr-and the appropn

to~~: Conclusion: this work has included morethan was original1y planned.

Bn,uOGRAPRY

Besides thude~~2pltheteeretextsisa ~~x~c~r:.:.r;~~~o~on pp rv a ON [)iui8iqn8• tary hy Helm Bornecque, c:;ch1m,co~en •. 71' Paris, 1924. .de Iart D1'iJIDIre, 0fJUlW" .... Charles Duke Yonge

An 1>n"Ush traDs1ation ~J...... 379

INTRODUCTION

.is in~ludedin the volume cited in the bibliag%aphyon p. xvi. .' .

.The following monogrephe and articles have been£oll:hd useful: . .

Emilio Costa, Cictrone Gi....econsulto. Bologna, 1927.Wilhelm Friedrich, Zu CicertnTopica •. JahJ:btIch",

fUr classische Philologie xxxv (1889),pl'.2&1-200. The fullest information about wemanllSCril'ts.

Casper H_t, Ol... ,..,_tatiode Cicertmis ~.. . .p,.og. La/tdall, 11m ..Johann Joseph Klelh, DiltI!f'tatW de. FI>NtibitI¥

tIOf'UmCiUf'otl;,. Bono, 1844; thinksthatcwetoused Aristotle's RJreIQriq as a source.

Thomas' Stangl, Textkril#cke lkmerkungen zu Cictr6srket8ri.chen &ktifte!>. .BlIJtterflitdfJ8 b~keGJpm.tui<4ackul.-en, xviii (1882), Pl" 245--2&3,

MaxilnilianWallies, De Ft1It1ibuaTopicorum Ckm>ni s.Diss, Halle, 1878; thinks that Cleere usedAntioohus of' Ascalon who had combinedPeripatetic, Academic and Stoic logic.

TEXTThe manuscripts {aU into three classes. The

first contains two codices, Ottobonianus 1406 (0)of the tenth ceotury and the closely related rite-kTg""';' (f)-. These are the. best evidence and inID()Ot eases their l'e!atUag is to be preferred. The_ridg/'ll"P' J\ellro/ .asteliable, ..eoIIlPrls....(A},qoaex ...¥<JSIdan~84;.(Il},~\f~\1s>~;·,iI'fdJ?i~'i:M~l/Il.·lIi'1,illl iueIIiillt .~et1lllith..~

j -j -,';, >~j~-~:'"'•••

MARCUS TULLI CICERONIS

TOPICA1. MAIORES nos res scribere ingressos C. Trebati

e~~ libris quos brevi tempore satis muitos edidimu~dltpUores, e cursu ipso revocavit voluntas tua. Cumennn mecum in Tusculano esses et in bibliothecaseperatfm uterque nostrum ad suum studium libellosquos vellet evolveret, incidisti in Aristotelis Topicaquae~am,. qU;,aesunt ab ilIo pluribus libris explicata.Qua inscriptione cornmotus continuo a me librorum

2 eorum sententiam requisisti;. quam cum tibi ex-posuissem,. disciplinam inveniendorum argumento-rum, ut sme ullo errore ad ea 1 ratione et via I

perveniremus, ab Aristotele inventam illis Hbrisco~tineri,verecunde til quidem ut omnia, sed tamen~acl1eut cemerem te ardere studio, mecum ut tibid~atr~dere~ egis.ti. Cum antem ego te non tamV1t~ndi laboris met causa. quam quia tua id interessearb!trarer, vel ut eos per te ipse legeres vel ut totamratjonem a doctissimo quodam rhetore acciperes,hortatus essem, utrumque, ut ex te audiebam, es

~ ad.ea. Klotz ,from Boethim; ad eam wild.retdone et V1avuZg. from BootkiU8; ra.tionem via codd.

":'dHe h~ begun the. de OJJieii8, which Wa.& Interruptednot finished untt1 hIS return from his voyage mentioned

below. He had within • y.... published the C.... oIatio ~~. '

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO

TOPICSI. I HAD set out to write on a larger subject and

one more in keeping with the books of which I havepublished enough surely in the recent past, when Iwas recalled from' my course by your request, mydear Trebatfus." You wUl remember that when wewere together in my Tusculan- vill$ andweY!" sittingin the library, each of us according to his fa'f!')Yunrolling the volumes which he wis~ed, you hitupon certain Topics of Aristotle Whl~ were ex-pounded by him in several books. EXCIted by .thetitle, you immediately asked me what tbe subject

2 of the work was. And when I had made clear toyou that these books contained a system developedby Aristotle for inventing argumenta so that wemight come upon them by a rational system withoutwandering about you begged me to teach you thesubject. Your r~quest WllS made with the modestywhich you show in evervtbing, yet I could easilysee that you were aIlame with eagerness. Not, somuch to avoid labour lIS because I thought it wouldbe for our good, I urged you to read the booksyourseJ. or acquire tbe wbole system fro':.t a vytY'learned teacher of ,oratory whom I nameu- on

. A;'-~~QNJ' :',.w,. "N~ JJeorwttl, MF •.,.;/)u;$, ....... -'." 'A' 'c''''''., '"' ,,~""""'.and ".~,_ '._~ -lHI" ...-w, ,__- ,~,0l0ri<J. ' ,

CICERO

3 expertus, Sed a !ibris te obscuritas reiecit; rhetorautem ille magnus baec, ut opinor, Aristotelia seignorare respondit. Quod quidem minime sum admi-ratus eum pbilosophum rhetori non esse cognitum,qui ab ipsis philosopbis praeter admodum paucosignoretur; quibus eo minus !gnoscendum est. quodnon modo rebus cis quae ab illo dictae et inventaesnut allici debuerunt, sed dicendi quoqne incredibiliquatl~: cum oopia tum etiam suavitate,

4 Non P!'tuiigitur tlbi saepi"" hocrogantiet tamen\'etenth,e mihigravis esses-facile culm idCerneb~'"-liebere. dlutius''lCi¢il>l'is interpreti neri videretl!riniBria. . Etelliin cum tu tuibi meisque multa sac""'seripsisses,lveritus sumne; 'si -ego gravaret,alitingratum id aut. superbum videretur. Sed dumfuimus una, t? 01't1tll'f"es testis quam fuerim occupa-

6 tus;u~ a""Cl,!lllte~ iu.Graeciam proficiscens.cum op,er.. mea; .itec .res pllb~a nee amici u~erentlltnee. honeste inter arma versari .possem, ne si tutoquidem mihi id !ieeret, ut veni Veliam tuaque ettuos vidi, admonitus huius aeris alieni nolui dcessene tseitae quidem flagitatiOnituae. Itaque haec,CUmmecum libros lIOn hahei'eilt, memoria repetitain ipsa navigau<>ne·.conliCripsi tibique ex itilieremisi, ut· mea '.diligertti" .•inandatorum tliorum· tequoque, etsi lldmonitole uouegea,. ad. memoriaui

+oori~' """'- 0/.

TOPICA;i. 3-5

3 had tried both, as you toldme.:u.tJ:.:..:rrepelled from reading the books by. t err.0 as.!;'and that great teacher replied that he WI"""k

. . h h ,-- wbiChare as . vwu ,acquainted WIt t ese wor~t .''.' "'~~,in-tbeby Aristotle. I am not ludeedast0wasunl<.tioWnslightest degree that the p~il'h"~er':-_;byallto the teacher of oratory, 1.... . e '! 'IS:;:::;'.. TIil!except a few of the p!Vfessed plnhJS\>..-••" 1ectphilosophers deserve less excuse fur:~:rIy";because they should have:beeua~ 'esentedibntthe inatterwhich hehas~~,itI'hillstyl!l.also by an unbelievablecha~ and .;.'::'l~ant~,

4 When you repeatedy(ll1f :'.'t!<J~~=:"-",,Ji>l!'+and at the _ametime ..-ellti'liid 0, .......,' .....~that I could easily "ee-:--I could ~ ~,th"'tawfrom paying the debt, lest the illl;<lt;~'taJdng'IDt<lsbould be treated uula.,.rulli\' "tten -Ilt greatconsideration that you 1"'d. 0•. ~: aItaiil that my~e~:ti: ':J.,~(\:y:~~ t~~~~1.:discourtesy. But yoU yoUi-self•• ,_~f.(.lCi(t

6 busy I was when we were tog' ,~~,.'~you, alid set out on.my \Vl1Y~'~:$,,~~,{I;the stllte nor my frierids r~ thio .<lttl¥l~could not with honour live~_"~'~ . lH!"'Wit!lof arms. supposing that I '""'5"1" ~safety, and on reacb~ ~'your bome, I was r m~~.unwillillg to refuse even yeur ""''''''mcnt. Therefore, sillce1hWrote up what lcould. .s""t it toyolf' ip.~;o~.yo~,.thou~ )"lU.' "

1IIIpI, !dd I'llI "i it!,

'i IIII/'I:iiIii ['III I'

I Ii II

CICERO

modo affectae 1 sunt ad id de .t . quo quaerttur Ex-~,!secus autem ea ducuntur quae absunt lor:geque

dlsiuncta sunt.9 Sed ad id totum de di ,dhib quo isseribur tum definitio

a 1 ~tur, qu~e 2 quasi lnvolutum evolvit 3 Id de quoq.u,~erlt~r; el~S argumenti t.alis est formula: IusCJ\lie ~t aequttas constituta eis qui eiusdem civitatis~Ut~l.a r~s.suas obtinendas j eius autem aequitatis

1 IS cognitio est· utilis t i . ... .10 tum - . ' . ergo es lUrIS CIVIlIs scient.ia ;- d . lartmffi enumeratio, quae tractatur hoc~o 0 f 1 neque censu nee vindicta nee testamento

er actus est, non est liber; neque ulla estearum rerum' non t' it I bcum _.'. es 19l .ut i er i-tum nctntio,mod ~x C"erbljvl ar~mentum aliquod elicitur hoc

o . urn ex assiduo . di .. b _ I '. VIn teem assiduum esse~~d~at, ocul?letem iubet locupleti; is est enim as-'- us, ut aif L. Acllus, eppellatus eb aere dando.

~ edfectee codd: adfictae .J..Vetlle8hip.a quae ~: qua coda.

evolvit 0: evolvitur codd.----

(I For these methods f - .\V. W A Text Bo k R 0 manurmesron see Buckland,2n~ ed. (193.2)~p;. 7L7~n:an Law from AU(JUSt'U8 to Justinian.

I .e. a88~from as ge . .I give The t l' .n. aS8M, a com. and duus from d.(l,accepted at :h~~~~r' IS w:on~, but was the one commonlywere contrasted in e I' t88idu~. (tax-payers or freeholders)

The Aetiua h . ar y lines WIth proletarii.logy iA proba~/ r q!-lOte1as t,he authority for this etymo-grammarian and rhU~lU,~. eliua Stilo Praeconinus, a notedor he rna be th . e ,?l1Clan, and one of Cicero's teaohers;198 B.C. ':ho wro~Ul'lst Sextus Aeliu8 PaetuB Catus, consul

The law involved ~scomme.nta.~ on the Twelve Tables.from Buckland A T l ~Ptmed m the following quotationJ'Mtinian, 2nd' ed ex· OQ of R~n. Law from A uguslU8 tocollecting aid .• p. 618 f., descnbmg the procedure for388

u gement. "The _process was as follows:

TOPICA, n. 8-10

subj ect which is being investigated. Argumentsfrom external circumstances are those that areremoved and widely separated from the subject.

9 Sometimes a definition is applied to the wholesubject which is under consideration; this definitionunfolds what is wrapped up, as it were, in the subjectwhich is being examined. The following is thepattern of such an argument: The civil law is asystem of equity established between members ofthe same state for the purpose of securing to eachhis property rights; the knowledge of this systemof equity is useful; therefore the science of civil

10 law is useful. Sometimes there is an enumerationof parts, and this is handled in the following manner:So-and-So is not a free man unless he has been setfree by entry in the census roll, or by touching withthe rod, or by will." None of these conditions hasbeen fulfilled, therefore he is not free. Thenetymology may be employed, when some argumentis derived from the force or meaning of a word, inthis fashion: Since the law provides that an assiduus(tax-payer or freeholder) shall be vindex (repre-sentative) for an assiduus, it provides that a richman be representative for a rich man; for thatis the meaning of assiduus, it being derived, asAelius says, from aere dando (paying money). b

after 30 days from the judgement or other event justifyingthe seizure, the claimant brought the party liable before themagistrate .... The defendant might not defend himselfagainst the manusinicctio. but if he claimed that it was notjustified, some one must appear on his behalf to prove thiB-8 vi-ndex. 'l'he effect of the intervention was t,hat the de-fendant was released. and further procee~ings we~eagainstthe vindu." Cf. also. Bruos, Fontes 1ur~s Romam, 7th cd.,p.18.

~II.•

!

I

, I,

I

II

II

CICERO

11 III. Ducuntur etiam argumenta ex eis rebus quaequodam modo affectae sunt ad id de quo quaeritur.Sed hoc genus in pluris partis distributum est.N?m alia coniugata appellamus, alia ex genere,alia ex forma, alia ex similitudlne, alia ex differentia,alia ex contrario, alia ex adiunctis.J alia ex antece-dentibus, alia ex consequentibus, alia ex repugnanti-bus, alia ex causis, .alia ex effectis, alia ex com-paratione maiorum aut parium aut minorum.

12 . Coniugata. dicuntur quae sunt ex verbis generisetusdem. Eiusdem autem generis verba sunt quaeort~ abo uno varie commutantur, ut sapiens sapienteraapientla, Haec verborum coniugatio ~uyEoX dicitur,ex qua huius modi est argumentum: Si compascuusager est, ius est compascere.

13 1\ g~nere sic ducitur: Quoniam argentum omnemullen legatum est, non potest ea pecunia quaenu~erata domi relicta est non esse legata; formaemm a genere, quoad suum nomen retinet, nun-quam seiungitur, numerata autem pecunia nomenargenti retinet; legata igitur videtur.

14 ~ .forma generis, quam interdum, quo planiusaccfptatur, partem licet nominare hoc modo: Siita Fabiae pecunia legate est a viro, si ei viro mater-familias esset; si en in manum non convenerat,nihil debetur. Genus enim est uxor; eius duaeformae: una matrumfamilias, ea~ sunt, quae in

1 adiunctla Oc: coniunctia eodd.

4 I have teensleted compa8CU'U8 as " common It rather th&n88 :' common pasture. H beca.use freeholders might cut woodon It ~ well.8JI use it forpaature. CJ. Voigt.in Abhandlungender ph.lol.·h .... Om•• der K •• ii<M8eh<" a_haft der W ....•

390

TOPICA, III. Il-I4

II III. Arguments are also drawn. from ~umstancesclosely connected with the subject which ~ ."?derinquiry. But this class has many subdiVISIOns.For we call some arguments" conjugate," others wederive from genus, species, similarity, difference,contraries, adjuncts, antecedents, consequ.ents, ~n-tradictions, cause, effect, and companson Withevents of greater less or equal importance.

12 " Conjugate" 'is the term applied to argumentsbased on words of the same family. Words of thesame family are those which are formed from ~neroot but have different grammatical forms, as mle,flJisel ,'llJisdom. Such a .. conjugation" of wordsis cailed au,uyLo: (syzygy), and yields an argument ~fthis sort: If a field is " common" (compa8""UI), '~is legal to use it as a common pastur.e (compa8~).

13 An argument is derived from genus In the followmgway: Since all the silver was bequeathed to thewife, the coin which was left in the h0U!e n:ust alsohave been bequeathed. For the spe~es IS nev.erseparated from its genus, as long as .It k~ev;: Itsproper name' coin keeps the name of silver ; t ere-fore it seems 'to have been included in the l~ga.cy.

14 An argument is derived from the SpeCI~ of agenus as follows (sometimes for gr;~ter ct

nt!h"~may call a species a part): If Fabia s hu~ .an hbequeathed her a sum of monel on conditIOn tdatshe be materf~lias, and she as no1;tco~e t?~ erhis manus, nothing is due her. For WI e ~ ~genus and of this .genus there are two SpeciesJ

one n:atres familiar, that is, those who have eome

.. 118Cha/ .... hX. (l888)'tP'P·:~33y·to ~:: .~~;'':i

.18 th&t t e argo~en 18 •Cioero had included it in tbo 2'oyt<4o

39'

,pr····.___ ,.ll~·

CICERO

manum convenerunt· altmodo uxores hahent~ er; c.arum, quae tantumFabia, legatum ei 1no . ldQ a In parte cum fuerit

15 A similitudi h n VI etur... _ . ne oc modo : Si dvifiumve faciunt q . ae es eae corrueruntheres restitncre no~a&~e;lSUS fructus legatus est,quam servum restituere .n~c re~cere, non magislegatus esset deperiss t ' 81 IS CUIUs usus fructus

16 Ad'ffi e.1 erentia: Non si ..omne quod suum ess~ .ux?n vir legavit argentumfuerunt legata sunt Mt,Iltdclrcoquae in nominibus

. • ultum eni di~posrturn sit argentum . rum ttert in arcane17 Ex contrario t an.lll tabulis debeatur.P

. . b au em SIC' N d bCUI vir _onorum su . on e et ea mulier. _, . orum Usum fru t Ivmarns et oleariis Ieni .. c urn egavit cellis

pertinere. Usus e I: ems rehctIs, putare id ad se18 Ea sunt inte; se co=ria~~n abusus, legatus est.

rv. Ab adiunctis : Si e .qu~e se capite nu~quama du~er ~estamentum fecitedicto praetoris d· emmmt, non videtur exd

. A ... secum urn cas t b Iarlo diuncritur' a u as possessioo- emm, ut se dCUD urn servorum,

1 el omitted by 02 debeatur brack~ted b H3 Ell, . Y otmam;

... contrana bracketed b H_____ yammer.

oS In the pri Tpassed fr rnm rve Roman form f .and b om the power of her fath ? tomarriage the womanwas cell~e a member of his a :ra~~ th~t of her husbandthis th mater familia8 and sa'd t tc :a~ily; such a wifewhich~: ~~:a~P :eery.early anoth~r;o~ ~:~rriBesitear:ge Ch1er"S.mhily. Th~~e~lt~:':~~riabepote8tateand ~e n~

•. • 0 m-Mitteis-W y ~ame the prevailiound System dell romi8chen pe~ger, ln8htutianen. G88chic~39' nvatr""hto, 17th ed. (1933), pp.

TOPICA, 111. I4-1V. 18

under manus j the second, those who are regardedonly as wives (uxores). Since Fabia belonged tothe second class, it is clear that no legacy was madeto her."

15 An argument is based on similarity or analogy inthe followiug manner: If one has received by willthe usufruct of a house, and the house has collapsedor is in disrepair, the heir (i.e. the remainder-man) isnot bound to restore or repair it, any more thanhe .would have been bound to replace a slave ofwhich the usufruct had been bequeathed, if theslave had died.

16 An argument based on difference: If a man hasbequeathed to his wife all the money that is his,he has not, therefore, bequeathed what is owedhim; for it makes a great difference whether themoney is stored in a strong-box: or is on his books.

17 An argument from contraries, as follows: A womanwhose husband has bequeathed her the usufructof his property and has left full wine and oil cellarsought not to think that she has a right in these.For itis use and not consumption that was bequeathed.And these are contrary one to the other.

b

18 IV. From adjuncts (corollaries): If a woman whohas never changed her civil status makes a will, itappears that possession of the inheritance cannot begiven by praetorian edict in accordance with theterms of this instrument. For the corollary is thatit would appear that possession is given by praetorian

506-509; Corbett, P. E.• The Raman Law of Marriage,pp. 68-106. 113.

b "As the usufructuary was bound to return the thing ingood condition, there was no usufruct of perishables." Buok-land, A Text-BooJ,:0/ Boman Law, 2nded., p. 271. I

II

393

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CICERO

secundum. exsulum, secundum puerorum tabulaspossessio videatur ex edicto dari.

19 Ab antecedentibus autem et consequentibus etrepugnantibus hoc modo; ab anteccderrtibus : Siviri culpa factum est divortium, etsi mulier nunt.iumremisit., tamen pro liberis manere nihil oportet.

20 A consequentibus: Si mulier, cum fuisset nuptacum eo quicum conubium non esset, nuntium remisit;quoniam qui nati sunt patrern non sequuntur, prolfberis manere nihil oportet.

21 A repugnantibus: Si paterfamilias uxori ancil-larum usum fructum legavit a filio neque a secundaherede legavit, mortua filiomulier usum fructum nonamlttet. Quod enim semel testamento alieni datumest, id ab eo invito cui datum est auferri non pctcst.Repugnat 1enim recte accipere et invitum reddere.

22 Ab efficientihus rebus hoc modo: Omnibus estius parietem directum ad parietem communemadiungere vel solidum vel fornicatum. Sed qui inpariete communi demoliendo damni infecti pro-miserit, non debebit praestare quod fornix vitifecerit. Non cnim eius vitio qui demolitus estdamnum factum est, sed eius operis vitio quod itaaedificatum est ut suspendi non posset.

1 repugnat 0: pugnat codd,

II Until the time of Hadrian a womancould not make a.will unless she became sui i'Uris by suffering capit-is deminutio(cha.nge of civil status) and coming under a tutor. V. Buck.land, op. cit., p. 288; and for capitis rhminutio, pp. 134-14I.

I> The rule was that if a woman or her paterfamiliasdivorcedher husband without due cause on his part, one-sixth of the dowry was left 'with the husband for each childof the marriage. (Nat more than half the total dowry was80 left.) V. Corbett, Qp. cit., p. 192. and the a.uthoritiesthere cited.394

TOPICA, IV. 18-22

of the willsofedict in accordance with the termsslaves, exiles, and minors," t nd contradictions

19 From antecedents, Consequ;n s a antecedents: Ifin the following manner. ffenee by the husband,a divorce occurs through an °t ~~~ letter of divorce-although the woman has sedn hould bc left forment, still no part of the owry sthe children. e n married to a man

20 From consequents: If a woma,,; m (right ofmarri-with whom she does not .have conh

u U the children whoh di d him masmUC as rt fage), as vorce , f 11 the father, no P" 0

have been born do not 0 owhe children.the dowry should be left for t fer Jamiu .. has be-

21 From contradictions: If a fa t of maid-servantshi if the usutrue adqueathed to IS WI e. heir and has m e"" tng his son as , heias a proviso In nam . a reversionary elf, on

no such proviso in nammg will not lose herthe death of the son the wOIllb~en given to someusufruct. For what has oncr him to whom itone by will cannot be ta~en ro~ For" receiving

" "thout hLC;consen . .. on-has been gIVenWI • '"llingly are clegally" and .. surrendenng unwitradictory. . this way: Anyone h~s a

22 From efficient causes In h"a party wall at a .rlghtright to build a"wall to to~c may be either solid orangle· and 'this new wa an who has given

, h But a m r htngresting on arc es. 1 damage in demo 18 Iguarantees against eve;tu~ound to make good thea party wall will not e h For the damageloss which is caused by a~urtrcof the man wh.o ?e-was not caused by any f t b a defect in bUlldmgIi h d the party wall,!lu Y d th t it could notmo s e. so constructe a

the arch whIch~h't the party wall)"be supported (WIt ou. 395

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23 Ab effeetis rebus hoc modmanum convenit • 0: Cum mulier viro infiunt dotis nomin~.omma quae mulieris fuerunt viri

Ex comparatione aute .huius modi, Qu d' momma valent quae sunt. 0 In re rna' Iminore.! ut si in u b fi tore va et valeat in

in urbe arceatur r I~ nes non reguntur, nee aquavalet, valeat in' .em contra: Quod in minoreconvertere Ite marore. Licet idem exemplum

. m: Quod' .hac quae par est. t : QIn rc. pan valet valeat infundi biennium est ~t' . uotuam usus auctoritasaedes non appella' tSI etiam aedium. At in legeomnium quarum a n ur et sunt ceterarum rerum

. nnuus est usus V I .quae paribus in causis " . a eat aeqnttas,24 Quae aut pana iura desiderat.

em assumuntur e t .ex auctoritate due t x rmsecus, ea maximernentatioIies <iT' un ur, _ Itaque Gracei talis argu ...ut si ita respond~:~~~ Q~ca~t, id est at-tis expertis,esse ambitus aedi . di om.am P. Sceevola id solummunis tegendi caurn xent, quod 2 parietis com-

usa tectum protceretur ex quo, . '9 re mmore OLV.~ quod vult;.: quent OR 'um Boeth,us: quo d: quoad VaUa.

II lfor the discussion of th .op- c~t.• p. 107. Corbett e ~w In such a case, v. Buckland

" 'I'he bound' • op, cii .• p. 149 'land five feet ~~~: (t'n:8) here referr~d to were strips off~(uiredb;r either neig~~oe:; th:ateh' which. could not be

. excluding water (actio a ug ~~pw. The action~adtyour neighbour who di quae pluviae arcendae) lay~ . verted a water-course to yourIn case of a farm th .

~~dthwa:rrant&the pos;esso~ ~h~t°.h~ thU6use (usus) of ite property. This WRIT e IS we and duly seized

years. a,.fte.rwhich the purchanty (amt<:ritas) runs for two396 aser has tItle by adversepas-

TOPICA, IV. 23-24

23 From effects as follows: When a woman comesunder the manus (legal control) of her husband,all her property goes to tbe husband under thedesignation' of dowrv."

All arguments from comparison are valid if theyare of the following character: 'What is valid in thegreater should be valid in the less, as for examplesince there is no action for regulating boundaries b

in the city, there should be nc action for excludingwater in the city. Likewise the reverse: Whatis valid in the less should be valid in the greater;the same example may be used if reversed. Like-wise: What is valid in one of two equal cases shouldbe valid in the other; for example: Since use andwarranty run for two years in the case of'a farm,the same should be true of a (city) house. But a(city) house is not mentioned in the law, and isincluded with the other things use of which runs forone year." Equity should prevail, which requiresequal laws in equal cases.

24 Extrinsic arguments depend principally onauthority. Therefore the Greeks call such meansof argumentation &-esxvot (atechnoi), that is, notinvented by the art of the orator; such would be .thecase if you answered your opponent as foUo,,:s: SmcePublius Scaevola d has said that the ambitus of ahouse is only that space which is covered by a roofput up to protect a party wall, from which roof the

session (usucapio). V. 'I'h. MomlllSen. Ad kgem de scribi4et viatorifnut et de aueroritaw commentationeB d'~ Doctor&!Dissertation (1843), pp. 18-20 = GaammeZteSchrij/.en III, pp.463-464.<i A jurisoonsult. whose opinion on a. point of law wouldhave weight(auctoritaB) witha jury. 397

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tecto in eius 1 eedis qui protexisset aqua deflueret,id ambitus 2 videri.

25 His igitur locis qui sunt expositi adomne argu-mentum reperiendum <I tnmquam elemerrtis quibus-darn significatio et demonstratio 4 datur. Utrumigitur hactenus satis est? Tibi quidem tam acute ettam occupato puto. V. Sed quoniam avidum homi-nem ad has discendi epulas rccept, sic accipiam, utreliquiarum sit potius aliquid quam te hinc patiar

26 non satiaturo disccdere. Quando ergo linus quisquecorum locorum quos exposui sua quaedem habetmembra, ea quam subtillssimo persequamur.

Et primum de ipsa dcfinitione dicatur. Definitioest oratio quae id quod definitur explicat quid sit.Definitionum autcm duo genera prima: unumearum rerum quae sunt, nlterum em-urn quae Intel-

27 leguntur. Esse ea dieo quae cerni tangique possunt,ut fundum aedes, parietem stillicidium, mancipiumpecudem, supelleetilem penns et cetera; quo exgenere quaedam Interdum vobis definienda sunt.Non esse rursus ea dico quae tangi dcmonstrarivenon possunt, cerni tamen animo atque intellegipossunt, ut si usus capionem, si tutelam, si gentem,

1 tecto in eius Boethiu8: in tectum eius codd.2 ambitus Parker,lJennathena xiii (1905), p. 252: tibi ius C.3 reperiendum omitted by O•• Alter dcmonstratio the MSS. except 0 have ad reperien-

dum.

G There is a vagueness about the meaning of ambitu8.The grammarian }I~estus(Paul. ex Fut., p. 16, Mueller) Baysthat "properly speaking it is a space of 2r feet left as apaeaage way between neighbouring buildings."

The passage in the text is Obscure, and probably corrupt.398

TOPICA, IV. 24-v, 27

of the man who has putwater flows into the home . of ambitus/1f hi to be the meanmgup the roo, t IS seems. . h I have set forth as

25 \Vell then, the tOpICS Wh~ f r discovering anythe rudiments so to s~ea dOd described. Is itargument, have been hde }::? a;or you, I think, yes;enough to have gone t us th oint and so busy,you are so quick to get e .fh s~ch a ravenousV. But as I have a gues~ WI. I shall provideappetite for this feast of t~:;:r:!;ybe somethingsuch an abundance that ather than let you go ~n-left from the banquet,. r ach of the topics which

26 satisfied. Therefore, smce ~. subdhisions of itsI have set forth has ce am to the minutestown, let us hunt them out evendetail. ake u definition itself.

First of all, then let us t hi h ~xplains what the, t tement w IC • •

A definition IS a sad fi lti s there are two prunething defined is. ?f e h% l~nthat exist, and theclasses one defining t g h ded only by theother, 'things which are ~;Pi'em:~n such as can be

27 mind. By things that exrs I farm house, wall,h d : for examp e, ' . e-seen and tOllC e. f 'ture food, etc., som

I nimal urID , f h' lassrain-water, s ave, a , fine objects 0 t IS C ,".times you b have to de }' which do not eXiStOn the other hand, by : ~m~~llched or pointed out,I mean those which canno e" d by the mind andbut can, for all that, be perce

llvevou might define

d d· r. r examp C,., • h' gens ccomprehen e ,0 ion guardians Ip, 'b long possess ,acquisition y , I

. roved by bra.cketing w?",,,,unM.The sense would, be ~~~y colleague, A. R. Bollinger,owe this emendatIOn such &8

b • e the jurisoonsults. b a common DElme.'lo., • eludedall who ore~ Gen8 In

Claudius, Julina, 399

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si agnationem definias, quarum rerum nullum subest 1corpus, est tarnen quaedam conformatio insignita etimpressa intellegentia, quam notionem voco. Easaepe in argumentauda definitione explicanda est.

28 Atque etiam definitiones aliae sunt partitionumaliae divisionum j part.ittonum, cum res ea qu~eproposita est quasi in membra discerpitur, ut si qUlsius civile dieat id esse quod in legibus, senatusconsultis, rebus iudicatis, iur-is peritorum nuctoritate,edictis magistratuum, more, aequitate consistat.Divisionum autem definitio formes omnis com-plcctitur quae sub eo genere sunt quod deflnitur hocmodo: Abalienatio est eius rei quae mancipi estaut traditio alteri nexu aut in iure cessio inter quosea iure civili fieri possunt.

VI. Sunt ctiam alia genera definitionum, sed adhuius libri institutum iBa nihil pertinent; tantum

29 est dieendum qui sit definitionis modus. Sic igiturveteres praecipiunt: cum sumpseris ea quae sintei rei quam definire velis cum aliis communia, usqueco pcrsequi, dum proprium efficiatur, quod nullamin aJiam rem transfcrri passit. Ut haec: Hereditasest pecunia. Commune adhuc; multa enim genera

1 After subest the MBS. have quasi: bracketed hy Proust.

a Relation On the father's side.b Mancipalio (grasping by the hand) was an ancient

method of transferring "by copper and scales" in thepresenoe of five witnesses and a weigher, certain propertyknown as re8 mancipi, i.e. Italian soil, rustic servitudes(easements) such as the right to cross land (via, iter, actus,aquaeductus), slaves and beasts of draught or burden. Thesecond method required the intended vendee to claim theproperty in court: the vendor put up no defence, and thecourt gave title. V. Buckland, op. cit., pp. 226-241. Tradi.tio nexu if!, here equivalent to mancipatio. V. P1l:liger,Zur400

TOPICA, V. 27-V1. 29

, b dy but a. there IS no 0, hagnation; a of th~se ~~;~~ndi~g impressed on t o~clear pattern an uril notion In the cours~ smind, and this I en a ti n frequently reqUIre. this n0-10argumenta ttondefinition. . . are made partly by .enum~:a~

28 Secondly, definitions '. b enumeration, W •. d artly by analysls ; Y for definition IS

Hon an p . I h been set up . tancethe thing W~IC 1 as s as it were : for ms ofdivided into Its member . (1 law as made ~?if one should define thhesCHnlate J'udicial decislonsf'

fte enuve, diets astatutes, decrees 0 I rned in the law 'fi ~. . by. . us of those ea 'tv De nitdon

opm~o.. nstom, and eq.Ul~. orne undermagIst~rat.esl C all the speetes that c • . Abalie-analysis includes bei defined, as follo~sh' f rms

hi h Is emg . t teothe genus W tc I ertv accordmg C! .• , [thernatio (transfer of p~p ~hich is man~!pZ IS Cssionof civil la~") ~f~/o~~~ation (mancipatlO~h~r~:n dotransfer WIt? . eg "t) between those wat law (fiCtitIOUS sU"~hthe civillaw.b d fi .tion butthis in accordance WI ther kinds of e III i this

VI There are also .0 'th the purpose 0 f. anneXIOnWI.. he method 0

they have no c ly to descnbe td

the rulesb k" 'e have on h lay own ..00 .'." The ancients, t en, all the qualitIes

29 defimtIon. h ou have taken h 'n commonas follo,Ys: ~ en.Ju wish to define u:Sthe analysiswhich the thlJ~g) you should pu~s aUty whichwith other thmgs'its own distinctI~e qu Here is anuntil you produced to no other tIung. This is acan be tranAsfer:eheritance is propcrt!~y kinds ofexample : l~ 1~ ~ r there are mcommon quality, 0 1Ul£hr6mi8cMn Rebc.h~t1~

des EigenturM on the su )CL6h1'6wm :rwe;tee exte~si"!e,:tep~~:;r6Cht, pp. 136-146.97-110, w ere M·tteis, Rvm~8C ,9 401cited. Also v. 1

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. . which comes toproperty. Add th:t:02::;:fl~er. It is not Y~~l~some one at. the de . f the dead can bedefinition; for the prop.cr~~r~ance. Add one word,in many ways without III thin will seem to .. ~~.. I 11"'" By' now the g. h.res qualItIesega v. ith which It sal dseparated from those V"{ 'fi ition has been de~e 01ein common, so that the, l em. roperty which I~S

'is follows : An inhentajD eedlSat~ of another. It IS

< I II· at t ic e . ty wascome to one ega ) < Add : and this proper ,_still not satl,sfador)'. ~ll . kept by adverse pOEd

I lb-w} or u«- A scconnot bequeat iec Y.. . complete. hr 'Th d fimtlOll IS h »ho 3'Vesession." e e 'I" are t ose , h

I ." Gent.i es . t enoug .example fol ows . That IS no N t• 1. common. tors a

the same name 1I freeborn ances . stars'Vho arc sprung ,from None of whose anccth, g

I . 'uffiCIent.;.. " till some IDeven t lat IS S There IS sf' 'I. Invery d I 0 CIVlhas ever he~n 1I1hS', n~vcr snffere f ossI' sec that

. "'ho a"e h' orwantmg. .' )robablv enang, ., definition.capacity. b ThIs t~fl)cadded" noth~ng .to t~:~er kind ofScaevola the pain >thod is yahd III ~: t exists orFurthermore, t lC me. mnst define w HI., .

d Ii 't' whether" e . d 'e TIl lOll, J 1 bv the rmn. f UOlcratlOo

what is apprehe~ ~~eJ~ the nature °h" C,Othey differ30 'Ve have exp all .t m'lke plainer ?'" ~.-c have,

1 - b It ITlllS < ratIOn ..and ana ySIS, 1 In an cnume < d' hilS head,another. Ie a bo , "IIfrom one <; for examp . ~forth. ' .

as it "verc, pudrts, ~'I-es legs, feet anki<~sdo ,:rhich thej sSI<·, 'USshoulders, lan ., h" 'e classes or . '..,,,I· -e a" lib rt"'· mJ1U"",,",In ana "SIS 'W • b t]ossof c,J'~ . ht "'It au . .

. . . d family ng B b adoption. ~ . PontlfexCltlzenshlfPran ily position, e.g.] y consul 90 1M. his pupil,change 0 am . Sca8VO 0.., who was . the

o Quintus )l~CIl~B ~ult. Cicero, h ablest orat{)r illd jUr18C0I1 - 180) B.8 t e ks f orators.l\faximus an . de Oratore (I.. . t in the ran 0 403

speaks of.hi~ m d the ablest lunsranks of JurlSts an

pecuniae. Addc quod sequitur; quae mor te alieuinsad quempiam pervcnit. Nondum est definitio;multis enim modis sine hereditnte teneri peeuniaemortuomn, possunt, Unum addc verbum: iure;Iam a communitate res diiuncta videlritur-, ut sitcxplieata. definit.io sic: Hereditas est pecunia quaemorte alieuins ad quempiam per-venit iure. Non-dum est satis ; adde: nee ea aut legata testamentoant posscssione retenta; confecturn est. Itemque: 1Gentiles sunt inter sc qui eadem nomine sunt. Nonest sutis. Qui ab ingenuis oriundi sunt. Ne idquidem satis est. Quorum rnaiorurn nemo servitutemscrvivit, Abest etiam nunc. Qui capite non suntdeminuti. Hoc fortasse satis est. Nihil cnirn videoScaevolam pontificem ad hane definitionem addidisse.Atque haee ratio valet in utroque genere definitionum,sive id quod est, sive id qllod intellegitur definiendumest.

:~O Partitionum autem 2 et division urn genus qualeesset ostendimus, sed quid inter se differ::mt planiusdicendum cst. In partitione quasi membra sunt, utcorporis, caput, umeri, manus, latera, crura, pedeset cetera. VII. In divisione formae, quas Graeci

1 AftPr itemque the 11nS'8. hfH'':J ut mud: bracketed byFriedrich.2 Itlltem bracketed by Lambinl18.------, ---- -- -- --- ----- -

a " \Vhcre a heredita8 was, or had been iacens (there beingno here8 81/,11.8 or nece88ariu8, \vho was in without acceptance),anyone might, by taking the property or part of it not yetpo!isessed by the heres, eYen after acceptance, become ownerby holding it (eyen land) for one year without good faith."Buckland, op. cit., p. 244. Oaiu8 II, 52.

b Capitis deminulio (10"18 of civil capacity) was of threedegrees: maxima, loss of libertv, i.e. enslavement, involvingloss of citizenship and family rights; media or minor, losa of402

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d3T; vocant , nost ri, si qui haec forte tract ant, speciesappellant, non pessime id quidem sed inut.iliter admutandos casus in dlcendo. Nolim enim, ne stLatine quidem did possit., specie rum et spcctebusdicere j et sacre his casibus utendum est; at forrnlsct formarum velim. Cum autern utroquc verbaidem stgnificetur, commoditatem in dicendo nonarbitral' ncglegendam.

31 Genus et formam definiunt hoc modo: Genus estnotio ad pluris differentias pertinens; forma est notiocuius differentia ad caput generis et quasi fontemreferri potest. Notionem appello quod Graccitum ZV\lO~iXV tum rcp6A'fltVW. Ea est Insit.a et ante 1percepta 2 cuiusque cognitio enodationis indigcns.Formae sunt igitur 3 eae in quas genus sine ulliuspraetermissione dividitur ; ut si quis ius in legem,merom, aequitatem dividat. Formes qui putatidem esse quod partis, eonfundit art em et simili-tudiue quad am conturbatus non satis acute quae

32 sunt secerncnda distinguit. Saepe etiam den.niuntet oratores et poetae per translationem verbi exsimilitudine cum aliqua suavitate. Sed ego a vestrisexemplis nisi necessario non recedam. Solebatigitur Aqllilius coIlega et familiaris meus, cum de

1 ante G: animo Hammer.2 p~rcepta cadd.: praecepta. f.3 191turbracketed by Orelli: omitted by f.

-~----~

a The difficulty exists, of course, only in Latin. I shalltranslate Cicero's forma by " species."

~ For the interpretation of this passage, v. NormanW. DeWitt, The Gofts oJ Epicuru8 and the Canon, Tran8actions ofthe Royal SOC'Ultyof Oanada, 1942, Section II, p. 41.4°4

TOPICA, vII. 30-32

. d Latin authors who haveGreeks call sl8~ (elde), an b. t call species, not ahappened to treat of the 5U le~'nconvenient if webad translati?o, to be surer t~e ~'ord in a sent:".cC.wish to use different cases 0 d I should be unwillingFor even if Latin usage allowe '] speeiebus (dative

( iti e plural) or hto say specierum gem ,IV ft have to use t escor ablative plural). Still ~e °ji~~is and Jormarum.cases. But I should pre erha~ the same meaning,Since, however, either wOfr~lt~ use the convenientI think one should not atword." eoies as follows: a genus.

31 They define genus and sp 1different classes;hi h plies to severe . ti anis a concept w ic ap, . 1 charactens ac c

species is a concept whos~ spe;~: as it were, in thllbe referred to a head am sou hat the Greeks ca.B pt I meaU wI·) Th,sgenus. y couce 61.~I'(pro epslS . '

now ewotx (ennoia), nOW f1'tP 1 .:hing. which has bee~is an innate knowledge 0 ar 3'needs' to be unfolded:prc\'1.onslyapprehendef' a~dinto which the genUS lISThe species arc the c asS hiDer as for examp c,divided without omittin~ ~nytude~~e'into statut~s,if one should divide Junspr e thinks that speCIes

·ty If anyon f· into thecustom, and eqUl . t. he brings con USion f 'ls toare the same ~s pa~ ~'a casual resembla~lce ~~hichsubject and mIsled 3' h bet\lreen thmgsdisting:lish sharpy eo;~~rsand PO?ts oft:~a:~o~~

32 must be separate b ~ comparison, USID~ m d to dofar as to define)' But I unless lorce l' d

I 'ng effect. 't those supp Iewith a p east examples excep. . Aquilius,S0, will not use a~~ A case in POInt'~hen thereby you jurisconsud '. tirnate friend.c

II e an m . as praetormy co eagu . . uishedjurist, W'li OaJIu8 9. dlStmg

e Gaius AqUl us ' 405with Cicero in 66 B.C.

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litoribus ageretur, quae omnia publica esse vultis,quaerentibus eis quos ad id pertinebat, quid essetlitus, ita definire, qua fiuctus eluderet; hoc est,quasi qui adulescentiam Herem aetatis, senectutemoccasum vitae velit definire; translatione enim. utensdiscedebat a verbis propriis rerum ac suis. Quodad definitiones attinet, hactenus; reliqua videamus.

33 VIII. Partitione tum S!C utendum est, nullamut partem relinquas; ut, si partiri vells tutelas,inscienter facias, si ullam praetermittas. At sistipulationum aut iudiciorum formulas partiare, nonest vitiosum in re infinita praetermittere aliquid.Quod idem in divisione vitiosum est. Formarumenim certus est numerus quae cuique generi subi-ciantur; partium distributio saepe est infinitior,

34 tamquam rivorum a fonte diductio. Itaque inoratoriis artibus quaestionis genere proposito, quoteins formae sint, subiungitur absolute. At cum deornamentis verborum sententiarumve praecipitur,quae vocant ax~[J.IX't'IX, non fit idem. Res est eniminfinitior; lit ex hoc quoque intellegatur quidvelimus inter partitionem et divisionem interesse.Quamquam enirn vocabula prope idem valerevidebantur,1 tamen quia res differebant, nominarerum distare voluerunt.

1 videbantur OreUi: videantur C: videntur BoctMU8.406

TOPICA, VII. 3.-VIII. 34hi h you jurists claim

was a discussion of shores, he c ho were Interes tedbli rty and t ose ware all pu c prope, h e was he was accus-

in the matter aske.d what :e S l:ce u~on which thetomed to define it as t Psh Id choose to define

I Thi as if one ou thwaves pay. IS 18 , a e or old age as eyouth as the flower of.a man s t gphor he abandonedsunset of life, for by usmgth' m~.a ct and to his pro-the language proper ~o. n e t~e is enough; let usfession. As for definitfo :now consider the other :P0lllts~e enumeration with

33 VIII. You m';"'t at t':':s For instance, if youcare not to omit any P a..d;anships, you must bewished to enumerate gu But if ou were enw:ne~-stupid to pass over any. traetsYand actions, .It. ISating the formulas for con thing in a class whichnot wrong to pass over som.;he same procedure isis indefinitely larg~. ~~~ there is a fixed numberfaulty in an analysl8: I d d in each genus. Bu; aof species which are. Inc u e indefinite, like ~aW1ngdivision into parts~s mOf~uDtain. And so lJ1 t~x~:

34 streams of water. mh~n the genus "qv:a~~books of rhetonc. VI der discussion, there IS a. II(subject for debate) 18 f"the number of its sp"",es.a precise statement 0d is not used when r~ a~~But the same met 0 res of style and ougbeing given about the figu(chemata), for there 18~

Which they call "X~~~~F~s this too, it may be pbie t rom, umera-limit to this su ~ecc. . h to make between en mOO

. what distinction. we F:. although the ~~th:: thetion and auI alys;Sihe same, it '\V~!j-esJl'because theto mean a mos should awer,

of the processesnames distinct.processes were . . dB 11W.l, 10.· 4

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35 Multu etiam ex notatione sumunt.m-. Ea estautcm, cum ex vi nomiuis argumcntum elicitur;quam Graeci E'TIJ[J.OAOy["l.'J appellant, id est verbum exverba veriloquium ; nos nut.em novitut em verbinon sat is npt! fugiento, genus hoc not at ionemappellamus. quia sunt verba rerum notal'. Itaquehoc quidem Aristoteles lj')[l!3o),ov appellat , quodLatine est nota, Sed cum iutellegitur quid Siglli-

3G ficet.nr, minus laborundum est de nomine. Multaigitur in disputando notntione cliciuntur ex vcrbo ,ut cum quaeritur postliminium quid sit -non dicoquae sint postlimini; ll:nn iel caderet in division em,quae talis est: Postliminia redeunt haec: homo,navis) mulns clitcllarius, equus, equa quae frenosrccipcre solet-; sed cum ipsins po'::tlimini visquaeritur et verbum ipsnrn notatur; in quo Serviusnoster, nt opinor, nihil putat esse nobndum nisipost, et liminium mud produetionem esse verbi vult,ut in finilimo, legitimo, aedilirno non plus inesse

37 tirnum q lIam in meditullio lullium; Scaevola autemP. F. iunctlltn putat esse verbum, ut sit in eo ct postct limen; nt, quae a nobis alicna-ta, cum ad hostempcrvenerint, ex suo tarnquam limine exierint, hine---- ------

a 1Ien (or chattels) captured by the enemy lost theirlegal pusition in the Roma.n state, but rega.ined it on return-ing home. In the euse of citizen3 the right of pnstliminimnwas contingent on t,here being no disgrace in their captureby the enemy.

b Meditlillill1n is probably from medius ancl lullllB, an oldform of lelliis (earth). The Sel'vius referred to is ServiusHulpicius Ruflls, consul 51 H.C., a noted jurisconsult.

C t'. p. 403, note c.408

TOPICA, "IIL 35-37

" derived from natalia (etym~-35 Many arcumcnts ,11 e h. argument IS

lo~v). Thi~ is what is used .w en /~ \vord, The_." d f the meaning 0 d hi

develope out. 0 • (IX (et -mologia). 3;Il t. ISGreeks call this S"';Ul-l0AOY, ld b) latin venloquwm

d f . -ord ,..all e III .. 1translated wor 01 ", .] sing a new wore) B t to aVOlt u: t ti(venloquence . 11. ' we call this kind no a zc,

that is not "\Oer} SUItable, tae) of things. Sobecause words arc tokens b (~w ) for the idea repre-Aristotle uses crl)[L(?1~AO\l(sym ~;nwhen the meal1lugsent ed by the Latin nota. t ular about the \\01'<1" b par ic < <is clear we need not e so I have said. mnny

, I debate u"" 136 w hich expl'c~se" it. n 'ord by etymo ogy.., loped from a '" .' . 1(1'arguments arc ue\ e t' n 'is to the mcalln ~

An cxampk ·would be the que:; tlOm' to one'l; for~nerof postliminium (rel'erter or V.r~a~1things nre suhJe~t;.;tatLl<;) a_-I do not mean 11 be" case for analysl'-:,

. tl t wou c' ..to postliminium. for la 1 ilJ'ht of postlllmnwm,somewhat as follows: By t. Ie ~'l.~ :-;hip. p,lck-mule,

t 'n hnnle. TIL" I 1 . 11(' . -the folIo" ing re Ul '1' u:-;ed "it 1 )fl( '.] , ]. 'ustornart 'If ~ I' IS"bllion, mare \, lIe ll~ C f the "term post IflllTlW1J1

but \\-hen the meamng.o red to the \\ord It~wlf.:-;olwht. and etymologj): IS la~;)r~ius. I think,hu]fls that

b . Ollr nc'ne ... th }1le:Hnll~.In this connc'-lOll l' 1 let ermines cpost is the onl:~ P~';tW_;I~~I~Jl~llmi<.;merely a fO~I~~~l;t~~~:'Illcl ",ill hme It t, ( . hbour). !t>l!;liwl1ts « . )~lIffix. :1<.;in jinitimus. lWlg TO)k), the ending' _111~IUS

aedifl1JwS (attendant, \n "~l~'~nI_tulfiulII in 1/It'ddUl~11~~~1 lOre meanHig < f Pubhus,r reg,laS no n b. the <;on(l t hemg

37 (Tlliddlc).b Bllt Sdcae\~(; 'the compClncnt P,ll' 1\) . a<,;I)OUn \\01 , I (thlc<,; H1 ( ,

it ,IS a com . ftcr) <mel Wlcn 1 It5 pa<:;'''ltlgpORt (belHnd 01 a } e ]o",t contro all d' s itproperty of ,vhich wCh~a~nemy has lkpal t~ r~;~rnsinto the pCl\ver of t .h 1<1 hence when I

f m its own thres a , 409"';\'ere, ro

"

f'1:~r 't, ••

CICERO

ea cum redlerint post ad id .redisse videant.ur Q em limen, posthminiodefendi pot<est I')O'tl~O~~nere etiam Mancini causa

.. " S ummo redisse : d ditesse, quoniam non it .. , e 1 urn nontionem neque do \S.l recept.us : nam neque dedi-

_ na ion ern sine a ti .posse. ~ , ccep tone mtellegi

38 IX. Sequitur is locus .quae quodam mod df qm constat ex cis rebusambigttur ; que 0 da ect.ae sunt; ad id de quo

, ill rno 0 di ..tributum C"'. IXI In plures !)urtes dis-, ...UlUS est pri 1quam Graeci .,.. t mus Deus ex coniugatione

de qua modo O"du,'>uty'Xvvocant., finil.imus notationi'tc .um cst : ut ,. [uviamearn modo int II " 51 aqllam p uviamd .e egcremus qua . brl

vi eremus veniret 'I' m rm n collect, amb

,- .v uelliS qui .vel' a essent pluvia- et tu' I, qn~a conjugata 1aquam oportere a . p endo, diceret omnem

39 Cum autel~l a rccn quae pluendo crevisset,erit necesse id gcnere ducetur argumentum, non

. usque a capite Scttam citra licet d arcessere. aepequam id ad qU~d "8m ~todo supra sit quod sumitur,

urni ur' ut aq I' I'genere ea est qua d 't ~. ua p UVla u tlmosed propiore ice ca~ ~ yemens crescit imbri,genus est aq~a nplqu~ quasI lUS arcendi continetur,

11VIa nocem;" .l' . ems generls formaeconmgata Of: iugata codd.

"----~ a Gaius Hostiliu8 Mancin'Kumantia in 136 13 c d us was defeated by the Mmv of

not .?nly re.fused to' ~c~~ t c~~~lu~ed a treaty. 'fhe Senateto Numantla as lLca tOP r treaty, but delivered bimr~fU8edto receive h' P 1~. The authorities of Numantiah18place in the Se~r::te e returned to Rome and resumedthat. citizenship lost 'by' d~li~'e;as challenged on the groundregamed postliminia (Ci y to the enemy could not bewa~ settled by a ~pccialerl' de Orator~ I, iSl.) Thc casO(D:u§.50. 7. 17). aw confirmmg his citi1.enship.

11.410

TOPICA, vtn. 37-1X" 39

afterward (post) to the same t.hreshold it seems tohave returned postliminio. The case of Mancinuscan be defended in this style, by arguing that hereturned by right of postliminium: he was not sur-rendered by the state as a captive because he wasnot accepted by t.he enemy. For surrender andgift have no meaning without acceptance.

a

3S IX. ~extcomes the topic embracing circumstanceswhich are in one way or another closely connectedwith the subject under inquiry. As stated above b

this has many subdivisions. The first of these is" conjugation" (words etymologically related), whichis called au?;u"«(~ (syzygia) by the Greeks, and isnear akin to etymology, which we discussed amoment ago. For example, if we were definingrain-water as only that which we see collect fromshowers, Mucius would corne to argue that becauserain-water (pluvia) and rain (pluere) are" conjugate."words, all water which has risen because of ramshould be excluded (from a neighbour's property).r-

39 'Vhcn, however, an argument is dra"'l:1 from genusit will not be necessary to trace it back to its origin."Frequent.ly onc may stop short of that p~int '. pro-vided that what is assumed as a genus IS hIgherthan what is subsumed under it. For example,rain-water in the last analysis is water which fallsfrom heaven and is increased by showers, but on anearer analysis (and the legal principle o~ excludingrain-\vater depends on this) the genuS IS. harmfulrain-water. Of this there are two specIes: onewhich does damage because of a fault in the lanel,

" In certain circumstances A could be. restraine~ by nnactio aquae pZ"uviae arcend.ae (suit for k~pmg off r~Ul.water)from allowing rain.water to run from hiS land to B s.

411

---_...

crCI:RO

i~

",I,t:"""

loci vit io ct munu I IOl'1.' 11<-:, qU;Il'lllll altel"!l iuhcl ur ah40 nrbitro covrccri nltcru !]UIl iuln-tur. ('OlllllllHl(, cfium

trnctntur haec ,lrgllnwnl a tin quae ex ,~'!'llf'n'c,llmitul',('\1111ex toto p.u-ti-, p('r'-,r'IJll;ln' Ih'(' rnodo : Si dolusmalus C\I-. cum nliud a,::2'itlll' nliud -imuln tur, r-nu-

mcrnrc lied quihus id morlis fiat , deindc in corumaliq uem td quod argun" dolo 1Il!110 fact urn iucludere ;quod gt'J1Ih arp;unwllti ill prillll-': lil'Ill11Hl videri_"-olet.

41 X. Similitudo sequitur, quae latc pal(·t, sf:doratoribus et philosophic; magis qnam yohis. EI.'·;ienim Onlllf'S loci :;unt omnium dispute.itionnrn adargumenta suppeditalllb., tameIl aliis clhplltatil.lllihusabullllantius OCCUlTllltt alii;;; angustius. IbHluCgenera tibi nola sint; uhi [(utem cis utare, quac-

42 .stiones ipsae if' ildrnnncbunt, Sllnt cniHl simili-1"ndincs quae ex pl111'ihlh t'olhtionihlls pf'rveniuntquo volunt hoc modo: Si tut ur fi{lcm praeshlrc dclH"t ~si socius, si cui mal1rbri", si fIlIi fiducial1l aCCcpf'rit,debet eLial11 pn,(:uratur. Haec ex plllrihw,: pClTcniensqlLO vult nppellat Ill' induetio, qU:le Graccc &r~"x'((,)"(~

nominatur, qua plllrimum cst usus in scnnonibu<:4:3 Socrales, Altcrum similiturlillis genus collalir",c

~umitur, t'um Ilfl;l res Hui, par p:lri COrnpilratur hocmf)(]O: Quem :ul nlOdum, !)i in urbe de filii buscontrcwcrsia est, quia nnes nwgis agrorum vidf'nturc"se quam ul'bis, nnibus regendi,> :uligerc arbitrumnon possis, sic, si aqua pluvia in urbe nocet, quoniam

4'2

TOPIC\, 1.\, 39~x, 43

The, f the work of man,and the othcr hecausc 01 !.11 be restrained

'] ·1 t e of [lC"C s hilinv prO\"ll ('~ t 1<1, un . ] ,ther It makes a40 bv the nrhit rntor, hut not rne It) f'OI~l «enus when

" t f this arsnuncru I r: , lJ11('<\1 trt-ntruen 0·' C"' f tl whole as fo ows :vou can tt'll nil' the part~ ; ° ~e ne thi~lO' and pre-If " fraud " is defined as llmg~) _ enlln~f'r<d e thetcndinrr to do <lllother, aile 1111,I:doDl' 'llld Include

,.,~ ··1 '·1 this call IC • ' ,various wnvs 111 '\\ .11C 1 .. ! t which vou a11c.ge. f tl e heads the net ., tunder one 1..) u-se -: '1 This kind of nrgumcllwas frimdulellily COlllllnttcf. ... \.

] , -]')1\. co(re1lt, ,ITenerally seellls 11g .. , 1:'. . This i~an exten<,}ye

41 t- X, Sirnilal"ity comes next. ,t r" 'lud philosopherstopk. but of more inter~:"t te]' °11'<10h' .'dl topics can be

, 't' tOl'atlOug '- 1 f11tlwn to you JurlS ", ,0.11 <;orts of <Ie ),lte, ~ 1lIsed to supply arguments t1r'\n' some deb,1t cs alldthcy oe-cur morc, freque~;_?ll then klLOW the typesIl\();'{' rarc1r ill others, , '11' "11I':lstruet yDll whe1l

, J -e 11,;e \\ 1 - . • .lJf argunwnt; t,1C "<.1:, ]. 1het'l.." :l1'e cerlclin a rgJ L-,

42 io 11.';,ethem, ]<01' ,CSaul1}: f'1' 'ltt'lin the dc<;ired pro~t

f '·I'Lrltv \" 1](' J,' f 1 tv I~ments rom SImI, .' . fl<'; follows: 1 lmw~.,

!,,, se,'cr<'11 cornpansollS: < ~ PI'. '1 hailee, and ;1• n' fl pan 11,- ".. fr~(luirf'f1 of a glL<1~-tan. f', 'llTc-nt. This f()n~l, 0

" ,urea 0 ,lJl' ,-'. f b' .11110'tru<:;tee, 1t. IS 1'(.(1' '" he desirel} }ll'OO y C .::;

fll'e,:ulllcnt which Ii thl1ls: I to n in (ircck er.",'((I)Y·/j, ,. Jl 1 ' 'lHee{ ltlt Ill: 10 , '1· 1i'l-.,:,('y('ra] p:wn e s I~ C' . tl ' u,-,ed thi" 1\I \1-' ( 0 <

- . -, t ~c, frCC!llf'n \ ' , '] 1'1' \'(cpagoge); ~()cra C, ... f :l.r'f~ID1Cnl: fL'om ,,1ItIl a "1 . " <\nol11er lund 0 < ~ l' . i' cOl11palTd til43 ogne,." - '. .h 'n OlW tHUg" . r t ~l'e"ts em COl1lptlrIo;;On, " /'11' ','" If thcTe is a (l~l)\~ t

nne equa110 eqwll, a,s (l {n~,;\~YOU coulll not fC(\1l1t't'

alJo;lt bouncl<try litles Il1l.ht~(l ',t: ],nulld;lrics, hera1:"'.:, r I. l'c>(Tllla Inn {. . )llI1('''arhitnllion 101' t I("~ I..r ]'CITlllatlOtl::t] .

] tter oJ bllHlH ,n. . 17 . 't ' on thethe who e rna .... ' , ntlwr tl;an to cl y. . h~to country Pl'OPCI~t; , ' ,."tel' do.--:,; daDlage III t. '1 i rfl1n-,\ v.same princlp c, ' 4 r 3

I, 'CICERO

res tota magis agrorum. t44 adigere arbitrum n es, ~quae plu viae arcendaetudinis 1 ti on pOSSIS. Ex eodem simili-

oco e lam exemplacausa C . sumuntur, ut Crassus inunana exemplis pl . .

~ento sic heredes institut~~X:~s~~~. est, qui testa-10 decem mensib' ' 51 lUS natus essetus lsque mortu' .suam tut I' us pnus quam In

e am vemsset h diQuae commemorabi ,ere tatem obtinuissent.

4. JO exemplorum Iuit

5 1D respondendo ti I va Ul , eaque vasU 1 mu tum soleti F"

exempla similitudinis hah . IS. leta enimmagis sunt quam tra : ent VIm; sed ea oratoriasoletis sed h veodsra, quamquam uti etiam vos

, ocm o : Findedisse id quod .. . g~ mancipio aliquemtdcircc id eius fac:anclplO d~n no~ potest. Numqui mancipio dedit ~ est qUI accepit P aut Dum isIn hoc genere orat~ri:::: rem ~e ulla .re obligavit?est, ut muta etiam 1 et philosophis conccssumexcitentur ut ali .;quantur, ut mortui ab inferisaugendae 'rei gr qt~l di9-uod fieri nullo modo possitI a ra catur aut' d1J'll'e:p{jo).~ dicitur m It Ii nnnuen ae, quae

OJ ,u a a a mi bT Sest campus illo E' ra ina. ed latiorante dixi, et [l.njn:m, . ~dem tamen ex locis, ut, maxrrms et .., [tionibus argument d mmums in] 3 quaes-a ucuntur,l' 4-'4-mS"huti: instituisseteesent Madvig todd.: qui cum ••. instituti

: ~ on:itted 'by todd.1Jl mmimis 0/: in omuted by V.

• v. ~. 396, note 6 § 23~ .This is the fa~oU8 'w .Luo1U8 Licinius Craasus uaa Ounana, 92 B.O., in which

eurius,. who was the re~~:~fully d~fended the claims of414 nary hell' named in the will

TOPICA, x. 43-45

ci~y you could not require arbitration for excludingrain-water, since the whole matter applies rather

44 t? ~ou,ntry property." Under the same topic ofsimilarity comes also the citing of examples orparallel cases, as Crassus in his defence of Curiuscited many cases of men who, having been named asheirs in the event that a son was born within tenmonths and died before attaining his majority, wouldhave taken the inheritance, Such a citation ofparallelcases carried the day, and you jurists make frequent

45 use of it in your responses, b In fact fictitious examplesof similarity have their value, but they belong tooratory rather than to jurisprudence, although evenyou are wont to use them, but in the following way:S.uppose some one has conveyed property,by mencipe-tron which cannot be so conveyed. c Does it there-fore become the property of the one who has acceptedit ? Or has the one who has conveyed by manei-pation in any way obligated himself by that aet?Under this topic of similarity orators and philosophershave licence to cause dumb things to talk, to callon the dead to rise from the world below, to tell ofsomething which could not possibly happen, in orderto add force to an ar~ent or lessen it: this iscalled ':-P~OA~ (hyperbole). And they do manyother strange things; but they have a wider fi~ld.Nevertheless, as I said above," whether the questionbe important or trifling, the arguments for it arederived from the same topics.against the a.ttack or Scae'Vola, counsel for oDe CoponjU8•v, Brutus, 194-198,tk Orat. I, 180, and the note on p. 226.(de Inv. II, 62.) .~, On the restrictions of this form of conveyance, 11. po ~,

note b. § 28.• § 41. I'

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CICERO

46 XI. Sequitur similitudinem differentia rei maximecontraria supcriori ; sed est eiusdem dissimile etsimile invenire. Eius gencris haec sunt: Non,quem ad rnodum quod mulieri debeas, recte ipsimullen sine tutorc auctorc solvas, item, quod pupillaaut pupillae debeas, recte possis eadem modo solvere.

47 Deinceps locus est qui e cont.rario dicitur. Con-trariorum autem genera plura; unum eorum quaein eadem gcnere plurimurn dtfferunt, ut sapientiastultitia. Eodem autem genere dicuntur quibuspropositis occurrunt tamquam e regione quaedamcontraria, ut celeritati tarditas, non debilitas. Exquibus contrariis arguments talia existurrt : Sistultitiam fugimus, sapientiam scquamur, et bonita-tern si malitiam. Haec quae ex eadem genere

48 contraria sunt appellantur adverse. Sunt enim aliacontraria, quae privantia Hcet appellemus Latinc,Graeci appellant O''t'Ep')j"nx&:. Praeposito enim " in ..privatur verbum ea vi quam haberet 81 " in P prae-positum non fuisset, dignitas indignitas, humanitasinhumanitas, et cetera generis eiusdem, quorumtractactio est eadem quae supcriorum quae adversa

49 wxi. Nam alia quoque snnt contrariorum genera,velut ea quae cum aliquo conferuntur, ut duplumsimplum, multa pauca, longum breve, maius minus.Sunt cUam ilIa valde contraria quae appellanturnegantia j ea &:1r:rx/Ja.:rw.oc Graece, contraria aientibiIs:416

TOPICA, XI. 46-49

diff lee which is the46 XI. After similarity comes. e~e\ i; is the same

exact opposite of the foregoing- u d .........ilarities.I . h fi ds differencec;an smumental pro~ess :'" nc n le of this sort: ThoughThe followmg 18 an examp d bt owed to a womanyou may properly pay a 't~ t the authorizationdirectly to the woman ~ t~Usame way dischargeof her tutor, you m.ay not m e: male or female.a debt owed to a nunor', wheth hi h is caned" from

47 The next topic is that w lC eral sorts of con-. "·n t there are sevcontraries. u . -hich belong to the sametraries. One, of thmgs " wisdom and folly.class, but differ absolutcr' t~e same class if whenWords are said to belong 0 t f e to face, as it

d they are me acthey arc ubtere . "For example slownesswere, by certain oppOSItes. _ kness is not. Fromis contrary to speed, bU~w;:velop such as these ~these contraries argumen,s -e do) let us pursueIf we shun folly (as of c?;rSe

e~hun ::nalice. Thesewisdom' and kindness 1 WI e class are called

, h"hblongtotlesarn .. hich wcontraries w IC e th contraries w IC we48 opposites. .For ~here. are. 0 )e:n Latin j the <?reeks

may call pNvantta (pnvativ;S For if" in ,t IS pre-call them O''t'€p1j't"U!&' (sterettca)'h' h it would have if

d I the force w Ie . di 'tfixed, a wor oses di nity and In gm y,,. in to were not prefixed, ~ucha~d·~thers of this sort;humanity and inhumanIty a a as the formerthese are handled in .~he s~:::s:. YThere a.re still

49 class which I called . oPPsuch as those whIe? areother kinds of contran~s, as double and smgle,compared with somethm

dg,h rl greater and less.I ansa", .many and few, ong. 1 contrary expressIOns

There are also those mte?se Y in Greek &.no~(f.:rtx&.which are called negatlveSt' affirmative, as shown

. ) b mg' contrary 0(apophatiea, e 417p

I'i

i

1

:\·1 ': '

:I.

"

CICERO

Si hoc est., mud non est. Quid enim opus exemploest? Tantum intellegatur, in argumento quaerendocontruriis omnibus contraria non convenire.

50 Ab adiunct.is aut.ern posui equidern e xernplumpaulo ante, mult.a adiungi, quae suscipiendu ossentsi stn tuissetnus ex edicto secundum cas tabulaspossessionem dat-i, quas is inst it uissct cui t estnmerrtifuctlo nulla cssct. Sed locus hie magis ad coniectu-rales causas, quae versnntur in iudiciis, valet, cumquacritur quid aut sit aut cvenertt aut futurum

51 sit aut quid omnino fieri possit.. XII. Ac lociquidem ipsius forma talis est. Admonet aut em hielocus, lit quaeratur quid ante rern, quid cum rc,quid post rem cveneriL "~ihil hoc ad ius; adCicerone-m," inquiehat Gallus Hoster, si quis adcum quid tale rettulerat, ut de facto quaereretur,Tu tamen paticre nullum a me artis institutae locumpraeteriri; ne, ~i nihil nisi quod ad te pcrtineatscribcndum putabis, nimium te am are vide are. Estigitur magna ex parte locus hie oro.toriU5 non modonon iuris consultorum, sed He philosophorum quidem.

52 Ante rem cnim quaeruntur quae talia sunt: appara-tus, colloquia, locus, constitutum, convidum; cumre autem: pedum crepitus, strepitus hominum,lcOlporum umbrae et si quid eius modi j at postrem: pallor, rubor, tituhatio, 5i qua alia signa con-

I stl'epitu8 hominum bracketed by Friedrich: not used byBoethiw.: pedum strepitus, crepitus hominum O.--- ------ --------------

II § 18,b For Gallus, v, note c on p, 405.

TOPICA, XI. 49-XII, 52

.' that is not. Needin the following; If this IS .SO, fli:' t to uudcr-II? It IS su cren

give an ex amp c: ment it is nott I th t in seeklllg an argu . I

s am a ",~. 'table to be oppose( toevery contrary which IS sunanol~her, nt from adjunctsIe of arcrume50 I gave an e.xamp , b. ,. that there( ) Iit.tl while sao," sarmgcorollaries a I .ie "h' hh 'ol;ld' have to be

Ilar-ies w rc W h 'were many cora '~] t ssession of an in en-admitted if we decided t Ia

hP05~ct'or's edict in ac-

, Iytep',,··tance could he glvcn J f . -ill made by one whocordance with the terms 0 a w I -itv ~But this

t ntarv capaCI).did not have tes amc. ~. tural issues which. 'f value In conjec h 'tOpIC IS a more .. ucstion of w at IS

. tri 1 when It IS a q .come up III rra s, d 'hat 'will happen, orh t I oecurre or \\ I ' tltrue or walaS 'XII. Such indec( IS ,1C

Fil what can happen at all, ic It suggesi s~ however,bare outline of ~hc :~p,,:hat happened before anthat one should lllqune, d- what afterward.

h affiC tImc, anevent. what at t e s. _ , "This is not a matterOur f~i~nd Gallus b uscd to ~~) 'h 011)' one broughtfor the"lmv hut for Cicero d'" en <'qucstion of fact.

I . h turne on a f' hto him a case W He -t no I)art 0 t e'II 11 \v me to orol bYou however, -WI a 0 '1 t "ou apI)ear hi C

, , I I 1 'e heO'un, es ~ t ttext-book '\-vlllCI la' b I otters of interc.'; (1

I' k that on Y mn -' . .selfish if you t nn < I <;avinl1 thIS tOpIC~ou should be included. As wa,sd-'i~n~t only not• lIto orator:", an Ii~of value arge Y - ' t" ven by pllilosop lers.u~ed b)' jurisconsults, ..lmt nO e '''' b~f(,re the event

I . Cll'CUrnstance,- t' ,52 To give ex amp es , r JI 'ing: prep<lra Ion. ,k d r arc the iO 0" It'which are lao e lOr . lIJact", a J;l.DlFW ,

- the locale, a con f f ,t IleoplcconversatIOn, - " t. ,"ound 0 ec,t nll)orar)' ''lith tht~e,c~l . " d the likej after

con e f bmhcs elD I'shouting, shado"·s 0 blmh' trembling, am an)the event: pallor, a' 419

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turbationis et conscientiae, praeterea rest inctusignis, gladius crucntus ccteraquc (l'Hl.C suspicionemfacti possunt movere.

53 Deinceps est locus dlulccttcorum proprius exconsequentibus ct antecedent ibus ct repugunnt ibus.Nam coniuncta , de qui bus paulo ante dictum est,non semper cvcniunt; consequentia aut em semper.Ea enim dieo consequentia quae rem necessarioconsequntur j itcmque et untcccdcntlu et repug-nantin. Quidquid enim sequitur quamque rem, idcohaeret cum re necessario; et quidquid repugnat,id eius modi est ut cohaererc nunquam possit.XIII. Cum tripertito igitur distribuatur locus hie, inconsecutionern, anteceasionem, repugnantiam, re-periendi argumenti locus simplex est, tractanditriplex. Nam quid interest, cum hoc sumpseris,pccuniam numeratam mulicri deberi cui sit argen-tum omne legatum, ut.rum hoc modo concludasargumentum: Si pecunia signata argentum est,legata est mulicri. Est. autem pecunia signataargentum. Legata igitur est; an ilIo modo: Sinumerata pecunia non est legata, non est numeratapecunia argentum. Est autem numerata pecuniaargentum; legata igitur est; an ilIo modo; ~on etlegatum argentum est et. non est legata numeratap~cullia. Legatum autem argentum est; legata

54 ~ltur .ll.umerata pecunia est? Appellant autemdi~lechcl earn condusionem argumenti, in qua, cumpnmu~ assumpseris, conscquitur id quod annexun1

est pnmum conc1usionis modum; cum id quod

Cf. d61nv. Y, 38-41 for a fuller treatment of this topic.Cf. § 13.

420

TOPICA, XII. 52-xli], 54

.' d a guilty conscience;other siens of ag1tahon an bl dy sword

eo fi 'shed fire a 00 ,and besides, an ex mgui e suspicions aboutand other things which can arous

a crime." . hi h l the peculiar province53 Next comes the tOpICW no 1: ant.ecedents, and

of the logiciafLq--eons~que; s, hich have just beencontradictories. For conJu~c s, w but consequentsdiscussed, do not always atPp.~n~f course, I mean] ] B" consequen s, ]a ways (0. y thi g. and t te same

what necessarily followshsomet 1'~ti~ of antecedents'on is c arec ens

necessary eo~nex~ ~ r \vhatever follows some-and cantradletanes. Fa d with it. And what-thing is inevitably connecte h nature that it can

, ill tor)' has sue a I hever 1S contra c .' XIII Since as aveb ted with It. . , -never e eonnec . . . t three parts--eon

said, this topic is dieVl~~:c~~adiction-the topicsequence, antecedenc tl e discovery of arguments,is sinO'le as far as co~cerns '/ld "For what differenceLut tIle treatment 1S.thre~ 0 ,:ou draw a conclusiondoes it make in WhlC~ Viay ~ man who has receivedin this assumed case-t lat.~,Wo" is entitled to theas a bequest" all thc S1~er'h' way' If coineddo it III t IS .coin? b You may thed to the woman,

,.] it was beque a . be-money 1S 51ver, . 'lver therefore It wasBut coined money 1: 51. ~: If coin was not be-queathed. Or in thIs Vi.a)'c·r. but coin is silver;

. 's not SI'i, h' ,Itqueathed, com 1. h d Or in t IS way.therefore it was bequea~ ~ ~ilver was bequeathed,is not possible to say \ a. was bequeathed~ there-but coin was not; but r ~er The logicians glVe th~

54 fore coin was bcqueat;e 'nelusion" to this way 0name of .. first form 0 cOin which when you haveconcluding an argument, t that which is connected

d the first statewen , 421assuwej

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annexum est negaris, ut id quoque cui fuerit an.nexum negandum sit, secundus is appellatur con-cludendi modus j cum autem aliqua coniunctanegaris et ex eis unum aut plura sumpseris, ut quodrclinquitur tollendum sit, is tertius appellatur con-

55 clusionis modus. Ex hoc illa rhetorum ex con.trariis conclusa, quae Ipsi ev6\)!J.~!J.IX't':xappellant;non quod omnis sent entia proprio nomine S\lOutLlllJ.ocnon dicatur, sed, ut Homerus propter excellentiamcommune poetarum nomen efficit apud Graecossuum, sic, cum omnia sententia iv6ufL7JILoc dieatur,quia videtur ea quae ex contrariis conficitur acutts-sima, sola proprie nomen commune possedit. Eiusgeneris haec sunt :

hoc metuere, alterum in metu non ponere !earn quam nihil accusas damnas, bene quam

meritam esse autumas

" Strangely enough in a treatise which purports to be atranslation of Aristotle, Cicero is here stating the fiveaV47TOOHKTOt U1JAAoytUfWl as formulated by the Stoics. (Interms of modern logic they are hypothetical and disjunctivesyllogisms.) They are set forth by Sextus Empiricus inTIlJPpWVEtot 'T170TV7TWO'('tS' 157, as follows:

(1) If it is day, there is lighto (Constructive hypotheticalIt is day, syllogism or modus ponendo.'. there is light. ponens.)

(2) Ifitis day, there is light. (Destructive hypotheticalThere is no light, syllogism or mod'us tollendo"0 it is not day. tollen8.)

(3) It cannot be day and (Affirmativedisjunctivesyl.night at the same time. logism or modU8 ponendoIt is day, tollen8.).'. it is not night.

TOPICA, xIII. 54-55

• 11 when you deny what. iswith it follows as true '} h t that. statement WIth

'hthresutta I"connected, 'WIt e I be denied, t us IS. . ted must a so dwhich It IS eonnec h however you enyd ~ m ; wen, ' thcalled the secon lor, . ted and assume e

that certain things are as~c~athe remaining state-truth of one or more, s~~is~s called the third form~mcnt must be excluded, f clusion from can

55 To this belong those fo~s 0 o~o:hetoric, to whichtraries adopted by teac. ers the name !v6u!J-l)!J.oc't"octhey themselves hav~ gIven" expression of thought(enthymemes). Not t la~ ~1~J !J.lXbut just as amongis not properly called~? v ~~~nclingmerit has ma~ethe Greeks Homer by ~ O~T his own,balthough it. ISthe name of poet pecu ar lthouO"hevery. express~o~common to all poets, so a, ~ (enthymema), t aof thought may be called I!:ve\)~~j.Lhasbecause it s~emds

. . b d on contrane, opriateone which 15 •ase f of argument, apJ:r Thethe most pointed orrr its sole possessIon. t :the common name 0 this sort of argumen .following lines will ~llusy~~: other! Y.oucon~ed~Fear this, and not ~:: accuse of no.thlDg~t~rhomthe woman whom} deserves punishruv

TOU assert that the one) 0 Affirma.tive disjunctive ~~

. hher day or nIght. (I ',m or modus pone(4) It IS eI ogll

It is day, . toUens.} dis.unctivc ByI-0·. it is not mght.ni ht. (NegatIve ~U8 tollendo

(5) It is either.day or g Iogism orIt is not mght, ponena.).0, it is day. Iy rcostatements

th forms are ))lere. th nd seven tCicero'sSIX a uslification, m~n

of number three." without further q.,. '€oX~v, ClassIcal• "The poet. on The Poet xa.M Harm •

Homer' v.;\: (Ui23). pp. 35-47. 423Philology xVUl

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dicis 1male mererc?id quod scis prodest nihil j id quod ncscis ohest?

56 XIV. Hoc dlsserendi genus attingit omnino vestrasquoque in respondendo disputationes, sed philo-sophorum magis, quibus est cum oratorihus Illa exrepugnantibus sententiis communis conclusio quaea dialecticis tertius modus, a rhctoribus l\leu[L1)[L~dicitur. Reliqui dlalecticorum modi plures sunt,qui ex disiunctionibus constant: Aut hoc autmud; hoc autem; non igitur illud. Itemque : Authoc aut mud; non autem hoc j illud igitur. Quaeconclusiones idcirco ratae sunt quod in disiunctione

57 plus uno verum esse non potest. Atque ex cisconc1usionibus quas supra scrips! prior qlIartnsposterior quintus a dialecticis modus appellatur.Deinde addunt coniunctionum negantiam sic : Nonet hoc et illud j hoc autem j non igitur ilIud. Hiemodus est sextus. Septimus autern : Non et hocct mud; non autcm hoc j illud igltur, Ex eis modisconclusiones innumerabiles nascuntur-, in quo esttota fere aL~).e;J(TLx1).Sed ne hae quidem quasexposui ad hanc institutioncm necessariae.

58 Proximus est locus rerum efficientium, quaecausae appellantur; deinde rerum effcctarum abefficientibu8 eausis. Harum exempla, ut rcliquorumlocorum, paulo ante p08ui equidem ex iure civili;sed haec patent latius.

XV. Causarum enim 2 genera duo· sunt; unum,quod vi sua id quod sub earn vim subiectum est certe

1 dicis added from Orator 166.2 enim codd: igitur Of{3.

--._-'-------ll' Ribbeck3, Trag. frag. incert. 200 f. Warmington, Re-

mains of Old Latin, ii, p. 620.424

TOPICA, XUl. 55-XV, 58

d' What you know1 t deserve rewar . ,. d e r "you be ieve 0 d t know a un fane .

is of no use; is what you 0 nOt tion has doubtless a56 XIV This kind of argumenha you give answers

. d' 'nswen hrelation to your ISCUSSlO closely concerns t eon legal problems, but it ~~o::ators that method ofphilosophers, who ~harfe': contradictory statemen~sdrawing a conclusIOn ro the third form, and t ewhich the logician~ calle lv6"~~~~(enth~e~a).teachers of rhetorlC, th thods used by the 10gICIanS~There are several other .~e dis'unctively connected.which consist of proP.osltlO: b~t this is true, ther:~Either this or that 1~t~ l' either this or that ISfore that is not. Snmlar Y» that is true. Thesetrue' but this is not, therefor~n a disjunctive state-

, Iid bccause 1 Of theconclusions are vc I h If can be true. h57 ment not mo;e tha;o~:e th: forrrter is caneth~Yfi;th~

conclusions gIVCn a method and the la~t~:, of two

logicians the fourth d nial of the posslbdity d thatThen they ad? a cocn'oined, thus: ThIS ~~is not.statements beIng. bui this is, therefor;:h This andare not both ~ruhe,~rrn The seventh ISi that is.This is the Slxt 0 : his is not, there or~ arcthat arc not bOJ~:sue in~umcrable t;n~:~~~s (dia-From th~sef ; Imost the ·whole0 L~hosewhich Iderived j 1fl ae a his But not even tise1ecticc) cOI1;siS~:;e tne~essary for ~his/rf:~es .whichhave explmne . neems effiClcn ffeeted by

58 ~The next topICa~~ secondly, thingfst~ese as of

Ued causes, mples 0 •' •are ca I gave exa little whIle ago,efficient causes. the chil law a

. from t' n h bother topICS, rider applica 10. . one whie Ybut these have a " kinds of causes. ifeet which

XV There are two oduces that e. . force surely pr 425Its own

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efficir, ut: Ignis accendit: a ltcrum , quod naturam

efficiendi non habet sed sine quo cffici non possit , ut

si quis aes stat uae causam vcltt dicere, quod sine eo59 non possit efflci. Huius generb, causururn, sine quo

non cfficitur-, alia sunt quieta, nihil agentia, stolidaquodam modo, nt lac-us, tempus, materia, ferrarnenta.,et cetera gelleds eiusdem j alia autem praecur-

sionem quandam adhihcnt ad efficiendum ct quaedam

afferunt per se adiuvantia, etsi non necessaria, ut:Amari congres~io causam attulerat,l alior flagitio.

Ex hoc gencre causarum ex aetcrnitate pcndentiumfatum a Stoicis nectitur.

A1que ut earurn causarum sine quibus effiei nonpatest genera (livisi, sic etiam efficientium dividipossunt. Sunt enim aliae causae quae plane efficiantnulla re adiuvante, aliac quae arliuvari vclint, ut:

Sapientia effieit sapientis sola per se; beatos cfficiat60 necne sola per sese quaestio est. Qua re cum in

disputation em inciderit causa effieiens aliquid nec~s-sario, sine dubitatione lice bit quod efficitllr ab

ea causa coneludere. XVI. Cum autcm erit talis

causa, ut in ea non sit efficiendi neccssitas, necessariaconc1usio non sequitur. Atque illud quidem genus

causarllm quod habet yiIll efficicndi necessariamerrorern afferre non fcre solet; hoc autem sine quo

1 attulerat codd. defl. Boethiu8: attulerit coda.

TOPIC\., xs. 58-XVI. 60

1 fi e burns;, for examp e, r f 'depends on t?is forc.e, ot have the quality.o Pl~~the second which does ~. that without ,vInch t

if' t hut IS .. 0 I'f some onedueing an e cct , d ; for examp e, 1

effect cannot be produ~~ ' .e " of a statue, bccauhs,eI the onus it In t ISshould can n-onze ' de without I, d

t be Ina ~ t produce ,59 the statue cmmo] , I 'llmething is no . hi "I)''I t ,VlIC) '" mur .~"group, WIt IOU ' . . activc, one M dare quiet, m . truments, ansome causes . material, Ins. e oara-

inert as place, t imc , thers furnish a pr l.th : thtnsrs of this type i. 0 d add certain t nngs

o cr. h . methmg, an h ,. are nott.ion for producmg so.. aid although t. e)- < asion

] 1-es gne , h d rvcn occwhich t 'iemse vc I 1\leeting: a g ki d ofY' for examp e: ~ <--Fromthis 10

ncccssar., d 1 'e for crime. , . finite seriesfor love, an. 0\ another 111 an lt1

FIe

f 11 VillO' one . e of a .causes a 0\ ·0. tllel'," doctrm . -h ,I the1 'oven " ill f crUlS ethe Stoics lave "..t as I have sh~nf somethingFurtherrr:or:, o1.u~ause5 without Wfl I,e ~.hc efficient

different kmds I' I,ed 50 also Ill< Y .• Ihere ~Ireb complS " . to sa",cannot e ~e,. 'hed, '1hat IS "w It ,"vithoutcauses be dIstI~~~S cicarly effect a r,~r~~ch requiresonIC causes " urce and others I e 'lIlU un-

ther so " . d 'Ion.aid from ano, " . aUlple, ,ns om < '11'on 'whether

• 1'01' ex· ·t' a ques 'd daS5Istancc. . but 1· IS d un'U (~ .' en WIse, ] e all <aided makes m t],em hapPY, a on e comes on a

. akes . _. n on, , ror not It mo. . dlSCUSSIO if~t one fila)hen In a 'm c cC , ,60 Therefore, w. " .'1 bl}' produces <. f' ence what 1<;]' J Ine" 1 a In er I 'Ccau"c W lIC 1 . t te <15 an ] yOU 1<1"

- h 't tlOn sa· ,. ."1 But w w·n . .' ..' ....ithOllt C~I a u~e. X\ " 1. the necessItyI b' tlwt ca"- t mw"e 1 'S

effeete( .)- th t it does no '. bI conclusion (~Lia cause such a It an iIlCVIUL. \ f cauSC wIlle 1of effecting a, rCl~ler~ore, the kIn~ a a result doesnot follow. l~urtf inevitably e~BeCttll~~cause without

] ower 0 • k U _has t Ie P d to a rrusta e. 42/not usually lea

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non efficitur saere conturbat. Non cnim, si sineparenUhus filii esse non possunt, propterea inparentibus causa fuit gignendi necessaria.

61 Hoc igitur sine quo non fit, ab eo in quo eerte fitdiligcnter est separandum. Illud enim est tamquam

utinam lie in ncmore Pelio-

Nisi enim " accedissent 1abiegnacad ten-am trabes,"Argo ilIa facta non esset, nee tamen fuit in histrabibus cfficiendi vis necessaria. At cum in Aiacisnavim crispisulcans igneum fulmen iniectum est,inflammatur navis necessaria.

62 Atque et.iam est causarurn dissimilitudo, quodaliae sunt, ut sine ulla appetitione animi, sinevoluntate, sine opinionc suum quasi opus efficiant,vel ut omne intereat quod ortum sit; aliae autemaut vcluntate efficiunt aut perturbatione animi authabitu aut natura aut arte aut casu: voluntate,ut tu, Cum hunc libellum legis; perturbatione, ut siquis eventum horum temporum timeat; habitu,ut qui facile et cito irascitur; 2 natura, ut vitium indies crescat ; arte, ut bene pingat; casu, ut prosperenavigct. Nihil horum sine caUSR nee quidquamomnino; sed huius modi causae non necessariae.

63 Omnium autcm causarum in allis inest constantia,in allis non inest. In natura et in <I arte constantia

1 accidissent AaV: cecidissent codd.2 iraacitur Oc: irascatur codd.3 in omitted by ObL.----

The opening lines of Euripides' Meden as translated byEnniua. A longer extract is given in ad Her. ii 22 34 andRemain,~ QfOld Latin, i,p. 312, and VaWen'sEnni~ 24~254.

b R~bbeck3,frg. i-:w. 36-3? Warmington, ROL; ii, p. 408,follOWIng ,a. suggestIOn of Rlbheck in the notes assigns it toAccius. ,428

i ...,1

TOPICA, XVI. 60-63

ff t d often gives rise towhich something is no\ e ~t:here cannot be sonsconfusion. For e.xamp e'n~t follow that th.ere waswithout parents, It does se of procreattoc-in the parents a .necessa~ ~:husomething does. not

61 This cause without whi fully distingUIshedh fore be care Theoccur must, t ere 'thing surely occurs.

from that by which sOtIDdebythe line:b .Illustra eformer may e P li 's grove a• . eon

Would that ne er m rth "f fir had fallen to ea ,

'For unless" the bea~~: been built j yet there ~:~the Argo would not a . r in the beams.~o inevitable efficient po:,"e a wavy furrow fen onh " the fiery bolt cutt~n~. itably set on fire.

w en ." b the ship IS mev . that somethe ship of AJ&X'h difference in causes 1';l h ut any

62 There is a furt er it were WIt 0 ., .. n work as . h ut opinton ieffect thelr ow . h t desire WIt 0 . b nf . d WIt au ' , . that IS or

eagerness a rnm 'Ie that evcrythmg mentalfor instance, the ru k through desire, or t or

. Others wor ' or arr,must die. . osition, or nature, au readagitation, or ddl~P as in your case when

onYemight

'd t' by eSlre, h n some .aeCl en,. ·t I"on as we. ·s' by dis-, b k' by agl a" nt erL"l •tlus 00 , of the prese . kly moved todread thc outcome c is easily or qUle about thatposition, as when o~or instance it co:~s onC shouldanger; by nature'b ~ day; by art t s~ould have aa vice groWSday ~dent that one t ,'s without

11 by acel , h even s 1paint we ; Nonc of t esc thing at al ;successful voya~~~ that matter .ise:;:~ble.its cause, n~rhis nature arc nO~lllhat in some therebut causes 0 t 11cau'les we fin t in others. There

63 Lookin~ at f operation, and n~~t none in the rest.is uniform~ty ? ture and art, 419' ., muty In naIS unllO

CICERO

est, in ceteris nulla. XVII. Sed tamen earumcausarum quae non sunt constantes aliae suntperspicuae, aliae latent. Perspicuae sunt quaeappetitionem animi iudiciumque tangunt; latentquae subiectae sunt fortunae. Cum enim nihil sinecausa fiat, hoc ipsum est fortuna, qui eventusobscura causa et Iatenter efficitur.1 Etiam ea quaeflunt partim sunt ignorata parfirn voluntaria; igno-rata, quae necessitate effeota sunt; voluntnrla,

64 QU8C consilio}! Nam iacere telum voluntatis est,feme quem nolucris fortunae. Ex quo aries subiciturme in vestris actionibus: SI telum manu fugit magisquam iecit. Cadunt etiam in ignorationem atqueimprudcntiam perturbationes animi ; quae quam-quam sunt voluntariae-obiurgatione enim etadmonitione deiciuntur~tamen habent tantos motus,ut ea quae voluntaria sunt aut necessaria interdumaut certe ignorata videantur.

65 Toto igitur loco causarum explicato, ex earumdifferentia in magnis quidem causis vel oratorumvel philosophorum magna argumentorum suppetitcopia; in vestris autem si non uberior, at fortassesubtilior. Privata enim iudicia maximarum quidemrerum in iuris consultorum mihi videntur esseprudentia. Nam et adsunt muItum et adhibenturin consilia et patronis diligentibus ad eorum pru-

1 fortuna, eventus qui . • • efficitur Madvig: fortunaeeventus cadd.

2 After oonsilio the MSa. have Quae autelll fortuna, velignorata vel voluntaria.(What is accomplished by Fortuneis either unintentionalor voluntary): bracketed by Schuetz.43°

TOPICA, XVI. 63-XVlI. 65., TIll inhi h are not umroh esWIC ldX\·II. But of t e ca~s d thers are eoncea e ,

. re evident an 0 • 1 es oroper-ation, some a hi h affect our rmpu S

Those are evident t; ;care controlled by f~~un~judgement; those ,a nothing happens WIt OUt

I d For SInce . an evenare concea e , h t Fortune IS,cause, this is exactly w jhsoure and unseen cause.which is the result of ;.nhO are produced are p.a:tlyA ain these results w IC t our own volition.u~nte'ntional, and partly ~ue r:duet of necess~tyjThe unintentional .a~e th ~complished by desI~'those in our own volition ~:a~on is an act of the ~'111f

64 To illustrate, throwing a intentionally is the aChi Dhbut hitting s~m~~t~~c~~n suppli~s the bc~:;~:

Fortune, ThIS weak case In your P but ityou use to prop dn~anot throw the ,;ea:pon'belongs"' Perchance he hI d." Mental agltatlOf~ 'ght

d f his an. I ck 0 roresr .slippe rom . i norance or a -for-Ith acts performed In g find is volunta-I!.

WI h ch a state 0 m d admomtlOn-For thoug su . ld to reproof an . that actsthese conditiod

nsYI~ch violence of emot~n necessarystill they pro uee s sometimes to e. h oluntary seem .

,,,hIe are. v intentional. 'c of causes mand certamly un lamed the tOpi h there is

65 \Vc have n~w ;:!at variety of \ ~:ast for thefull. From t ~ store of arguments; philosophers;supplied a grea . ns of orators an erons they. rt t diseusSlO less num '.tImpo ,an "f they are - rivate SUI S. our professIon, I 1 At an"~rate P e toIn Y bte.J to mh more su· . ues seem Fare per aps. hI important ISS • ;isconsu1ts, orinvolving hig Y . dom of the JU d are inviteddepend on the w;:end the trials .an

rvboard, and

they frequently ~ the judge's advlsot" who seekt be members 0 d'ligent advoca 43

1o onsto 1supply weap

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66 dent inm confugielltibllS hns,r ;IS ministrnnt , In omni-bus igitur ets iudiciis, ill quibus ex fide bonn estaddit nrn, uhi vera 1 ctinm ut inter bonos beneagier opot-tct , in primisqnc in arbitrio rei uxor-iae , inquo est quod eius aequius rnclius , pnrn t i cis essedcbent. Illi rlolum malum, iIli fidem bonum, illiuequum bonum, Illi quid socium socio, quid cum quinegoti(l aliena curnsset ei cuius ca llf'gotia fuisseut ,quid cum qui mandassct, eumve cui mandatumessot., alterum alt.eri pruesf.arc oporterct , quid virumu xori, quid uxorem \'iro tradiderunt. Licehit igiturdiligenter argumentorurn cognitis locis non modooratoribus ct philosoph is, sed Juris etiam peritiscopiose de consultationibus suis disputare,

67 XVIII. Conillnctlls huic C,Hlsarum loco ille locusest qui effidtur ex c:'lusiso VI' cnim causa quid siteffectllm indicat, sic quod effectum est quae flleritcausa dcmonstraL Hie locus sllppcditare soletoratoribus et poetis, saepe e1Lam philosophis, sedcis qui ornate et copiosc loqui p05sunt, mirabilemcopiam dicen(]i, Cum denuntiant quid ex quaquere sit futurum, Causarum enim cognitio cogni-tionem eventorum facit, -

68 Reliquus est comparationis locus~ ('uius genus etexernplum supra positum est Llt ccterorum; nuncexplicanda tractatio est, Comparantur igitLlr ellquae aut maiora aut minora aut p<lria dicuntur;in quiLus sreetantur haec: numerus, species, vis,quaedam etiam ad res aliquas affectio.

1 Yero omitted by Od{;j.432

TOPICA, XVlI, 66-xvm, 68

h 'which. .' .kill In all suits, ten, m I6li succour ill their s 1 .. h " ears in the formu a,

1he phl'H'iC ".in good fait j ajPf deal honestly withI . "<1" one s lOU c ° theor the P lraSe, ° 11T' arbitration over

honest men," and especIal) lIl'nciplc " as is betterf I vherc tIe pn It arereturn 0 t owrv ~ \', .1·' 1 the J' urisconsu s <

'1. ble." IS app let ~ It' theyand more eqm a. , ';heir counsel). 1';,

bound to he ready (wIth t d faith equity, the d~heswho 1I:1\'edefined fraud, 10~n;crc~t to his princ1pal,of partner to partner,. °d tee ~espectively~ and tiof rnanda tor and man ,,~ to husband, A care ?"husband to wife and \H e cuts therefore, "'111- ( '. of arg-um" ., I t venstudy of the topics "d philosophers, )U ePermit not only oratof1:l 8fln tIlT on <.!uestions about" , JO UNe uen"llrisconsults to <.ISCO· I d'~\'hid~they have been consu ~1.ththe topic of causes

"'7 XVIII Closely connected _ For just as thev .i. " I ffects of causes. h t has

i'3 the topic of t le c .. b ,n effected, so \v a Thocause shows wh~t hasLlt :~~lat the cause was. re~~been effected pou~ts a rvellolls fulness of cxp totopic is wont to gl're a Ulta and frequently ckven.Ot'h

I ·mll poes, < spca WI."lion to ora ors <, those who t~a.n . 'IIphilosophers (tflhat 15 )t~dlen' they declare kWh;~e~v~eeleO"anee and uency h s",luatior;, For a -no . b~ , f ellC . f It-be the outcome 0 ,1 dO'e 0 rcsu ,~, f th'

~ rodU(~es<t kno" e Of ~ari"on; 0 ,IS,of caU:-ies p '. the topic 0 com} < ] were O'iven

68 There n':ma~lI~deflnition and exantd~Y hm/it isas of the othel ,< t cxplain lllOre '\ between

N· . I milS.. ,. , , ma<. c:above.1t

I 'ow .. j - comparison IS ,1" "-nd in'1' bcO'll1 t len, I' or equ.l, ~ J

used, o-~ L'C"lter, or css . e considcrc( :oJ' J are 0'< • • ts ar . ,tlungs W He? th~ folloWIng pom. ticular relationthis conncxlOn "I and also a par- litv va ue, <quantity, qu~ ~,'to certain thlIlgs, (I § 23,

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69 Numero sic comparabuntur, plura bona ut paucl-oribus bonis anteponantur, paucioru mala malispluribus, diuturniora bona brevioribus, longe et latepervagata angustis, ex quibus plura bona propagenturquaeque plures imitentur et faciant.

Specie autem comparantur, ut anteponantur quaepropter se expetenda sunt eis quae propter aliud etlit Innate atque insita assumptis atque adventiciis,integra contaminatis, iucunda minus iucundis, honestaipsis etiam utilibus, proclivia laboriosis, necessarianon necessariis, sua alienis, rara vulgaribus, desidera-bilia eis quibus facile carere possta, perfecta Incohetis,tota partibus, ratione utentia rationis expertibus,voluntaria necessariis, animata inanimis, naturalianon naturalibus, artificiosa non artificiosis.

70 Vis autem in comparatione sic cernitur: efficienscausa gravior quam non efficiens; quae se ipsis 1

contents sunt meliora quam quae egent aliis; quaein nostra quam quae in aliorum potestate sunt;stabilia incertis t quae eripi non possunt cis quaepossunt.

Affectio autem ad res aliquas est huius modi:principum commoda maiora quam reliquorum;

1 ipsis Oe!: ipsa codd.

434(I. Or, reasonable beings to those devoid of reason.

TOPICA, XVIlI. 69-70

. 1 ared in respect to quantity69 Things WIn be ::on~ds .. are preferred to fewer,

as follows: more go d which last for a longerfewer evils to marc, goo ~uration, those which arctime to those of sho~:\o those which are confineddistributed far and WI f which more goods arein narrow limits, those ~~hmore people imitategenerated, and those w .

d hei qualityand pro uce. . in respect to t err .In comparing thll%s e to be sought for their

we prefer those WhI~ ~rare desired because thf,eyown sake tOt~~e d's:c possible; a1s~ dea!dead~~a::e s:~e natural qualities ~ow~fU::defiled, the

~::'titious °ilis,l:s~a;I~'::::' what is hOilieu~~:::

~~::~~tp;~fita~le itsel~~;;'e::,:;;;,as:,:oown goo~h:~the necessary to -:hes which are rare to th~s~ ou

that of :~~d~~:ile thiug~ t; t:h:: i:;;;;'pl~te,are COr;y dd without, the per e~le actions to thosecan easi arts reasons ts ani.the whole to its PI' ntary to necessary aC

It' the

f ason G vo u . the natura 0devtit~n:: to i~anim~te ~~J~~~~that which is not.ma e I th t which IS a IS. drawn in com-unnatura~ t~value, disti~ctions a~~sweightierthan

70 I? reg r Haws: An effiCl~nhteausufficientin them-panson as 10 hi whlC are s . h lp fromone that is:~; \h~S those that requ~:er ~o whatselves are e ef:r what is in ourbl~o ~e uncertain;others; we pr ofothers; the sta that which can.is inthe powe~e taken from u~to f this nature: thewhat ca~ot other things IS 0 f more importance

RelatiOn tlo "'M citizensare 0 I e attaches tof ea~"", imiIar va uinterests 0 f the rest; a s 435than those 0

J'.i~---);.

I

III I

III

CICEROTOPICA, XYIII. 7o~XIX. 72

h t e approved by. . , loasnnter, t a ar .t hiru--, that nrc P . . d by all vh-tuous men..... . 'I r 'Ire praIse ~ I' mtlu- llW,1I u-i ~'. II. I thi gs whic 1 m a co -. II -'. 'H'C t ic In. it fAnd Ill'\ as I('~L < • b .tc so the oppasl es 0

p:ll"i....on nrc regarded as et or, .

tlu "t' .11'1.' n·~,lrtled as nonred there is no supenorityil \\ IH'I1 equals me COm~)Me. the same plane.

., . ...er)·thmg 15 on . -edor inferiorit v ; e I . 'Vhich arc compur• an)' t unITS , entBut there are III 1:' lit _ The argumf I . vcrv equal). , fellow-

IW(,I11"(' n t teir h'. If helping one s c' I . like t IS: .' tancer-uns somct llng ., them active aSSlS <

. I [vi cc and a"lVlIlg th thennlizen",'ltl:H\! <, Me uallv praisewor s-.Ht' t (I be rf',!1,'ardc~ as, nJ th15e who defend oug~tthose "ho gne ad\lc~ ,\ But the first statement IS

to r('('ei\(~ equ<ll glOIY'l 'on is also. . ftrue. thcrf>fore the c;nft:s;111es for the inventIon 0h

Thi .. i" the end 0 .ft have journeyed throngthat 1 ,ou . tes O'cnus,

<l rg-ull1ent .... so . .' . rmoloO'y l conJuga '?'" sdefinition, partltlOn'd~J)renet contraries, adJunct,']It':C'ies, similarity, d' P

tc'ontradictions, causes

d,

t antccc en 5, , teI less aneonsequen ", . of things grea , I redd P'ltlson ./ t be exp 0 .effects, an com f< ments rewaInS 0 di'ided

I .on 0 argu . a we \eqll,l . no regi , t the beginnmg . t 'nsic

72 XIX. But .slOce as sayina' that some ab:eI;:hich

tOj)je ... into two group, . :lat;re of the suo Jec d att' the yen h e dlscusseor inheren.w . (these ..."re aY extrinsic

is under dl"cu"'h~lOn d that others are 1: w words' t lengt ), an I t sav a ie

suffieIf'll . f om without, C us ~lthough theyor brought III r. from ",ithoutl fa h law ButI tOpICS . 0 t e •about t lese. to your discusslOn~ 1 p the wholebear no relatlOlI be un, let us eve 0 e leasurenow that we have, re ~ot the perso~ to t~titbook isl' t For yoU a 1 and 5mCC •

~u lJec.. but the c~vil aW, form that it is gomgm nothIng. but 111 such a 437written for) au,

it emque quae iucundiorn, qUflC phn-ihus probn ta .quae ub optimo quoque Inudn ta. Atqll~ ut hnocin comparatione mcliorn , sic dct criorn 'IuaC' ci ...sunt contra ria .

71 Parium autem comparut io nee clu tioncm habetnee summissionem jest enim aequnll-, .. Multn nut ernsunt quae aequalit ate ipsa comparantur j quae itafere concluduntur : Si consilio Iuvnre elves ct nu xilioaequa in laude ponendum f'st, pari gloria dehcntesse ei qui consulunt et ei qui rlP.fendunt; at {plOdprimuffil est j quod sequitur ig-itur.

Perfecta cst omnis argnmeniorum invcniendorumpraeceptio, ut, cum profectus sis a definitione, apartitionc, a notationel a coniugatis, a genere, aformisl a similitudine. a differentia, a contrariis, abadiunctis, a conscquentibuo;;, ab anteccdentibus, arcpugnantibUSl a cam,is, ah effectis, a comparationemaiorum, minorum, pilrium, nulla practerea sedesargumenti quaercnda sit.

72 XIX. Sed qnoniam ita a principiu divisimus, ut.alios locos dice remus in co ipso de quo ambigiturhacrere, de qnibuo;; satis est dictum, alios assumiextrinsecus, de eis panca dicamus

lctsi ea nihil

omnino ad vestras disput.ationcs pertinent.; sedtamen totam rem efficiamus, quandoquidem coepi-mus. NeqllC enim tu is es quem nihil nisi ius civiledeIectet, et quoniam haec ita ad i e scribuntur ut

--------• § 8,

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etiam in aliorum manus sint ventura, detur opera,ut quam plurimum eis quos recta studia delectantprodesse possimus.

73 Haec ergo argumentatio, quae dicitur artis expers,in testimonio posita est. Testimonium autem nuncdicimus omne quod ab aliqua re externa sumitur adfaciendam fidem. Persona autem non qualiscumqueest testimoni pondus habet; ad fidem enim feclen-dam auctoritas quaeritur; sed auctoritatem autnatura aut tempus affert. Naturae auctoritas invirtute inest maxima; in tempore autem multasunt quae afferant auctoritatem: ingenium, opes,aetas, fcrtuna.t ars, usus, necessitas, concursio etiamnon numquam rerum fortuitarum. Nam et in-geniosos et opulentos et aetatis spatio probatosdignos quibus credatur putant; non reete fortasse,sed vulgi opinio mutari. vix potest ad eamque omniadirigunt et qui indicant et qui existimant. Quienim rebus his quas dixi excellunt, ipsa virtutevidentur excellere.

74 Sed reliquis quoque rebus quas modo enumeraviquamquam in his nulla species virtutis est, tameninterdum confirmatur fides, sf aut ars quaedamadhibetur-magna est enim vis ad persuadendumscientiae-aut usus; plerumque enim creditur cisqui experti sunt. XX. Facit etiam necessitas fidem,quae tum a corporibus tum ab animis nascitur. Nam

1 fortuna bracketed by Friedmh.

TOPICA, XIX. 7'-XX' 74

ds of otbers, let us take painsto come into t~'e bahnI t those who take pleasureto give all possible e p 0

in honourable studies. . that is said not toTh· P f argumentatIon, .

73 18 rorm 0 de ends on testnnony.be subject to the rules of art, lefine testimony asFor our present. purposehtW~ from some externaleverything that IS broug . l~nviction. Now it iscircumstance in order to Wlhn. worth consideration

rt of person w a lS • ht .not every so . . ti authority 18 soug ,. T win convtc on, b .as a witness. .0. b one's nature or y cir-but authority IS gIv~n 10m one's nature or charac-cumstanees. Authonty irt • in circumstancester depends largel! on ;;; :i~nd authority, suchthere are many thmgs Wood luck, skill, experience,as talent, wealth, age, g. a concurrence ofnecessity, and even a; .~I':c:mon belief that thefortuitous events. For 1 Id those whose charactertalented, the wealthy, a~f are worthy of credence.has been tested by a long t ebut the opinion of theThis may not be co~ecdiy be changed, and bo~common peopl~ c~ndic~l decisions· and those J:.tthose who ~ e JUnts steer their course by t. •pass moral Ju~gemt who excel in these tWngsAs I was saymg, t oseseem to excel in vi~uei the qualities that I just ki~o~

74 But as for the res a have in them no nenumerated, although t~:res strengthen conv~ction~f irtue yet they some kill or expenence,o VI , h to possess s . .

if a person is s own influence in convlDcmg,for knowledge has great faith in those w~o .are

d cople generally put. t wins conVIctIOn,an p XX NecessIty, 00, • I mental.experienced. .' be either physICOor dand this necesSIty mal they have been worn ownFor what men say w en 439

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et verberibus, tormenti . .ea videtur veritas ipsa ;.' 19m fatigati quae dicuntbus a~imi, dolore, ~upi~ft::' e~quae perturbationi-necessifat.is vim habent ~,lracundla, metu, quifidem. ' a erunt auctoritatem et

75 C·UlUS generis etiam "IInun' 1 a sunt ex quib. quam mvenitur pue Of us verum non-vmolentia, Insania ' N rr ra, somnus, Imprudenti aI' . . am et p . 'a.lqmd, quo id pertineret i arvl.saepe indicaverunt

vmum, insaniam multa gnan, et per somnumetiam in res di s.aepe patefacta sunt. M 1t~St . 0 rosas Imprud t u 1alCDODuper accidit ui en er inciderunt, utsubaliscultantibus pari 11 ~a locutus est bonis virisfactis in iudicium ue e e lr~telJlosito, quibus pate-dam~atus est. l~iC ~:~r:'lSd.le rei capitalis iure

76 momo Pausania accepi quiddam de Lacedae-Concursio autem fo:~s.

ventum est casu cumuttorum talis est, ut si inter-proferendum non aut ageretur aliquid quodge . esset aut dl"~ere etiam ilIa est in' P I tceretur. In hocprcronurn proditionis multtt a amedem coniecta sus-tare interdum veritas . I udo; quod genus refu-gen~ris fama vulgi VlXsz: Huius etiam estmornum, ,quo am multitudinis testi-

Quae autem virtute tid~u~t ; ex quibus alterumem faciunt ea bipertitaIn ustria. Deorum enim vi t natura valet alterumrr us natura excellit ho .

<I For Stai ' rnr-

TOPICA, xx. 74-76

by stripes, the rack, and fire, seems to be spoken bytruth itself; and what they say under stress of mind-grief, lust, anger or fear-lends authority and con-viction, because these emotions seem to have theforce of necessity.

75 This class also includes those states or conditionsfrom which the truth is sometimes discovered, suchas childhood, sleep, inadvertence, intoxication andinsanity. Small children have often given someinformation without knovling its pertinence, andmany facts have been revealed by persons asleep,intoxicated or insane. Many men, too, have falleninto disgrace through inadvertence, as lately hap-pened to Staienus a who made incriminating state-ments within the hearing of some reputable citizensconcealed behind a wall. 'Vhen these remarks ofhis were published, and reported in court, hewas justly condemned on a capital charge- Wehave heard a similar story about Pausamas, theLacedaemonian. b

76 The concurrence of fortuitous events is illustrated,for example, by a chance interruption when some-thing was being said or d~ne whi~h should be keptsecret. An instance of 'this sort IS the mass of CIr-cumstantial evidence of treason which was heapedon Palamedes.r Sometimes truth itself can scarcelyrefute evidence of this sort. 'Ve may also put inthis class public opinion, which is a kind of testimony

of the multitude.The testimony which produces conviction throughvirtue is of two kinds; one sort gets its efficacy bynature, the other acquires it by hard work.. Thatis to say, the surpassing virtue .of the gods ~ theresult of their. nature, but the Virtue of men 15 the44'

___ .d"v

i III,I ill iilili I,II II ill :, I i:l.i

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tt num autem industria DO." }moni . rvmn lace feorua : pnmum orationis-or . rc sunt tcsti-appellatn sunt 'II d I .' aculn erurn ex eo ipso

• ' 10 mest In 1 hi ddemde rerum in ibus ! lS eorum oratio-'

. . ,quI us msunt rmasi 'divina : primum . . quasI quaedam operaIpse mundus .

et ornatus : del clUsque omnis ordo, cmccps aer-ii v I tcantus; deinde . d ' 0 a us avium atque

Iems em aerie .

mu tarumque rer' sonitus et ardoresurn III terra ·t

per exta inventn . . pOl .ent a atque etiam• < praesenSIO; a do . .

multa slgnificata ."." . rmientibus quoqued

'ISIS. Quibus I'urn solent ad fide faci . ex DCLS sumi inter-

78 I h m aciendam te tl .n amine virt tl .. S rmoma dcorum.U IS opmlO valet I .

est autem non m d "p unmum. Opinio

do 0 eos virt.utom h b

se cos et.iam qul h b a ere qui habeant" I a ere videant I 'mgcmc, quos stud! ur. taque quos

10, quos do t .quorumque vitam ' erma praeditos videntC t ' con~tantem et ba oms, Laeli, Scipi . - I" pro atam, utonlS, H lOrum I'eos esse qualis sc'" que p unum, rentul'

, IPS] "ehnt· n Iesse taUs qu"} .' ec so urn cos censentI In lOnorlbus po I'versantur, sed t pu 1 reque publica

Ie oratorcs et h'l het listaricos ex p 1asap as et poetas

, " quorum et di t'anctoritas petitur ad f' C IS et scriptis saepe

79 XXI Ex " aClendam fidem.. POSltIsomnibus

primum intellegend argumentandi locis illudt' . ,urn est ne II,IOnem III qua 2 n Ii' c u am esse disputa-

on a qms lac .omnis locos incidere . us mcurrat, nee fere

In omnem 'quaestlonem et,. AII ~n : om. codd,ill qua codd . '442 .. m quam A vulg.

TOPICA, xx. 76-xxI. 79

77 result of hard work. The testimony of the gods iscovered thoroughly enough by the following: first,utterances, for oracles get their name from the factthat they contain an utterance (oratio) of the gods;secondly, things in which arc embodied certain worksof the gods. First, the heavens themselves and alltheir order and beauty; secondly, the flicrhtof bird'I_ 0

through the air and their songs; thirdly, sounds andflashes of fire from the heavens, and portents givenby many objects on earth, as wen as the fore<;hadow-ing of events which is revealed by the entrails (ofsacrificial animals). Many things also are revealedby visions seen in sleep. The testimony of the godsis at times adduced from these topics in order towin conviction-

78 In the case of a man, it is the opinion of his virtuewhich is most important. For opinion regards asvirtuous not only those who really are virtuous,but also those who seem to be. And so when peoplesee men endowed "ith genius, industry and learning.and those whose life has been consistent and ofapproved goodness, like Cato, Laelius, Scipio andmany more, they regard them as the kind of menthey would like to be. Nor do they hold such auopinion only about those who have been honouredby the people "ith publie offiee and are busy withmatters of state, but also about orators, philosophers,poets, and historians. Their sayings and 'writingsare often used as authority to win conviction.

79 XXI. All the topics of argumentation have nowbeen set forth, and it must be understood in the firstplace that there is no discussion in which there. isnot at least one topic involved, but that all topICSscarcely eyer occur in every inquiry t and that some443

, '

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quibusdam quaestionibus alios, quibusdam alios esseaptiores locos. Quaestionum duo genera sunt: Ialterum infinitum, definitum alterum. Definitumest quod &!t66sowGraeci, nos causarn ; infinitumquod Oi:Ot\l illi appellant, nos propositum possumus

80 nominare. Causa ccrtis pcrsonis, locis, temporibus,actlonibus, negotiis cernitur aut in omnibus aut inplerlsque eorum, propositum autem aut in aliquoeorum aut in pluribus nee tamen in maximis. Haquepropositum pars est causae. Sed omnis quaestioearum aliqua de re est quibus causae continentur,aut una aut pluribus aut nonnunquam omnibus.

81 Quaestionum autem "quacumque de re " suntduo genera: unum cognitionis alterum actionis:

82 Cognitionis sunt eae quarum est finis scientia, ut siquaeratur a naturane ius profectum sit an ab aliquaquasi condicione hominum et pactione. Actionisautem huius modi exempla sunt: Sitne sapientisad rem publicam accedere. Cognitionis quaestionestripertitae sunt j aut sitne aut quid sit aut quale sitquaeritur. Horum primum coniectura, secundumdefinitione, tertium iuris et Iniuriae distinctioneexplicatur.

Coniecturae ratio in quattuor partes distributa est,quarum una est cum quaeritur Flitnealiquid; alteraunde ortum sit; tertia quae id causa effecerit;quarta in qua de commutatione rei quaeritur.Sitne sic: 2; ecquidnam sit honestum, ecquid aequum

1 genera sunt Of: generae L: aunt genera V.2 Bitne sic FriBilrich: ait neene sit cadd.: sitne neenesit A.

.. Literally, Is it t What is it? Of what sort is it?444

TOPICA, XXI. 7<r'l2. some inquiries than to

topics are better SUlte~ tds of inquiry, one generalothers. There arc t~o I n The particular is whatand the other particu ar. thesis) and we callthe Greeks call {moO",_ ~ypo . ';'hat tbev call

. the general inquiry IS .. . Thecause or case, all proposItion.80 l:JtO"Lo; (thesis), an~ ~~et~~~~olves definite persons}

hallmark of a case 15 t a ffai either all or most 0

places, times, ac.ti.ons~o:oh'e:~~e or several of t~~e,these; a proPOSIt.lODmv , Therefore a proposItionbut not the most 1IDportan~. eve inquiry conce~is a part of a case. . Bu f :tich cases consISt,some one of the subjects more or sometimes all ofthat is it concerns one or .

' . t " (tethem. . ossible subjec .' I'SI In uiries "about any oPkinds: one theoretlCa,

gene;al inquirie.') fre .r::::"etical inqui~es are ~;I~e82 the other PhractlCap~e is knowledge: . ~r ~X~atur~

of which t e pur h ther law has its ongin m enone may inquire w e and contract betwe:u ~ :or in some agreement le of the practical1DqU1~'The following is an exarop rt in olities? Theore •Should a I?hilos~)r~~~:k:h~:e ~upsWh; th: ~u~:?:

1 questIons ra .' t? or a d:ked is either, Doe~ a It;:: fi;st of the.se is trea:

he. its character. d conjecture,What 13 . d by inference ~rdnb distiuguishing. and auswere .. d the thl Y

d b defirotlOu, anseCOD Y. ht and wrong· lin with conjecturebetween ng {: ways of dea g d first whether

There are o~~e uestion is aske 'h t its originor inference: 9. true' second, w ~a th what. ists or 15 , d ·t· lOur ,anythI~gd e:.hat eause produ~e 1 As to existence,is; thrr, be made in anything cit thing as honourchanges c~nI there really any su 445as fonows . s

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re vera j an haec tuntum . .autcm sit ort m opmione sint. Unded urn: ut cum

octrina possit effici quaeritur-, natura• Cl vu-tus C . anSIC quaeritur qufb . nusa aut ern effi ., I us rebus el ,Clens

commutatione si . oqucntta efficiatur- Dtatione aliqua c. possitne cloquentia . e

83 XXII C conver-ti in infantiam. commu-. urn autem uid .

explicanda est ct ~ sit quaeritur tilIa . proprletas et di . . ,no 10ec erum sunt defi lti . ' IVlSlO et partitio

etlam descriptio ill 10m attrlbut a : add't'N . ' quam x<Zp _ ' I urotto sic quaerltur : It . xX:t'1Jp:XGraeci vocant1 . 81 ne Id .

P us pot est utile est P aequum quod ei quisolum cadat an e~i~m . rO~rietas sic: in horninemne

c,t eodem pacto partitiol:~c .~luta~ aegritudo. Divisiosmt. De . . . nane gen bscrrptio, qualis It era onorumcctcraque eiusdem gene S,l ~varus, qualis assentatorvita describitur. rrs, In quibus et natura et

84 Cum a tu em quaeritur qual . .quaeritur aut com e quid SIt, aut simpli it. parate ; si lici CI erSIt gloria; comparate : 'pc Imp iciter : Expetendanegl . . racp d

fo~a. Simplicium tria ge onen ane sit divitiis

ugiendoq d nera sunt· due, e aequo et' . . e expetendoC~mparationum 3utem ~:lq.UO, de honesto et turpi.aha, alterum de' o. Unum de eodemalOre et mino ,m et

1 • reo Dc expetendoSIC Of: omitted b;//codd.

33~c~f.Thrasymachus' definitionofjust·· -44

6

Ice ill Plato's Republic,

TOPICA, XXI. 8.-xx[(. 84

or equity? ?r arc these merely matters of opinion?As to ongm: for example, the question may beasked :whether virtue can be engendered by natureor by Instruction. An instance of a question aboutthe efficient cause is: What produces eloquence?Change is illustrated as follows: Can eloquence byany change be transformed into want of eloquence?

83 . XXII. When the question concerns what a thingIS, one has to explain the concept, and the peculiaror proper quality of the thing, analyze it and enu-merate its parts. For these are the essentials ofdefinition. We also include description, which theGreeks call X<xp~l"~P (character or hallmark). Theconcept is inquired into in this way: Is justice thatwhich L,; to the advantage of the stronger? a: Anexample of inquiry into the peculiar or properquality of a thing is the follo,ving question: Is griefincidental to man alone, or to the animals as well?Analvsis and enumeration are treated in the samefashion: Are there three kinds of " goods? "Description may be illustrated as follows: \Vhatsort of person a miser or a flatterer is, and othercases of the same sort, in which both a person'scharacter and his manner of life are described.

84 When the question is about the nature of any~thing, it is put either simply or by comparison;simply as in the question: Should one seek glory?_by comparison, as: Is glory to be preferred toriches? There arc three kinds of subjects for simplequestions: wbat to seek and what to avoid, what isright and what wrong, what is honourable and whatbase. Questions involving a comparison arc of twokinds: one about sameness and difference, theother about superiority and inferiority. Questions447

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e.t fU!pendo hulus modi' S' .81 fugtenda paupertas i) I cxpetendac divit iaequumne sit ulcisci It' C aequo et Iniquo : Ae~De h • quocumquc in" ...onesto et turpi : H runam ncccpcrts.

85 marl? Ex altero ault~m onestumne sit pro putrintum, unum est de eod genl~re, quod ernt biperti-amic em et a 10' Q ld iurn et assentatore . lI1 mtersit interalterum de maiore et m, . regem et tyrannum ;eloquentiane pIuris sit ~m?re, lit si quaeratu;cognitionis quaestionib a~ lUTIS civilis scientia. De

86 Actionis reliq us ractcnus.ad IIi' uae sunt quaru do crum, alterum dr m uo genera: unumvel sedandum pJane:e ;nlltu~animi vel gignendumlit cum quaeritur su~~~~n ~m. ~d officium sic,movenrlos animas cohort '? ndme smt liberi. Adpublicam, ad laudem~lO~es. ad defendendam remsunt querellae, incitatio~ g o;lam; quo ex genererursusque oratio tu . es, mfseraticnesque fiebiles :met ' , m iracundiam ti 'urn errpiens tum I res mguem;, tumPrime t ' exsu tantem I .., ns, urn acgritud' aetitdam com-

m propositi I quaestioInbem abstergens. Haec cumcausa t ~ .. m us gener . t. s ransteruntur a sm , eadem in

87 XXIII. Loci aute;'" .~f,eom~odati sint dein~upl ad tqu~que quaestionesI I quidem ad leres s es videndum. Omnesaptiores. Ad p. . que, sed alii ad alias ut di .comecturam iait ,XI,ex eausis, quae ex effe t. e- ur maxime apta quaepossunt. Ad defi lti C IS, quae ex coniunctis sumi

m wnem autero .1 propositicodex B mb pertmet ratio

a erg. l\1V 13: propositiscodd.

a Or taking 8tl8" '.bebkept' ? Clpere m Its technical sense •should hUd

By which he mean . , c reD(corollaries) above, §§ lIS Ith8eSOclasswhioh he called ad' t448 • • • Juno s

TOPICA, xm. 84-XXIII. 87

about what to seek and what to avoid are likethis: Should riches be sought? Should povertybe avoided? A question about right and wrong:Is it right to take vengeance on one who has wrongedyou? A question about honour and baseness: Is

M it honourable to die for one's country? In the otherclass which we divided into two parts, one appliesto resemblance and difference, for instance: Whatis the difference between a friend and a flatterer,between a king and a tyrant? The second appliesto superiority and inferiority; for example, onemight ask whether eloquence or jurisprudence ismore valuable. So much for the theoreticalquestions.86 There remain the practical questions, and of thesethere are two kinds: one has to do with our duty,the other with arousing, calming or utterly removingsome emotion. A question of duty is: Should onehave children? a Under the head of arousing emotionscome exhortations to defend the state, and to seekfame or glory. Here belong complaints, words ofencouragement, and tearful commiserations; andagain, speeches which nOW repress ~age, now remC?vefear now restrain the transports of JOY, and now Wipeaway sorrow. All these types are used in inquiriesof a general nature., and may therefore be transferredto particular cases.87 XXIII. Our next task is to consider what topicsare suited to each question, As a matter of factall are suited to more than one, but as I said, someare better adapted to one question, and some toanother. The topics which can be drawn fromcauses, effects and conjuncts & are best fitted toconjectnre and inference. The krtowledge and449

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et scientia deflniendi. Atque huic generi finitimumest illud quod appellari de eodem et de altere dixi-mus, quod genus forma quacdam definitlonis est; sienim quacratur idcmne sit pertinacia et perse-

88 verantia, definitionibus iudicandum est. Loci autemconvenient in eius generis quaestionem consequentis,antecedentis, repugnantis; adiuncti etiam cis quisumuntur ex causis et effectis. Nam si hane remilIa sequitur, hanc autern non sequitur; aut si huicrei ilIa antecedit, huic non anteccdit; aut si huicrei repugnat, illi non repugnat; aut si huius reihaec, Illius alia causa est; aut si ex alio hoc, ex alioillud effectum est: ex quovis horum id de quoquaeritur idemne an aliud sit invcniri potest.

89 Ad tertium genus quaestionis, in quo quale sitquaeritur, in comparationem ea cadunt quae pauloante in comparationis loco enumerata sunt. Inillud autem genus in quo de expetend ofugiendoquequaeritur adhibentur ea quae sunt aut animi autcorporis aut externa vel commoda vel incommoda.Itemque cum de honesto turpique quaeritur, adunimi bona aut mala omnis oratio dirigenda est.

90 Cum autcm de aequo ct iniquo di<;;seritur,aequitatisloci colligentur. Hi cernuntur bipertito, et naturaet instituto. Natura partes habet duas, tributionem

450

TOPICA, XXIII, 87-90

fini . important for definition.science of. de mnt.IS.

Swhat I said was called

Closely allied to. t ~n~e this being a kind ofsame~~ss a;d ?;~:re shorild ask whether obstinacydefinition- or I tl e same the matter wouldand perseverance areb 1 definiti~n. The topics of

88 have to be settled Y. nd contradiction ared consequence a hantece enee, . f this sort : and t ose

also suitable for a question bO added to 'these. Forfrom cause and effect ~ay tic n but does not followif something followstdhIsatch.IOaction but does not

h if it prcce es IS 'thianot er : 1 if it is contradictory to ISprecede another; or 1 if this is the cause of thisbut not. to another; ordi

1.a:- nt cause' or if this isd that has a nere , ther :action, an . . d that from ano er ;

produced from one thing dietions we can find thefrom each of these ~ontr~ c~hether we have hereI ti of our questIon, s.e.so U IOn

a sameness or a differe~ce.t e of question, that inB9 In respect to the th~rd YdPt the nature of the

he ! iry IS directe 0 • hichwhich t e mqu f I for companson w 1thing, those points ~e ~se ~efore under the topicwere enumerated s or Y on which deals withof comparison. For the r X avoid we use the

.. f what to see an . d body orquestions 0 d disadvantages of nun , dis-advantages. an tance. Likewise when hthe h 1eexternal Clfcums honour or baseness ~ e ~ :hecussion turns ondi ted to a consideratIOn0

h must be rec . d When however,90 ~~:ces and defcct~eo~::~~ ~u'ssedl th~ topi;~~?:

. ht and wrong a ther These arc 0~guity will be brou,ght ~o~e b~tween natural lawkinds the distinctIOn etfaw has two parts, theand institutions. Nat:r~is own property, and theright of every man t 451

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sui cuique et ulciscendi ius. Institut.io autcmaequitatis tripertita est: una pars legitima est,altere conveniens, tertia moris vetust at.e firmata.Atquc etiam acquitas tripcrtita dicitur esse: unaad supcros dcos, altera ad manes, tertia ad hominesperttnere. Prima pletas, secunda sanctit as, tertiaiustitia aut aequitas nomlnatur.v XXIV. De pro-posito sat.is multa, deinceps de causa puuctoradicenda sunt. Pleraque enim sunt ei cum propositocommunia.

91 Tria sunt igitur 2 genera causarum : iudici, delibera-tionis,laudationis. Quarum fines ipsi declarant quibusutendum locis sit. Nam iudici finis est ius, ex quoctiam nomen. Iuris autem partes tum cxposttae, cumaequitatis. Deliberandi finisutilitas, cuius eae partesquae modo cxpositae.e Laudationis finis honestas,

92 de qua item est ante dictum. Sed definitae quae-stiones a suis quaeque locis quasi propriis Iustru-unt.ur, ... quae in accusutionem defensionemquepartitae; in quibus exsistunt haec genera, ut aecu-sator personam arguat facti, defensor aliquid op-ponat de tribus: aut non esse factum aut, si sitfactum, aliud eius facti nomen esse aut iure essefactum. Itaque aut infitialis aut coniecturalis primaappelletur, definitiva altera, tertia, quamvis moles-

t Atque • . . nominatur bracketed by Schuetz.i igitur om~ttedby 0: enim cadd.S After expositae the M8S. have rerum expetendarum: (of

things to be songht) bracketed by Friedrich.

"!90, ·§89. '§89.d There is & break in the text at this point' the words

in bracketa fill ont the sense. but are Wholly co~jectural.452

TOPICA, XXUl. <)O-XXIV. 9'. titutions affecting equity

right of revenge. T~~~~as to do with law, th~arc threefold: the third rests on long con

d with compacts, the Is id to have threesecon E it is a a sal htinued custom. .qUl Y the gods in heaven., t e

arts: one pertal.TIS to de arted, the third tofecond to the sP.ints Ilfdth~ety ,Pthe secon~ respec~men. The first IS ca e, P XXIV. This IS enougthe third justice or eqUlt.Y: n Vtlemust next treatabout the general pror:s~~i~f~r compass; for i~~~the special case, but ith the general proposltl~ I'

. t . common "WI h n speclamany pom s m kinds of speec es 0 d th91 There are t~re~ . h deliberative, an e

bi ts : the Jud,c,al, t dse" f these three showsu Jec, d the "en 0 f theencomiastic; an be used. The end it lveswhat topics ar.e .to ice from which it also envedjudicial spceBc~ ~~~u;~s' of justice wdere/n~li~a:ra~its name. U It a The en 0 a f hiwhen we discussed equi y, and the divisions b0 ~:

tlve speech is ~dvanta~e'been enumerated. d thisbi ct have Just no h . honour, an ,

su Jeof an encomiastic sp;ecBu:particular i~quiriesen . d above. h culiar pro-

92 too, w~s ~sc~fs~opiCSwhich are(Tht: ~~t of thesearc bmlt P of each one. .> h' h ,'s diyidedit were, , di . I)" Vi ICPerty, as . 'es ,'s the JU CIa h' I there are. 1 inqUlri ' w IC 1partlcu ar , and defence; In harO'essomeinto accusatlOo1 ses. the prosecuio: C th: defencethe following ~ as. a~d the COllnse 1:' t the crimeone with a c~~~~ee replies, e~th~r ta: committed,makes onc 0 'tt d or that, If It w, -tHied. Thewas not ~nunl ea~e, or that it ~as JUs coniecfuralisit has a diff~ren;l~ed injitialis (~en,al)) or the secondfirst, then, ~ ference or conJec~~;:e'third (though(bas~~ one'Wiving definition) an 453dejnttUJa mVO

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tum nomen h 'H oc sit . . liI "nun cnu-nrum prol;,,::,ru ir-in li-, vocct ur. XXI',OClS quos e. " . ,lrgun1('n1;1 . - .

93 prxpo'Hlmu, in" ' x e" <umptnhcata snnt. Refutntio : p"oT"ptis cu-atrn-iis ex-

est depulsic crim i " autcm nccuvaliuni-, .appclletur I, ti uns , quoniam Gruccc .," u~ qua11"" ,,' me sfat us : in v,me, dicit ur~ < ~ I(~ld rel~ugnalld1lll1 'c:mute (1~1l) priruum iusixt it

e 1 rerut iouibus 'j' 1""" SS<l dcfcnsio \texist unt status X c Will ct lilU(lalionil;lls ~ 'lquequae ab I' . "},l1U ct 1)('O"ln1' • rc erna 1(1

l1Oin t:"Ul sacpe elf t

omninn fieri sent ent in diet " 'u urnnon pO,,;~~', n~~, possiut aut sine :u:~~:/~,:e: si aut

94 turalis e .,' '. qua argtrmcnt nt i "ltficultate.XSIstIt. aut .' < lOne s1 at Iaequitate' dis"'f';it ~llTlnuIiquid de lItili't~lt~liS (,o,niee-cont.' ,HI (e'lm' p', I ' IOnestateOUO';Ul";" incurruut status .~sutn.,.Hl.: quae his sunt'I luem cn 'to . Il1n" 'L tII '0' ,", ' ,11lllgit in 1. I. " .' < ll, nominis'

Cball pol cst '{ t. aUl dtIombus N 'non " lC ael UIll eS'e . ,am autaut eo nomme afficiendum' quod laudctur, aut

iure ~:l;~no ,~on eS'e laurlabil~u~·IU~~l(lator affecerit~1m SIt Qu"l . - non recte

nimis impud ' . l)ltS onmibus gen .'1 ' '100U5 Sed ente, Caes", contra CI ell)US usus est

""' ,. quae ex statu cont ' < "a,onern meum,Xl"'t\l"!-LE:'!Q'J YO •• enho cffieitnr .. -,te ,'I cant, mlln placet 'I ' e,'m (,..,leci

. sen )0. qua de re au'itur ~l, ql~olliam quid em adh \ocan (I']

a Cir:' - - ---- ' =tUI1US ;lutem" ., ero s apoloa' j ,-comed::ts t '<-oJ 01 usmg " -11 H a r<tllf'JatlOll uf 8 wndu:iah,·

I

e may refe t IKIl10AoytK' ( 1 "t word newlynVenlimw! at t 1 U IllS o",n 1 i lie l(,<ll~ologlce\, ~.

c B tI 0 any text h k ex - ouk of RI8fa to 1 Latul .t(ti/l~ an 1 (~o of (t stmtl.tr k d lCtOrtC (de

, 0 stand I t (-.re('k err' In •!,e:lli constililtio nIt he de Im'en!i01~IJ(Cicome from the rootlomed. . means the p "t cew used the 11om on which tI ". 0 ( e1'~ ,._~~

j

TOplCA, ,XlV, 9'-xxv, 95

the wonl anuovs me) a iuridicialis (involving right"]1(1 wronu). XXV. The proper arguments fortlu-sc e,lSt'''. <elected from the topics ·which we havecn\l1l1era1c(l~ have been denJoped in the rules for

93 or:1tory.!1 The reply to the 3Ccl1sation which con-stitute, the denial of the -hnrgc, may be caned inLatin status since the Greeks r-all it Q"7ci.~~':; (stasis): forthis is the pl:lCc where the nefenee takes its stand, asif it were coming to gdps in a countee-attack,' Thesame issues (,Iallt') come up in deliberativC andencomiastic speeches, For when some one hasgiven his opinion that certain things will happen,the opponents deny that this is true, hasing theirargument on the statement that these thingscannot be done at "II, or only with the greatestdifficulty, Anel in this argument the eonject

mal

n.l issue arises, Or whcn thcre is some discussion aboutadvant"gc, honour, 01" equity and their opposites,we have the i"ue of justification "nd elefwitio

n,

And the s"me holds true of encoroiastic speeches,For one c"n elenv that the deed which is beingpraiseel was elonc ,:t all; or that it dese,ves the namewhich the pr"iser gives it, 0' that it is at all prais

c-

wo,thy, bec"use it was immoral or illegal to eloit. :\Il these "rgun.ents were b,azenly useel hy

Caesar Hcrainst mV detlf Cato.d

\l5 The d~bate which arises from the i"ue

(slallts

)is calleel bv the GreekS ,,?w6~"'o,(the thing beingdecided) l;ut 1 preft.>r to c<l11 it qua de re (I,gilur (the, '1']<luestion at stake) especially in wdting to you, ,,',cargaments by which this "question at stake IS

, Cieeca w,ot, an encomium of Macou' porei", Cuto

Uticeuai' one of the la,t Repubbean Jeuder' to hold outagain,t Cae«'" and Cues" "plied iu bi, Au';ca'o,

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hoc qua de re agitur confine'tur-, ea continentiavocentur, quasi firmamenta defensionis, quibussublatis defensio nulla sit.

Sed quoniam lege firmius in controversiis dis.ceptandis esse nihil debet, danda est opera ut legemadiutricem et tcstem adhibeamus. In qua re aliiquasi status existunt novi, sed appellentur legitimae

96 disceptationes. Tum enlrn defenditur non id legemdicere quod adversarius velit, sed aliud. Id autemcontingit, cum scriptum ambiguum est, ut duaesententiae differentes accipi possint. Tum opponi-tur scripto voluntas seriptoris, ut quacratur verbaneplus an senterrtia valere debeant. Tum legi lexcontraria affertur. Ista sunt tria genera quaecontroversiam in omni scripta facere possint: ambt-guum, discrepantia scripti et voluntatis, scriptacontraria. XXVI. lam hoc perspicuum est, nonmagis in legibus quam in testamentis, in stipulationi-bus, in reliquis rebus quae ex scripta aguntur, possecontroversias. easdem existere. Horum tractationesin aliis Iibris explicantu-.

97 Nec solum perpetuae actiones sed etiam partesorationis isdem lacis adiuvantur, partim propriis,partim communibus; ut in principiis, quibus 1 utbcnevoli, ut docHes, ut attenti sint qui audiant,efficiendum est propriis lacis; itemque narrationesut ad suos fines spectent, id est tit planae sint, utbreves, ut evidentes, ut credibiles, ut maderatae,

1 quibua bracketed by Friedrieh.

• The use of teohnical terms here is at varianoe with Pari,.Orat. 103.and de Inv. 1,13.18. Theconfusion is too involvedfor a discussion here; v. Thiele. HermagorQ./J. pp. 67-75.456

TOPICA, xxv. 95-XXVl" 97" "B (su ports); they are,

supported are caned ""?"'~he d~fence, for if these8S it were, the fount~: defence.1I tionare removed, there h ld be no firmer founda ful

But since there s o~ t we must be carethan law in settling dispu es, helper and witness.to summon the Law ~s :: nasi issues, but let usH there arise certam n q1 For instance,ence bout a aw. does

96 can them disputes a " made that the la~times the defence IS .a--: to make It say,

some h ponent LUes h thet say what t e op This occurs w en .no hi dilferent. . t meamngsbut somet mg that two dilferen thorlaw is ambiguou~, so sin, the intent of the au socan be got out oht. ~ to the letter of the law,. gis shown to be oppos~ whether words or mea~:tsthat the queiltiontg:in, a law is cited WhiC~h:~~eeshould pr;va .nder discussion. These::ye .over anywith the aw? an raise a contro~ betweensituations whIch ~. ambiguity, v.a~an~ocuments.written doc~~~intent, and confl~ngcontroversiesthe letteI~ ~n of course plain th,l':atsuwills contracts,XXVI. IS rom laws than from o~ a writtenarise .no morether matter which

tr~ngststhese are set

and many 0 h ethods of trea •t T em

docu~en .her books. also the sev~ralforth III ot hole speeches, bU~ these topICS,

97 Not only W h receive help romart and someParts of a speec roper to each p ! must be

f hich are P TIt per top'cssome 0 W all alike. e pro ke the audienceare of.useU:: introductions to mative. The narta-used m ece tiV'e and atten t in order thatwell-disposed, r. ePsimilar treatDle~. to be plain,tives must Ire~e~o their goal, ~hi~~~d dignified.they may 00 dible, restrame 457brief, clear, ere

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ut cum dignitate. Quae quamquam in tota orationeesse debent, magis tamen sunt propria narrandi.

98 Quae autem sequitur narrationem fides, ea per-suadendo quoniam efficitur, qui ad persuadendum locimaxirne valeant dictum est in cis in quibus de omniratione dicendi. Peroratio autem et alia quaedamhabet et maxime amplificationem, cuius effectus hiedebet esse, nt aut perturbentur animi aut 'tran-quillentur et, si ita affecti iam ante sint, ut aut

99 augeat eorum motus aut sedet oratio. Hulc generi,in quo et misericordia et iracundia et odium etinvidia et ceterae animi affcctiones perturbantur,praecepta suppeditantur aliis in Hbris, quos poterismecum legere cum voles. Ad id autem quod tevelle senseram, cumulate satis factum esse debet

100 voluntati tuae. Nam ne praeterirem aliquid quodad argumentum in omni ratione reperiendumpertineret, plura quam a te desiderata erant sumcomplexus fecique quod saepe liberales venditoressolent, nt, cum aedes fundumve vendiderint rutiscaesis receptis, concedant tamen aliquid emptoriquod ornandi causa apte et locopositum esse videatur;sic tibi nos ad id quod quasi mandpio 4are debuimusornamenta quaedam voluimus non debita accedere.

TOPICA, XXV', 97-100Id reyail throughout

Though these qualities shou !'e characteristic ofthe whole speech, t,tj.i:.eO;:'speeeh which f~:d

98 the narrative- The f Since this is aceorup hi hthe narratiye is the prf. cl that is the topiCSw

bcn

b ersueeion, this su ~e - rsnasion-has eey P , Ily Important for pe th whole theory

are esr~la what was said about nge other topiCScovere In II The eroration ~o . the effect ofof oratory, p f amplificatiOn, ndiencemakes especial usex:te the spirits of the 3been sothis should be to ~ if they haye aJready, t thelDor calm theru" ahte~ their feelingS or q:~ech, inaffected to helg his dil'ision of a P tw' US

' R Ies for t nd ther elDO99 still mere. u tred enry' a 0 hicb youwhich pity, a~~:r~:en i~other ?~ksB~for theare aroudsed"th rue when youthi~sh~uld be enoughcan rea . WI had in mind, S desires. Forobject whic~ YO~noughto satisfy ,y~u~ad to do with

100 and more t an 't anything whic . I have in-in order not to t~uments in any fr:.~:'done whatthe discovery 0 a au requested, an sell a houseeluded ruore tha: ~ont to do; when th:{ilDber,' theyliberal sellers a.r titie to nUnerals and alloW hilD toor farm, rese~~n to the buyer

banput in the right

make a con<:. hieb seems to ~. to what wekeep soruething w t' So in additIon wished to

as an ornaroen . as it were, 'We . thespot bo d to sell yOU, t called for lDw~e un ~en~ ~give you some amcontract.