child development chapter 4, paduano

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Chapter 4 Child Development Caprice Paduano

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Page 1: Child development chapter 4, paduano

Chapter 4Child DevelopmentCaprice Paduano

Page 2: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CHAPTER 4 KEY QUESTIONS

W

hat is the normal process of labor?

W

hat complications can occur at birth, and what are their

causes, effects, and treatments?

W

hat capabilities does the newborn have?

Page 3: Child development chapter 4, paduano

BIRTH

N

eonate The term used for newborns

T

he neonate’s outward appearance is caused by a variety of factors in its

journey from the mother’s uterus, down the birth canal, and out into the

world.

W

e can trace its passage, beginning with the release of the chemicals that

initiate the process of labor.

Page 4: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LABOR: THE PROCESSOF BIRTH BEGINS

A

bout 266 days after conception, a protein called corticotropin releasing

hormone (CRH) triggers the release of various hormones, and the process that

leads to birth begins.

O

ne critical hormone is oxytocin, which is released by the mother’s pituitary

gland.

W

hen the concentration of oxytocin becomes high enough, the mother’s uterus

begins periodic contractions.

Page 5: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LABOR: THE PROCESSOF BIRTH BEGINS

L

abor proceeds in three stages:

I

n the first stage of labor, the uterine contractions initially occur around

every 8 to 10 minutes and last about 30 seconds. As labor proceeds, the

contractions occur more frequently and last longer.

T

oward the end of labor, the contractions may occur every 2 minutes and

last almost 2 minutes.

Page 6: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LABOR: THE PROCESSOF BIRTH BEGINS

D

uring the final part of the first stage of labor, the contractions

increase to their greatest intensity, a period known as transition.

D

uring the second stage of labor, which typically lasts around 90

minutes, the baby’s head emerges further with each contraction,

increasing the size of the vaginal opening.

Page 7: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LABOR: THE PROCESSOF BIRTH BEGINS

E

pisiotomy An incision sometimes made to increase the size of

the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass

T

he third stage of labor occurs when the child’s umbilical cord

(still attached to the neonate) and the placenta are expelled

from the mother.

Page 8: Child development chapter 4, paduano

BIRTH: FROM FETUS TO NEONATE

T

he exact moment of birth occurs when the fetus, having left the

uterus through the cervix, passes through the vagina to emerge

fully from its mother’s body.

I

n most cases, babies automatically make the transition from taking

in oxygen via the placenta to using their lungs to breathe air.

Page 9: Child development chapter 4, paduano

THE APGAR SCALE

A

pgar scale A standard measurement system that looks for a

variety of indications of good health in newborns

A

noxia A restriction of oxygen to the baby, lasting a few

minutes during the birth process, which can produce brain

damage

Page 10: Child development chapter 4, paduano

APGAR SCALE

Page 11: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL APPEARANCEAND INITIAL ENCOUNTERS

A

fter assessing the newborn’s health, health-care workers next deal

with the remnants of the child’s passage through the birth canal.

A

thick, greasy material called the vernix smoothes the passage

through the birth canal; it is no longer needed once the child is

born and is easily cleaned away.

Page 12: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL APPEARANCEAND INITIAL ENCOUNTERS

N

ewborns’ bodies are also covered with a fine, dark fuzz

known as lanugo; this soon disappears.

T

he newborn’s eyelids may be puffy due to an accumulation of

fluids during labor, and the newborn may have blood or other

fluids on parts of its body.

Page 13: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL APPEARANCEAND INITIAL ENCOUNTERS

B

onding Close physical and emotional contact between parent and

child during the period immediately following birth, argued by

some to affect later relationship strength

A

lthough mother–child bonding does not seem critical, it is

important for newborns to be gently touched and massaged soon

after birth.

Page 14: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL APPEARANCEAND INITIAL ENCOUNTERS

T

he physical stimulation they receive stimulates the production

of chemicals in the brain that instigate growth.

Page 15: Child development chapter 4, paduano

APPROACHES TO CHILDBIRTH: WHERE MEDICINE AND ATTITUDES MEET

P

arents in the Western world have developed a variety of strategies

—and some very strong opinions—to help them deal with

something as natural as giving birth.

N

o single procedure will be effective for all mothers and fathers, and

no conclusive research evidence has proven that one procedure is

significantly more effective than another.

Page 16: Child development chapter 4, paduano

ALTERNATIVE BIRTHING PROCEDURES

L

amaze birthing techniques

B

radley Method

H

ypnobirthing

Page 17: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CHILDBIRTH ATTENDANTS:WHO DELIVERS?

T

raditionally, obstetricians, physicians who specialize in delivering babies,

have been the childbirth attendants of choice.

I

n the last few decades, more mothers have chosen to use a midwife, a

childbirth attendant who stays with the mother throughout labor and delivery.

A

doula is trained to provide emotional, psychological, and educational support

during birth.

Page 18: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PAIN AND CHILDBIRTH

P

ain is a subjective, psychological phenomenon that cannot be

easily measured.

C

onsequently, the experience of pain during labor is difficult for

women in labor to interpret, thereby potentially increasing their

anxiety and making the contractions seem even more painful.

Page 19: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PAIN AND CHILDBIRTH

U

ltimately, every woman’s delivery depends on such variables

as how much preparation and support she has before and

during delivery, her culture’s view of pregnancy and delivery,

and the specific nature of the delivery itself

Page 20: Child development chapter 4, paduano

USE OF ANESTHESIA ANDPAIN-REDUCING DRUGS

T

he use of medication during childbirth is a practice that holds both benefits

and pitfalls.

A

bout a third of women who receive anesthesia do so in the form of epidural

anesthesia, which produces numbness from the waist down.

A

newer form of epidural, known as a walking epidural or dual spinal-epidural,

uses smaller needles and a system for administering continuous doses of

anesthetic.

Page 21: Child development chapter 4, paduano

POSTDELIVERY HOSPITAL STAY: DELIVER, THEN

DEPART?

T

he American Academy of Pediatrics states that except in

unusual cases, women should stay in the hospital no less

than 48 hours after giving birth.

F

urthermore, the U.S. Congress passed legislation mandating

a minimum insurance coverage of 48 hours for childbirth.

Page 22: Child development chapter 4, paduano

NEWBORN MEDICAL SCREENING

T

he American College of Medical Genetics recommends that

all newborns be screened for 29 disorders, ranging from

hearing difficulties and sickle-cell anemia to extremely rare

conditions such as isovaleric academia, a disorder involving

metabolism.

Page 23: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PRETERM INFANTS:TOO SOON, TOO SMALL

P

reterm infants Infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also

known as premature infants)

L

ow-birthweight infants Infants who weigh less than 2,500 grams (around 5

1/2 pounds) at birth

S

mall-for-gestational-age infants Infants who, because of delayed fetal growth,

weigh 90% (or less) of the average weight of infants of the same gestational

age

Page 24: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PRETERM INFANTS:TOO SOON, TOO SMALL

L

ow-birthweight infants are highly vulnerable to infection, and because their lungs

have not had sufficient time to develop completely, they have problems taking in

sufficient oxygen.

A

s a consequence, they may experience respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), with

potentially fatal consequences.

D

espite the difficulties they experience at birth, the majority of preterm infants

eventually develop normally in the long run.

Page 25: Child development chapter 4, paduano

VERY-LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS: THE SMALLEST

OF THE SMALL

V

ery-low-birthweight infants Infants who weigh less than 1,250

grams (around 2 1/4 pounds) or, regardless of weight, have been

in the womb fewer than 30 weeks

V

ery-low-birthweight babies are in grave danger from the moment

they are born, due to the immaturity of their organ systems.

Page 26: Child development chapter 4, paduano

VERY-LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT INFANTS: THE SMALLEST

OF THE SMALL

H

owever, medical advances have led to a higher chance of

survival, pushing the age of viability, the point at which an

infant can survive prematurely, to about 22 weeks.

Page 27: Child development chapter 4, paduano

WHAT CAUSES PRETERM AND LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT

DELIVERIES?

A

bout half of preterm and low-birthweight births are

unexplained, but several known causes account for the

remainder.

I

n some cases, premature labor results from difficulties

relating to the mother’s reproductive system.

Page 28: Child development chapter 4, paduano

WHAT CAUSES PRETERM AND LOW-BIRTHWEIGHT

DELIVERIES?

I

n other cases, preterm and low-birthweight babies are a

result of the immaturity of the mother’s reproductive system.

F

actors that affect the general health of the mother all are

related to prematurity and low birthweight.

Page 29: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LOW BIRTHWEIGHT FACTORS

Page 30: Child development chapter 4, paduano

POSTMATURE BABIES:TOO LATE, TOO LARGE

P

ostmature infants Infants still unborn 2 weeks after the mother’s

due date

D

ifficulties involving postmature infants are more easily prevented

than those involving preterm babies, since medical practitioners

can induce labor artificially if the pregnancy continues too long.

Page 31: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CESAREAN DELIVERY: INTERVENINGIN THE PROCESS OF BIRTH

C

esarean delivery A birth in which the baby is surgically

removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the

birth canal

C

esarean deliveries occur most frequently when the fetus

shows distress of some sort.

Page 32: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CESAREAN DELIVERY: INTERVENINGIN THE PROCESS OF BIRTH

C

esarean deliveries are also used in some cases of breech position,

in which the baby is positioned feet first in the birth canal.

A

cesarean delivery also presents some risks for the baby.

F

etal monitor A device that measures the baby’s heartbeat during

labor

Page 33: Child development chapter 4, paduano

INFANT MORTALITY AND STILLBIRTH:THE TRAGEDY OF PREMATURE DEATH

S

tillbirth The delivery of a child who is not alive, occurring in

fewer than 1 delivery in 100

I

nfant mortality Death within the first year of life

Page 34: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CHILDBIRTH-RELATED LEAVE POLICIES

Page 35: Child development chapter 4, paduano

CHILDBIRTH-RELATEDLEAVE POLICIES, CONT’D

Page 36: Child development chapter 4, paduano

POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION:MOVING FROM THE HEIGHTS OFJOY TO THE DEPTHS OF DESPAIR

P

ostpartum depression, a period of deep depression following

the birth of a child, affects some 10% of all new mothers.

P

ostpartum depression may be triggered by the pronounced

swings in hormone production that occur after birth.

Page 37: Child development chapter 4, paduano

POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION:MOVING FROM THE HEIGHTS OFJOY TO THE DEPTHS OF DESPAIR

W

hen depressed mothers interact with their infants, they are likely

to display little emotion and to act detached and withdrawn.

T

his lack of responsiveness leads infants to display fewer positive

emotions and to withdraw from contact not only with their

mothers but with other adults as well.

Page 38: Child development chapter 4, paduano

THE COMPETENT NEWBORN

A

s developmental researchers have begun to understand

more about the nature of newborns, they have come to

realize that infants enter this world with an astounding array

of capabilities in all domains of development: physical,

cognitive, and social.

Page 39: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL COMPETENCE: MEETING THE DEMANDS OF A NEW ENVIRONMENT

T

he world faced by a neonate is remarkably different from the

one it experienced in the womb.

N

eonates emerge from the uterus practiced in certain types of

physical activities.

Page 40: Child development chapter 4, paduano

PHYSICAL COMPETENCE: MEETING THE DEMANDS OF A NEW ENVIRONMENT

R

eflexes Unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically

in the presence of certain stimuli

T

he sucking reflex and the swallowing reflex permit Kaita to begin right away

to ingest food.

T

he rooting reflex, which involves turning in the direction of a source of

stimulation (such as a light touch) near the mouth, is also related to eating.

Page 41: Child development chapter 4, paduano

FIRST ENCOUNTERS UPON BIRTH

Page 42: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SENSORY CAPABILITIES: EXPERIENCING THE

WORLD

A

lthough their visual acuity is not fully developed, newborns

actively pay attention to certain types of information in their

environment.

I

nfants can discriminate different levels of brightness.

Page 43: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SENSORY CAPABILITIES: EXPERIENCING THE

WORLD

T

here is even evidence suggesting that newborns have a

sense of size constancy.

T

hey seem aware that objects stay the same size even though

the size of the image on the retina varies with distance.

Page 44: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SENSORY CAPABILITIES: EXPERIENCING THE

WORLD

I

n addition to sight and hearing, the other senses also function

quite adequately in the newborn.

I

t is obvious that newborns are sensitive to touch.

A

t birth, the senses of smell and taste are also well developed.

Page 45: Child development chapter 4, paduano

EARLY LEARNING CAPABILITIES

C

lassical conditioning A type of learning in which an organism

responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally

does not bring about that type of response

O

perant conditioning A form of learning in which a voluntary

response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its

association with positive or negative consequences

Page 46: Child development chapter 4, paduano

EARLY LEARNING CAPABILITIES

H

abituation The decrease in the response to a stimulus that

occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

Page 47: Child development chapter 4, paduano

LEARNING IN INFANCY

Page 48: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SOCIAL COMPETENCE: RESPONDING TO OTHERS

D

ue to variations in research results, the jury is still out on exactly

when true imitation begins, although it seems clear that some

forms of imitation begin very early in life.

C

ertain characteristics of neonates mesh with parental behavior to

help produce a social relationship between child and parent, as

well as social relationships with others.

Page 49: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SOCIAL COMPETENCE: RESPONDING TO OTHERS

S

tates of arousal Different degrees of sleep and wakefulness

through which newborns cycle, ranging from deep sleep to

great agitation

Page 50: Child development chapter 4, paduano

SOCIAL INTERACTION FACTORS