chemistry and toxicology for nurses by philip asher

8/14/2019 Chemistry and Toxicology for Nurses by Philip Asher

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CHEMISTRYand , ; -, ^

TOXICOLOGY /or

BYPHILIP ASHER, Ph. G., M. D.

DEAN AND PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT THE NEW ORLEANS COLLEGEOF PHARMACY, NEW ORLEANS

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDONW. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY

1914


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L.itOGtLIBRA

G I FT PAG I FIG GOA JRNALOF NURSING TO H/3^ OEPT,;

Copyright, 1914, by W. B. Saunders Company

PRINTED IN AMERICA

PRESS OFW. B. 8AUNDER8 COMPANY

PHILADELPHIA


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PREFACEIN offering this volume to that class of noble and sacri-

ficing women who are to devote their life's work to theaid of suffering humanity and to assist the physicianin his labors, the author feels that a work of this smallcompass may be of service to them in the better under-standing of the many problems with which they maybe brought in daily contact. If, with all its simplicity,it be found of service to the great number following thesefields of endeavor and they gain such information aswill be of practical service to them, the author feelsthat his efforts will have been well repaid. It has beenhis constant aim to make this work as instructive asits compactness will permit, and his object has been tokeep constantly before the student its practical import,so that this little volume may also be her companionafter leaving her home of instruction.The author was for a long time undecided to take upthis task, but upon the earnest solicitation of his friends,thoroughly conversant with nursing, as to the need ofa book of such elementary character, this work was un-dertaken. Yet, notwithstanding such encouragement,he feels that an apology is due for the very element-ary nature of this work, and requests the reader to bearin mind that the treatise is not intended as a text-bookof this most interesting science, with its many ramifica-

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6 PREFACEtions, but merely as an aid to those taking up the studyof Nursing, and if a more thorough knowledge of tnesubject is desired, it is advised that some of the numer-ous works upon chemistry be consulted.Under the captions of those substances which are

used in medicine there is given their medicinal proper-ties, doses, and uses. No attempt has been made togive exact atomic and molecular weights, which havebeen rounded off to whole numbers. The text containsformulae of compounds, which are added not with aview of abbreviation, but to familiarize the studentwith them.

Chemical equations are given with only the moreimportant reactions, and, in a number of instances,with no intention of having the student study them,but merely as illustrations.

PHILIP ASHER.NEW ORLEANS, LA.,

October, 1914.


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CONTENTSPAGE

INTRODUCTION nNOMENCLATURE 12PART I

NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS 22Hydrogen 22Oxygen 23Ozone 25Water 26Hydrogen Peroxid or Hydrogen Dioxid 30Nitrogen 31Ammonia 32Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen 34Nitrogen Monoxid 34Nitrogen Dioxid or Nitric Acid 35Nitric Acid 35The Air or Atmosphere 37Carbon 38

Silicon 45Boron 45Sulphur 47Phosphorus 52

Halogens 58Chlorin 59lodin 62Bromin 65Fluorin 66Acids of the Halogens 67METALLIC ELEMENTS 68

Alkali Metals 71Potassium and Sodium 72

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8 CONTENTSPAGE

Lithium ............................. ...... ............. 80Ammonium Compounds .................................. 80Alkaline Earth Metals .................................... 82Calcium ........... , .................................... 82Strontium .................. ............................. 84Barium................................................. 85Magnesium ........... . ................................. 86Aluminum .............................................. 87Iron......................... . .......................... 89Manganese .............................................. 93Chromium .............................................. 95Nickel.......................................... ........ 96Cobalt .................................................. 97Zinc.................................................... 97

99Copper ................................................. 102Bismuth ................................................ 104Silver ................................. ................. 107Mercury................................................ 109Arsenic .................................................. 114Antimony............................................... 1 16

PART IICHEMISTRY OF CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 119

Halogen Derivatives, or Haloid Ethers 1 23Alcohols 125Aldehyds 128Ketones 130Sulphur Derivatives 131Ethers 131Organic Acids 134Dibasic Acids 136Amino-acids 139Amins 140Aromatic, Closed Chain, or Cyclic Hydrocarbons 141Isomeric Compounds of the Aromatic Hydrocarbons 144Heterocyclic Hydrocarbons 150Terpenes 151Carbohydrates 153Alkaloids 155


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CONTENTS 9PART III PAGE

PHYSIOLOGIC CHEMISTRY 161Proteins 161Milk 164Urine 168

Pathologic Constituents of Urine and Tests 172

INDEX. . 181


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CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGYFOR NURSESINTRODUCTION '- : - > -

CHEMISTRY is the science that teaches of the ele-ments and their compounds, and investigates the lawsof their combinations.Elements are those particles of matter that, up to

the present time, have not been reduced to simplerones. For example, oxygen is said to be an elementbecause, no matter how it may be treated, it cannot bereduced any further. The same is true of iron and theother elements. Water, on the other hand, is a com-pound because we are able to decompose it into twoelements, viz., hydrogen and oxygen.

ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE BODYCarbon 13.5 per cent.Hydrogen 9.1 Nitrogen 2.5 Oxygen 72.0

These constitute about 97 per cent, of the total bodyweight; the other 3 per cent, is divided in various pro-portions among the following elements: Phosphorus,

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12 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSEScalcium, sulphur, sodium, potassium, chlorin, fluoriniron, silicon, magnesium, and arsenic.The elements are divided into two classes : the metals

and the non-metals; the former usually forming thebases of compounds, and the latter entering into theformation of yf.ds. ;I/T&& i elements are expressed by symbols. Symbolsare either single letters or two letters signifying theelement they represent. For instance, is the symbolof oxygen; it is the initial letter of that word. Thecommoner elements are usually expressed by a singleletter, but when one element has the same initial letteras another element its difference is shown by adding asmall letter to the initial letter of the element. Forexample, carbon is expressed by C, while calcium is Ca,and cobalt is Co.The elements combine to form compounds which are

divided into two main classes the organic and in-organic. NOMENCLATURE

Before the student can understand the study ofchemistry, a knowledge of how the compounds arenamed is necessary.The compounds are divided into a great number of

classes, of which the acids and salts constitute a largemajority.

Acids are defined as those substances which possessa sour taste and have the property of changing vegetable


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14 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESthe preceding acid; H2S02 is hyposulphurous acid andcontains one atom of oxygen less than sulphurous andtwo atoms less than the sulphimc. The ic acidsform salts ending in ate ; the ous acids ending inite ; while the hypo ous acids form the hypo -ites. Thus, e. g., sulphuric acid forms sulphates;sulphurous acid forms sulphites; while hyposulphurousacid produces hyposulphites.From a strictly theoretic point of view, all acids,

whether binary or oxyacids, are divided in two parts:the replaceable hydrogen and the acid radical.

Replaceable hydrogen is THAT HYDROGEN that an acidcontains which can be replaced by a metal or base.When an acid acts upon a metal an evolution of a gas isnoticed; this gas is the replaceable hydrogen given offby the acid.

All acids contain hydrogen, but all the hydrogen ofall acids cannot be replaced. Sulphuric acid, H2SO4,contains two atoms of hydrogen, both of which can bereplaced. Acetic acid, HC2H3O2 , contains four atomsof hydrogen, only one of which can be replaced. Forconvenience the number of replaceable hydrogens anacid contains is shown by placing them at the beginningof the formula:

H2SO4 H3PO4 HN03 HC3H3O2Sulphuric Phosphoric Nitric Acetic acid,acid. acid. acid.

Acid Radicle. Radicles are groups of unsaturatedelements playing the part of single elements. Radicles


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NOMENCLATURE 15cannot exist by themselves, only in combination, asnothing exists, from the chemical aspect, unless allits bonds or valencies are satisfied. The graphicformula of sulphuric acid, or the formula which por-trays how each element in a compound is joinedto the other, is H Ox ^O

/SCH


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16 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESor combining power of elements is usually expressedby dashes or Roman numerals placed over their sym-bols, thus:

i ' iij// iii /// v viH or H O or O N or O P SValencies are also represented graphically, each dashindicating a valence or bond, as shown in the followingexamples:

N or N=If O were combined with one H, one of the

bonds of O would remain unsaturated or unsatisfied,thus: H . Under such a condition a compoundcannot exist. If the remaining bond of O were takenup or combined with H, it would form H H.Here all the bonds are saturated or satisfied, and thecompound H2O, or water, results.

Iron and sulphur each has two bonds, and, theirvalencies being equal, they combine in equal volumes:Fe=S or FeS.But where the valencies of the elements are different,

they combine in unequal volumes. If we take Bi(bismuth), which has three bonds, and S (sulphur),which has two bonds, it will be readily understoodthat were equal volumes of each element taken, onebond of the Bi would remain unsatisfied, thus: Bill5 .As many volumes of S should be taken as there arebonds of Bi, namely, 3, and as many volumes of Bi


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NOMENCLATURE 17should be taken as there are bonds of S, namely, 2, soas to satisfy all the bonds, thus:Bi==S /// /

yS, which, reduced to the ordinary formula, is 1^283.Bi-SSalts are acids in which all or part of the replace-

able hydrogen has been replaced by a metal or base,and may also be regarded as a combination of eithera metal or a base with an acid radicle. If all the Hin H2S04 were replaced by sodium (Na), it wouldform sodium sulphate, Na2SC>4, while if only one of thehydrogen was replaced, sodium bisulphate, or acidsulphate, NaHSO4 , would be the result. The methodof obtaining the correct formula of any salt will beshown by the following examples:

It is desired to know the formula of potassium phos-phite. The symbol of potassium is K, and it has avalence of one, or, as it is frequently expressed, it hasone bond. As was shown under the oxyacids, the ousacids form salts ending in ite ; and as a phosphateis desired, phosphorus acid must be taken.H3P0 4 is phosphoric acid, and it was shown abovethat an ous acid contains one atom of oxygen less thanthe ic acid, so the formula of phosphorus acid is///H3PO3 , removing the replaceable hydrogen (PO3) re-mains, having a valence of three, as the valence ofan acid is known by its number of replaceable hy-drogen.


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1 8 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESThe next step is to combine the metal or base with

the acid radicle. In this case it is the K with the///

(PO3), but it will be observed that each of these valen-cies differ, so that as many parts of the base or metalare taken as the valency of the acid radicle, whichis three, and as many of the acid radicles are taken asthere are bonds in the metal, which is one. Com-bining these in the proportions just outlined gives/ ///us a formula of K3(PO3). In the example just shownit is not absolutely necessary to place the (PO3) inparentheses, but examples will be shown in which it ismost essential. It is desired to know the formula ofbismuth hyposulphite. Bi is bismuth and it has threebonds. To produce a hyposulphite requires hypo-sulphurous acid, which has two atoms of oxygen lessthan H2SO4 , making it H2S02 ; its acid radicle will beft(802); combining these as indicated above gives us/// //Bi2(SO2)3. Two of the Bi were taken because the acidradicle has two bonds, and three of the acid radicleswere used because Bi has three bonds.Where the metal and acid radicle have the same

valence, only one part of each need be taken. Copper// //sulphate is Cu(SO4), as it will be seen that in this case//both the copper and the acid radicle (864) each havethe same valence.

Bases. The term base has several meanings.It is commonly defined in works on chemistry as a


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NOMENCLATURE 19substance which is soluble in water and will turn redlitmus blue, and which, when combined with acids,forms salts.

In the definition of a salt, given above, the termbase has a somewhat different meaning, and appliesto those groups of radicles with properties opposite toacid radicles. Under the Chemistry of the CarbonCompounds (q. v.) t ethane is shown to have theformula C2H6 .

If one H is removed, the radicle, residue, or base/

ethyl (C2H 5) remains. This combines with acidradicles, forming salts similarly to the above:

(C2H5)C1, (C2H5)N03 , (C2H5) 2S04Ethyl ehlorid. Ethyl nitrate. Ethyl sulphate.

r(NEQ is the radicle ammonium, and is the base ofthe ammonium compounds, and, when combined withacid radicles, it forms salts:

(NHJCl, (NH4)N03 , (NHJ2SO,Ammonium ehlorid. Ammonium nitrate. Ammonium sulphate.Atomic Weight. In the formula of H2SO4 the ele-

ments composing it are to be regarded as if they existby volume, and that there are two volumes of H, oneof S, and four of O, provided each element was in thegaseous state.

In considering the weight of each element in H^SCXwe find a great difference. If equal volumes of H and


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20 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESO were taken, the weight of each volume would be dif-ferent. Since hydrogen is the lightest substance known,it is taken as the standard, and it would be found thatan equal volume of oxygen would weigh sixteen timesmore than hydrogen. It will also be found that whenelements combine with one another they do so in pro-portion to their atomic weight, based upon the valenceof one. Atomic weight may then be denned as theweight of an element compared to the weight of anequal volume of hydrogen or the relative weight whichelements combine with one another, based upon thevalence of one.

Molecular Weight. When two or more atoms com-bine they form molecules, and the combined weight ofthese atoms is known as molecular weight. In H2SO4we have two volumes of H with an atomic weight ofone for each of the H, or two for both; sulphur has anatomic weight of thirty-two; and the four O, each withan atomic weight of sixteen, or sixty-four; the sum ofthese will be ninety-eight, or we state that the molecularweight of H2S04 is ninety-eight.

Chemistry deals only with material things, such aswe may appreciate by the various senses. Hence,matter is defined as anything occupying space. Itmay be either visible or invisible. Iron is matter whichcan be seen; but we are constantly surrounded bymatter which cannot be seen, the air; yet it is matterbecause it occupies space.


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NOMENCLATURE 21Matter is divided according to its size into masses,

molecules, and atoms.A mass is a large aggregation of molecules.A molecule is the smallest particle of matter that canexist by itself, and it is composed of at least two atoms.An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can

exist even in combination, and as two or more atomsproduce a molecule, atoms do not exist in the free state.


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OXYGEN 23Properties. It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless

gas. It is a non-supporter of life and combustion, andwhen ignited combines with oxygen to form water.Under cold and pressure it can be liquefied and alsoconverted into the solid state. It is the lightest sub-stance known, and on this account is taken as theunit of atomic weight and density of gases. Its densitycompared to air is .0692. One liter at o C. (32 F.)and barometric pressure of 760 mm. weighs .0896 gm.;100 cubic inches weigh 2.26 gr. When mixed with airor oxygen and ignited it combines with explosive force,so that care must be exercised in seeing that all theoxygen is out of the generator before igniting it.

OXYGENSymbol, O; Atomic weight, 16; Molecular weight, 32; Density, 16;

Valence, 2.

Discovered by Priestly in 1774 and about the sametime by Scheele, but independently of the former dis-coverer. It was called oxygen, from oxus, an acid, andgennao, to generate, from the belief that it was essentialto all acids, but, as has been shown under Binary Acids,these contain no oxygen.

Occurrence in Nature. Oxygen is found in the at-mosphere, of which it constitutes about one-fifth byvolume. It forms between 33 and 45 per cent, of theearth's crust. It is contained in water, forming one-third by volume and eight-ninths of it by weight. It


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24 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESis also found throughout the animal and vegetablekingdoms.

Preparation. At one time it was largely made byheating potassium chlorate; and when made by thismethod and was to be used for medicinal purposes itwas freed from the accompanying chlorin by passingit through flasks containing a solution of sodium hy-droxid and then through water.

KC1O3 3O + KC1Potassium chlorate. Potassium cblorid.

Since electricity is cheaply obtained today, it isused to decompose water, as shown under Hydrogen.

Properties. It is a colorless, odorless, and tastelessgas, which under cold and pressure may be both lique-fied and solidified. It combines with all elements ex-cept fluorin, which up to the present time has not beencombined with it, either directly or indirectly. Waterdissolves about 3 per cent, of it by volume and itssolution in water is of great importance. Water thathas stood in a warm place loses its dissolved oxygenand possesses a flat taste, and can be revivified by pass-ing it from one vessel to another. Its presence enablesfish to live in water, as these animals breathe it throughtheir gills. It also serves as a purifying agent by burn-ing up the organic impurities that may be contained inwater. This is why a running stream that has hadsewerage emptied into it may, within a few miles fromthe source of contamination, be found to be practically


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OZONE 25free of same. It is a supporter of life and combustion,as nothing can live nor burn without it. Hence, to cutoff its supply would extinguish both life and flame.

Uses. It is largely used today in those diseases wherean insufficiency of it is supplied to the system. It isalso used to resuscitate persons after drowning, and ismore beneficial in such cases than artificial respiration.

OZONEttr

Symbol, 0; Valence, 3; Molecular weight, 48.This is an allotropic form of oxygen, and is produced

when non-luminous electric discharges are passedthrough oxygen. It may also be called condensed oxy-gen. In its production three molecules of oxygen arecondensed to form two molecules of ozone, according tothe following equation:

it ///3O3 = 2O3

It differs from oxygen by possessing a disagreeableodor, from which its name was derived (0ms, meaningstench), and by being more active in its chemical be-havior than oxygen. Substances that are not affectedby oxygen are readily decomposed by it. At one timethe popular belief was that it was contained in countryair, but this was shown to be erroneous. It was alsosupposed to possess disinfectant properties, but this hasnot been verified by experiment, and recent researcheshave shown that the quantity sufficient to do so has


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26 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESan irritating and harmful effect upon persons inhalingit. A simple test for its presence is to expose starchedpaper, moistened with potassium iodid; the ozoneliberates the iodin from the potassium iodid, and theiodin, in turn, acts upon the starch, turning it blue.This test, however, is not only true of ozone, but isalso produced by other substances. When lightningpasses through the atmosphere it produces ozone. Itis also made by exposing moist phosphorus to the air.

Allotropism. We have seen that oxygen and ozoneare composed of the same substance, yet possess differ-ent properties. When such a condition is met inchemistry the name allotropism is applied to it, whichis defined as that property that elements possess ofexisting in two or more forms and exhibiting differentphysical properties. The molecule of oxygen has twoatoms, while ozone has three.

WATERFormula, H2O; Molecular weight, 18; Density in gaseous condi-

tion, 9.

Sources. Water is widely distributed throughoutthe animal and vegetable kingdoms. The human bodyis composed of about seven-tenths of it. In potatoeswe find about 75 per cent., and in watermelons asmuch as 94 per cent.

It is found in the air as fog, rain, dew, and snow. Inthe liquid form it is found in wells, springs, rivers, lakes,seas, and oceans.


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WATER 27Forms. It exists in the three states of matter: gas,

liquid, and solid.In its solid form it is known as ice; in the gaseous state

it exists as vapor or steam. It is composed of two vol-umes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. It boilsat 100 C. (212 F.), freezes at o C. (32 F.), and reachesits point of maximum density at 4 C. (39 F.). Atthe latter temperature a given volume of water willweigh more than it does at any other temperature.When water is cooled below 39 F. it expands in

volume until 32 F. is reached. In this respect itforms an exception to the rule that heat expands andcold contracts. It is a poor conductor of heat andelectricity.Water is divided into two classes: hard and soft. A

water that does not readily lather with soap is termedhard; while one that will, is called soft. The hardwaters are further subdivided into two other classes:the temporary and permanent (hard). The former, asits name implies, can have its hardness removed,either by boiling or chemical means, while the lattercannot.The hardness of the temporary hard water is princi-

pally due to calcium bicarbonate, while the permanentowes its property largely to calcium sulphate, but othersubstances may also play some part.

Its function in the body, according to Dr. GilmanThompson, can be summarized as follows:


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28 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSES(1) It enters into the chemical combination of the

tissues.(2) It forms the chief ingredient of all fluids of the

body and maintains their degree of dilution.(3) By moistening various surfaces of the body, such

as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents fric-tion and the uncomfortable symptoms that might resultfrom their drying.

(4) It furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid mediumby which the food may be taken to remote parts of thebody and the waste material removed, thus producingrapid tissue changes.

(5) It serves as a distributor of body heat.(6) It regulates the body temperature by the physical

processes of absorption and evaporation.The amount eliminated daily from the body is about

3 liters, distributed as follows: Exhalation from thelungs, 20 per cent. ; cutaneous perspiration, 30 per cent. ;and by the urine and feces, 50 per cent.Water has been found to be the source by which

disease has been conveyed, and should never be usedwhen there is the faintest suspicion of its purity, unlessit has been thoroughly boiled. This absolutely killsall germs that may be contained in it. It should bestored for use in bottles which have been thoroughlycleaned by boiling, and which unless so treated wouldonly contaminate the water placed in them.


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WATER 29Drinking-water. A good drinking-water is one that

is free from color, odor and taste, and practically freefrom organic matter. This latter substance, if it is con-tained in a running stream, is burnt up by the oxygencontained in it.

Mineral Waters. This class of waters has beenvery much abused, and their real virtues, in the majorityof cases, do not depend upon their constituents so muchas upon the psychologic effect and the large amountsconsumed.They are defined as waters containing some abnormal

constituent or those that contain an excess of a normalconstituent. If a water contains arsenic, bromin,sulphur, or any ingredient that is not found in ordinarywater, it can be placed in the former class; but if itshould contain an excess of sodium chlorid, carbon di-oxid, substances usually found in the average water, itbelongs to the latter class. They are classified accord-ing to their predominating constituents: such asbitter waters, containing large quantities of magnesiumsalts; iron or chalybeate waters, containing sulphate orbicarbonate of iron; sulphur waters, containing sodiumor hydrogen sulphid; effervescent waters, containingcarbon dioxid.

Distilled Water. This is a water obtained by boilingwater, rejecting the first portion of the distillate (con-taining the volatile or gaseous impurities, such as chlorin,ammonia, and hydrogen sulphid), and preserving the


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30 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESbalance. The distillation is not carried to completion,as the solid impurities must be left behind.Water of crystallization is that water that some

substances contain and to which they owe their crystal-line form. Copperas is FeSO 4.ioH2O, and its crystal-line form is due to the 10 molecules of water of crystal-lization it contains. If it were exposed to air or heated,it would lose its crystalline form and fall to a powder.This does not imply that all chemicals of a crystallinenature owe such form to water of crystallization; thereare numerous substances that possess a crystallineform without containing any water of crystallization;for instance, boric, salicylic, and tartaric acids, potas-sium bromid and iodid, and a host of others. Sub-stances that absorb moisture from the air and becomeliquid are termed deliquescent. Those that give up theirwater of crystallization upon exposure to the air orby heat, and become pulverous, are termed efflorescent,exsiccated, dried, or anhydrous.

HYDROGEN PEROXID OR HYDROGEN DIOXIDFormula, H2O9 ; Molecular weight, 44.This substance is made by the action of acids upon

certain metallic dioxids. For commercial purposesbarium dioxid and sulphuric acid are used, and the H2 2is filtered off of the insoluble barium sulphate.

BaO2 + H2SO4 = HA + BaSO4Barium dioxid. Barium sulphate.


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NITROGEN 31The pure substance is an oily liquid, colorless, soluble

in water, alcohol, and ether. A solution containing 50per cent, is used by dentists for bleaching the teeth.The official solution of H2 2 is Aqua hydrogenii dioxidi,contains 3 per cent, by weight of H2O2 , and yields 10volumes of oxygen. As it readily undergoes decom-position, it is preserved by the addition of small amountsof acetanilid.

It possesses bleaching and antiseptic properties.It produces an effervescence with pus and other organicmatter due to its liberation of oxygen.A delicate test for its presence is to place in a test-tube a few drops of a solution of potassium dichromate,K2Cr2O7 , followed by a few drops of H2SO 4 and a layerof ether, then add the liquid suspected of containing theH2O2 or a dioxid and shake. The ethereal layer willturn blue.

NITROGENSymbol, N; Atomic weight, 14; Molecular weight, 28; Density, 14;

Valence, i, 3, 5.Occurrence in Nature. This substance is found un-

combined in the atmosphere, of which it constitutesfour-fifths by volume. It also occurs in the animaland some of the vegetable kingdom and in mineraldeposits, as either potassium or sodium nitrates.

Preparation. It can be prepared by burning phos-phorus under a bell-jar. This removes the oxygenfrom the air, leaving N. It is also prepared chemically


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32 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESby heating a solution of ammonium chlorid with sodiumnitrite.

NH4C1 + NaNO2 = 2N + NaCl + 2H2OAmmonium Sodium Sodium chlorid.chlorid. nitrite.

Properties. It is a colorless, odorless, and tastelessgas, which under cold and pressure can be both lique-fied and solidified. It is a non-supporter of life andcombustion. It forms an essential constituent of alarge number of animal and some vegetable substances,and is necessary for both animal and plant life. Itsuse in the air is to dilute the oxygen. In body buildingand repair the nitrogen of protein food plays a very im-portant part. In the other bodily functions nitrogenis not utilized.

AMMONIAFormula, NH3 ; Molecular weight, 17; Density, 8.5.This compound is constantly being formed in nature

through the decomposition of organic matter chieflyanimal, such as flesh, blood, urine, etc. It is also pro-duced during the process of destructive distillation, whichis heating organic matter in large retorts to a high heat,without the access of air, whereby the original sub-stance is destroyed and new compounds produced, whichare collected in proper receivers. In the manufactureof illuminating gas, coal is subjected to this process,and the nitrogen contained in the coal is converted intoammonia. This is largely the source of the ammoniumcompounds of commerce.


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AMMONIA 33Ammonia is always obtained when any ammonium

compound is heated with the caustic alkalis or alkalineearths.

NH4C1 + KOH = NH3 + KC1 + H2OAmmonium Potassium Potassiumchlorid. hydroxid. chlorid.

(NHJ 2SO4 + Ca(OH) 2 = 2NH3 + CaSO4 + 2H2OAmmonium Calcium Calciumsulphate. hydroxid. sulphate.

Properties. It is a colorless gas with a very pungentodor, an alkaline taste, and strong alkaline reaction.Like other gases, it can be liquefied and solidified. Itis exceedingly soluble in water, which at ordinary tem-perature dissolves over seven hundred times its ownvolume of the gas. Its solution in water producesammonia-water, of which two strengths are official inthe U. S. P.: Aqua ammonia, containing 10 per cent,by weight of the gas, and Aqua ammoniafortior, contain-ing 28 per cent. Ammonia combines directly with acids,forming the ammonium compounds, in which nitrogenis pentavalent, or has a valence of five.

Toxicology. Ammonia-water is a caustic. When itis taken internally, organic acids in the form of vinegaror lemon-juice should be administered, followed bydemulcent drinks and bland oils. No emetic need begiven, as the neutralized ammonium compounds pro-duced are harmless. If the caustic effect is extensivethere is danger of rupture, produced by vomiting.


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34 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESCOMPOUNDS OF NITROGEN AND OXYGEN

Five distinct compounds of nitrogen and oxygen areknown. Some of these are unimportant to those fol-lowing the medical sciences, but are of great industrialimportance in the chemical world.

CompositionBy weight. By volume.

Nitrogen monoxid ... .


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NITRIC ACID 35NITROGEN DIOXID OR NITRIC OXID

Formula, NO or N2O2 ; Molecular weight, 30; Density, 15.Properties. A colorless gas which, upon exposure to

air or oxygen, forms a poisonous suffocating gas of deep-red color, due to its change to nitrogen tetroxid or peroxid,NzO*. It is prepared by the action of nitric acid uponmetals or such substances that reduce the HNO3 .

3Cu -f 8HNO3 = 3Cu(NO3) 2 + 2ND + 4H2ONitric acid. Copper nitrate.

Nitrogen Trioxid (N2O3).- It is yet doubtful whetherthis gas exists. When arsenous oxid is treated withnitric acid, a gas of the above composition is produced,but it is regarded as a mixture of equal volumes of N2O2and N2O 4 .

Nitrogen pentoxid (N2O 5) is a solid which, upon theaddition of water, forms nitric acid and is of scientificinterest only.

NITRIC ACID (Acidum Nitricum)Formula, HNO3 ; Molecular weight, 63.This acid is found, in nature, combined with potas-

sium, known as niter or saltpeter; also with sodium,as Chili saltpeter. These compounds are producedby the action of certain bacteria, converting the am-monia, produced by the decomposition of nitrogenousorganic matter, into nitrous and, ultimately, into nitricacid.


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36 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESPreparation. Usually prepared commercially by the

action of sulphuric acid upon potassium or sodiumnitrate. 2KNO3 -f H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2HNO3

Potassium Potassiumnitrate. sulphate.

Properties. It is a colorless, corrosive liquid; whenexposed to the air it gives off vapors of a peculiar suffo-cating odor, and it is a powerful oxidizing agent. Theofficial acid contains 68 per cent, by weight of HNOsand 32 per cent, water. The dilute nitric acid contains10 per cent, of absolute HNOs. The acid is whollyvolatilized by heat, stains animal matter yellow, anddestroys tissue. lodin forms a stain somewhat similarin color, which can be told from stains produced byHNO3 by becoming lighter in color or entirely disappear-ing when treated with ammonia-water, while HNO3under like conditions turns an orange color. The acidis monobasic; that is, has but one replaceable hydrogen,forming with metals or bases the nitrates. All nitratesare soluble in water and, consequently, the test for it orits salts cannot be made by precipitation, as is com-monly done with other acids. The dilute acid is madeby taking 10 parts by weight of the strong acid andadding to it 58 parts of water. All the official diluteacids contain 10 per cent, of absolute acid, except diluteacetic, which contains 6 per cent., and dilute hydrocy-anic acid, which contains 2 per cent.

Tests. In a test-tube is placed some strong H2S0 4


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THE AIR OR ATMOSPHERE 37and to this (the tube being held in a slanting position, soas not to mix the solutions) a solution of ferrous sul-phate, FeS0 4 , is added; then a few drops of the sub-stance to be tested. The tube is gently tapped, so asto bring the suspected liquid in contact with the H2SO4 ,and a reddish-brown zone at the point of contact of thetwo liquids indicates HNO3 , or a nitrate.

THE AIR OR ATMOSPHEREThis is essentially a mixture of about 77 volumes of

nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and contains, in addition tothese, from .03 to .04 part of carbon dioxid, from 0.5to 1.4 parts of aqueous vapor, with traces of NH3 ,HN03 , and HNO2 .That the air is a mixture and not a compound can

readily be shown by simple experiments. If somephosphorus is burned under a bell-jar placed overwater, it will burn as long as oxygen is present. Asthe oxygen is being removed the water will rise in thebell-jar and will show approximately the volume ofoxygen that has been removed. If air is shaken withlime-water, Ca(OH) 2 , the latter becomes cloudy, dueto the CO2 of the atmosphere forming calcium car-bonate, CaCO3 , with it.

It is claimed that the air envelops the earth, rangingfrom 50 to 200 miles in height. It exerts a pressureupon every part of the earth's surface of about 15(accurately 14.7) Ibs. to the square inch. This pres-


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38 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESsure is sufficient to maintain a column of mercury 30inches high or water 32.4 feet.

CARBONSymbol, C.; Atomic weight, 12.Occurrence in Nature. This element is a constituent

of all organic matter. In the pure state it exists in threeallotropic modifications, viz., in the crystalline state, asdiamond and graphite, and in the amorphous state invarious forms, as charcoal, bone-black, lamp-black, etc.It is found as calcium carbonate in limestone, oystershell, marble, and coral; as carbon dioxid in the atmo-sphere and water. The diamond is the purest form ofcarbon. It is crystalline, insoluble in all substances,and infusible, but if sufficiently heated in a current ofpure oxygen it will burn. It is the hardest naturalsubstance .known and is used for drilling and cuttingglass.

Graphite, black lead , plumbago, is a black, metallic-looking substance, very soft, with an unctuous orslippery feel, and leaves a black mark when drawnacross paper. It is employed in the manufacture oflead pencils, as a lubricant, and as a protective agent,preventing oxidation of surfaces with which it is coated.Amorphous carbon exists in various forms, as lamp-

black, charcoal, and bone-black. Charcoal and bone-black are obtained as residues in the destructive distilla-tion of wood and bones. They are of an intensely


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40 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESAnother method of making it is by treating any

carbonate with any acid.CaCO3 + 2HC1 = CO3 + CaCl 2 + H2OCalcium Calciumcarbonate. chlorid.

Carbon dioxid is formed through decay of organicmatter. It is produced by the respiration; the inhaledair absorbed in the lungs by the blood combines withthe carbon of the system, forming CO2 . Its presencecan be shown by blowing into lime-water. It produceswith the latter a cloudiness, due to the formation ofcalcium carbonate. The exhaled air contains 4 per cent,by volume of CC>2, which is one hundred times morethan is contained in fresh air. CO2 is contained in airto the extent of about 4 volumes in 10,000. It is con-tained in spring-waters, but some of it escapes as it risesto the surface. C02 is always formed during the processof fermentation.

Properties. It is a colorless gas, having a slight acidtaste with little odor. Under cold and pressure it canbe liquefied and solidified. The liquid C02 is largelyused to make the so-called soda water and also forfreezing specimens in making anatomic and pathologicsections. The solid CO2 is known as C02 snow andis used as a cauterizing agent. The gas is about oneand a half times heavier than air. It is a non-supportorof life and combustion, 10 per cent, being sufficient toextinguish flame. One volume of cold water dissolves


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42 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESCarbonates. These may be considered as carbonicacid in which one or both of its hydrogens have been

replaced by metals or bases.HHCOs (another way of showing the formula of

acids), replacing one of the hydrogens by Na, wouldproduce NaHCO3 ; bicarbonate or acid carbonate ofsodium replacing both the hydrogens, forming Na, Na-CO3 (sodium carbonate), or Na2CO3 .

Test for Carbonates. Any carbonate or bicarbonatetreated with an acid produces an effervescence of CO2 ,which, when passed into lime-water, produces a tur-bidity of CaCO3 .

Solution of barium chlorid added to a solution of a car-bonate produces a white precipitate of barium carbon-ate, BaC03 , wholly soluble, with effervescence, in HC1.

Carbon Monoxid, Carbonic Oxid (Formula, CO;Molecular Weight, 28; Density, 14). Carbon, as ageneral rule, has a valence of 4, but in carbon monoxidthe valence is 2.

Properties. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas,a non-supporter of life and combustion, and burns witha blue flame, forming CO2 . Almost insoluble in water.Poisonous when inhaled, forming with the blood carbonmonoxid hemoglobin. Blood containing carbon monoxidhemoglobin is bright red and, when examined with thespectroscope, presents bands characteristic to oxy-hemoglobin, but which can be distinguished from thelatter by not being changed by reducing agents.


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CARBON DIOXID 43Toxicology In. poisoning by CO, remove any gas

present in the lungs by inhalations of O or by artificialrespiration. If this fails, transfusion of blood may beresorted to. Stimulants and iron may also be given.

Preparation. CO is formed when C02 is passed overheated carbon. The blue flame playing around a coalfire is the CO burning.

C02 + c - 2COIt is also prepared by the action of strong H2S04

upon oxalic acid.H2C2O4 + (H2SOJ = CO -|- CO2 + H2O

Oxalic acid.

The sulphuric acid, in the above reaction, being a power-ful dehydrating agent, removes the elements of water,H and 0, from the oxalic acid.The compounds of C and H are quite numerous;

they will be considered under Organic Chemistry.Cyanogen (Formula, (CN) 2 ; Molecular Weight, 52;Density, 26). This is a colorless, poisonous gas, burn-

ing with a peach-colored flame, producing CO2 andliberating N.

Preparation. It is made by heating mercury cyanid.2Hg(CN) 2 = 2Hg + 2(CN) 2

Mercury cyanid.

Hydrocyanic Acid, Prussic Acid (Formula, HCN;Molecular Weight 27). This acid does not exist innature in the free condition, but is produced from such


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44 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESsubstances as wild cherry bark, bitter almonds, andpeach kernels, when acted upon by water. In reality,this is due to the glucosid, amygdalin, contained inthem, being acted upon by the ferment, emulsin. Thepure acid is never found in commerce. It is a color-less liquid of a characteristic penetrating odor, resem-bling bitter almonds, readily soluble in water.It is made commercially by the interaction betweenH2SO4 and potassium ferrocyanid. The dilute acid,as found in pharmacy, Acidum hydrocyanicum dilutum,contains 2 per cent, by weight of absolute HCN; itreadily deteriorates within a short time and, on thisaccount, should be made extemporaneously by treatingsilver cyanid with HC1.

AgCN + HCl = HCN + AgClSilver cyanid. Silver chlorid.

Toxicology. As poisoning by HCN and the solublecyanids is so rapid in its effect, very little can be done,but if the patient survives an hour there is some hope.The treatment consists of cold affusions, NHs, galvan-ism, stimulants, and atropin. Smith's antidote, com-posed of ferrous and ferric salts in the presence of al-kaline carbonates, may be of service, forming the in-soluble Prussian blue, followed by emetics. H2O2 hasalso been proposed.

Uses. Phthisis, cough, asthma, and gastralgia. Dose,i to 3 minims, well diluted.


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BORON 45SILICON

Symbol, Si; Atomic weight, 28; Valence, 4.This element is widely distributed in nature in the

form of silica, Si02, such as sand, quartz, rock crystal,and flint, almost in pure form. As silicates, combinedwith various metals, as Mg, Ca, and K, it constitutesthe rocks of which the earth's crust is so largely com-posed. It is also found in certain plants and feathers,to which it gives strength.

Liquid glass is a solution of sodium silicate, which isused for fixing surgical dressings. Glass is a mixture ofvarious silicates. When silica is highly heated it fuses,and this fused silicaware can be heated to redness andthrust into ice-water without breaking, and is largelyemployed for chemical apparatus.

BORONSymbol, B; Atomic weight, u; Valence, 3.This element occurs principally in combination as

boric acid, H3B03 , and borax, Na2B 407.ioH2O.Boric Acid (HsBOs). This is a white crystalline sub-

stance found naturally in pools of water, which collectthe acid from steam jets issuing from earth fissures andpassing through it. It is obtained by concentration ofthe solution.

Properties. Soluble in 18 parts of H20, about 16 partsof alcohol, and 5 parts of glycerin. It is antiseptic.When heated to 100 C. (212 F.) it loses water and is


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46 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESconverted into metaboric acid; heated to 160 C. (320 F.)it forms a glass-like mass of tetraboric acid, the acidcorresponding to borax. Boric acid is obtained byadding HC1 to a hot saturated solution of borax.

NajjBA + 2HC1 + SH2O = 4H3BO4 + 2NaClBoric acid is a weak acid, and the alkaline boratesshow strong alkaline reaction to litmus. When alcohol

is added to H3BO3 and ignited, it burns with a charac-teristic green flame.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. Boric acid is an anti-septic. It is seldom used internally, but when so used,may be given in doses of from 5 to 30 gr.

It is used principally externally as an antisepticwash, or in the several official preparations containingit, viz., Glycerite of boroglycerite, which is made by com-bining in chemical proportion glycerin and boric acidand adding an equal weight of glycerin. Boric acidointment, containing 10 per cent, of the acid in a mix-ture of petrolatum and paraffin. It is also contained inthe Liqwr antisepticus and Cataplasma kaolini, officialpreparations intended to replace the largely advertisedarticles on the market.

Ortho-, Meta-, and Pyro-acids. Ortho-acid. Fromthe Greek orthos, meaning straight, normal, or regular.The regular or common acids are also termed ortho-acids.

Meta-acids. A meta-acid is regarded as one molecule


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SULPHUR 47of an ortho-acid from which one molecule of water hasbeen removed:

H3BO3 H2O = HBO2Normal or Metabolic

orthoboric acid. acid.

Pyro-acids. If two molecules of an ortho-acid aretaken and one molecule of water removed, a pyro-acidwill be produced:

2(H2S04) or (H4S2 8) H2 = H2S2O7Pyrosulphuric acid.

Borax (Na2B 407.ioH20). This sodium salt of boronis found in Clear Lake, Nevada. As stated under BoricAcid, it has an alkaline reaction, soluble in water andglycerin, and, unlike boric acid, is insoluble in alcohol.Its uses and properties are similar to those of boricacid.

SULPHURSymbol, S; Atomic weight, 32; Valence, 2, 4, 6.

This element occurs in the free state as a product ofpast volcanic action in Sicily, Iceland, and California.Large quantities are now obtained in Louisiana, Utah,California, and Nevada. In combination it is foundwidely diffused in the form of sulphates (gypsum,CaSO4.2H20; Epsom salts, MgS0 4 , 7H20) and sulphids(iron pyrites, FeS2 ; galena, PbS; cinnabar, HgS, etc.).It is also found in combination with organic matter inthe various proteins, garlic, horse-radish, hair, and in


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48 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESalgae. During decomposition of these latter substancesit is evolved as H2S. As H2S it is found as a constituentof some waters.

Properties. It is a yellow, brittle solid, odorless andtasteless; insoluble in water; soluble in benzene, benzole,chloroform, ether, carbon disulphid, oil of turpentine,and the fatty oils ; and melts at 1 1 5 C. (239 F.) . Whenmelted sulphur is poured into water it forms a plasticmass, one of the allotropic forms of sulphur, which soonchanges into the regular form again.

Sulphur is found in commerce in a variety of forms:Brimstone, sublimed sulphur, washed sulphur, and pre-cipitated sulphur.The crude sulphur when heated is vaporized, andwhen passed into large cooled chambers condenses,forming the sublimed or flowers of sulphur. After atime, the condensing chambers becoming warm, thesulphur liquefies and is run into molds, forming brim-stone or roll sulphur. (See page no.)Washed sulphur, Sulphur lotum, is sublimed sulphur

that has been treated with dilute ammonia-water toremove any sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid, and arsenicthat may be present. This is the kind that should beused when intended for internal use.

Precipitated sulphur (milk of sulphur, lac sulphur)is sulphur, lime, and water boiled together. To the deeporange solution which results HC1 is added, and the pre-cipitated sulphur is washed with water and dried. It


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SULPHUR 49is of a lighter color than ordinary sulphur, and whenfirst precipitated is milk white; hence its name.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. It is alterative,laxative, diaphoretic, resolvent, and antiparasitic. Itpasses out of the system largely unchanged; the smallpart that had been combined, as sulphids or H2S. Itenters into the preparation of sulphur ointment, 15 percent, of washed sulphur rubbed up with benzoinatedlard. Compound licorice powder contains 8 per cent, ofit.

Sulphur Dioxid (Formula, SO2 ; Molecular Weight, 64;Density, 32). This is a colorless gas, with a disagree-able, suffocating odor, and, under cold and pressure, canbe both liquefied and solidified. Very soluble in water,forming sulphurous acid. It is a disinfectant, reduc-ing and bleaching agent.

Preparation. It is made whenever sulphur or mate-rials containing it are burned in presence of air.

S + 20 = SO2Also by the action of dilute acids upon sulphites:

Na2SO3 + 2HC1 = SO2 + sNaCl + H2OSodium sulphite.

This latter reaction is also used as a test for sulphites.

ACIDS OF SULPHURHydrogen Sulphid, Sulphuretted Hydrogen (Formula,H2S; Molecular Weight, 34; Density, 17). This gas is

4


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SULPHUR 51residue of carbon. It is commonly called oil of vitriol.When added to water it evolves great heat. In mixingit with water, the acid must be added to the water, andnot in the reverse order. Great care should be exercisedin mixing them Sulphuric acid produces white escharsupon tissue with which it has been in contact, theedges of which may be dark from its dehydrating prop-erty.

Toxicology. When taken internally, avoid carbon-ates, if possible. Give magnesia, lime, eggs, milk, andbland oils to allay the irritation.

Tests for Sulphuric Acid and Sulphates. H2S04 andthe soluble sulphates produce with solution of bariumchlorid, BaCl2 , a white precipitate of barium sulphate,BaS04, insoluble in HC1. The pure acid will charpaper or the carbohydrates.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. Escharotic; also pro-motes alkaline secretions; tonic and astringent. Usedin diarrhea, hemorrhages, night-sweats, and lead-colic.Dose, 2 to 5 minims, well diluted.Three sulphuric acids are official: Acidum sulphuri-

cum, Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, and Acidum sulphuri-cum aromaticum, which contains 20 per cent, of H2SO 4and is known also as elixir vitriol.

Pyrosulphuric Acid (1128207), Fuming or Nordhausen'sSulphuric Acid. Made by passing S03 into H2SO 4 . Itis a thick liquid, very corrosive, and gives off densefumes of SO3 when exposed to air.


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PHOSPHORUS 53in organic combination or in the bones in the form ofcalcium and magnesium phosphates. It is also foundin the urine.The element is obtained from its mineral salts by

dissolving them in strong H2S04; the resultant com-pound is heated, then mixed with sand and coke, andthe distilled phosphorus collected under water.Properties. It occurs as a translucent, slightly yellowsolid, and melts under water at 44 C. (m F.). It hasgreat affinity for O, taking fire when exposed to air. Itis luminous in the dark; insoluble in H^O; slightly sol-uble in alcohol, fats, and oil; and very soluble in chloro-form and 82. It combines readily with chlorin, bromin,iodin, sulphur, and metals, forming with the latterphosphids. Phosphorus exists in an allotropic modi-fication, made by exposing common or yellow phos-phorus to 260 C. in an atmosphere of inert gases, asCO2 , N, or H, and in this form is known as red phos-phorus, the properties of which are widely differentfrom those of the common variety, being non-poisonous,practically insoluble in all liquids, and non-luminous.Phosphorus was principally used in the making ofmatches, which consisted of dipping wooden splints intomelted sulphur, paraffin, and then into a paste of glueand phosphorus, to which some oxidizing agent hadbeen added. As the manufacture of matches by thismethod produced maxillary necrosis in those workingwith it, laws have been enacted against its use. In


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54 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESthe so-called safety match red phosphorus is used.It is contained upon the surface upon which the matchis to be rubbed, combined with antimony pentasulphid.The match proper contains antimony trisulphid, redlead, and potassium chlorate and dichromate. Phos-phorus in the elementary state is used in several phar-maceutic preparations, such as pills, elixir, spirits, andphosphorated oil. In domestic use it enters the homein the form of the various rat pastes.

Toxicology. Never give oil or fats, as phosphorus issoluble in them and would only hasten assimilation.Oil of turpentine (this differs chemically from the oiland fats) has been used, its action depending upon theoxidation of the phosphorus to phosphoric acid. Potas-sium permanganate in y^ per cent, solution has beensuccessfully used; it converts the phosphorus intoH3PO4 . Copper sulphate, which forms the insolublecopper phosphid or may even coat the phosphorus withmetallic copper, can also be given in 5-gr. doses. In allthese cases the stomach-pump or emetics must be used toeliminate the poison from the system as soon as possible.

Phosphin, Phosphoretted Hydrogen (Formula, PH3 ;Molecular Weight, 34). This is a colorless, ill-smellinggas, analogous in form to NH3 , and is produced when-ever phosphorus is boiled with a solution of a causticalkali or alkaline earth. The gas thus obtained is con-taminated with another gas, which is spontaneously in-flammable, and this property is frequently ascribed to


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ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS 55the former. Pure PHs, however, does not inflame atordinary temperature, though it does when gentlyheated.

3KOH + 4P + 3H3 = PH3 + 3KPH2O2Potassium

hypophosphite.When added to acids it produces the phosphonium

compounds, which are analogous to the ammoniumcompounds.

ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUSPhosphoric, phosphorous, hypophosphorous, meta-

phosphoric, and pyrophosphoric acids.In considering the acids on page 14 it was stated

that, theoretically considered, any acid is divisible intoreplaceable hydrogen and acid radicle. The replace-able hydrogen is that hydrogen that can be replaced bya metal or base, and while all acids contain hydrogen,not all the hydrogen in some acids is capable of replace-ment. We will find that some of the acids of phos-phorus show this exception.Hypophosphorous Acid (Formula, HPH2O2 or H3PO2 ;

Molecular Weight, 66). This acid contains, as will beseen from the second formula, three hydrogens, butonly one of these can be replaced. The first formula isthe type formula, showing the number of replaceable/hydrogens. The acid radicle is (PH2O2) with a valenceof one, and forms salts as follows:

Na(PH2O2) Ca(PHA) 2Sodium hypophosphite. Calcium hypophosphite.


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$6 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESThe acid is made by decomposing a solution of cal-

cium hypophosphite with oxalic acid, or by treatingpotassium hypophosphite with tartaric acid.

Ca(PH2O2) 2 + H2C2O4 = 2HPH2O2 + CaC2O4Oxalic acid. Calcium oxalate.

It is official in two strengths, Acidum hypophosphoro-sum, 30 per cent., and Acidum hypophosphorosum dilu-tum, 10 per cent. The acid possesses deoxidizing proper-ties, changing substances brought in contact with itinto lower forms.

Tests. The hypophosphites produce, with solution ofsilver nitrate, AgN03 , at first, a white precipitate, whichbecomes brown and finally black, due to reduction of thesilver to the metallic state.

If to a solution of a hypophosphite, acidified withHC1, a solution of mercuric chlorid is added, a whiteprecipitate of mercurous chlorid (calomel) is formed,which, upon the addition of more hypophosphite, willbe further reduced to mercury.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. Hypophosphorousacid and the hypophosphites are tonic and supposedlyreconstructive. The dose of dilute acid is 10 to 60 min-ims. The acid is used in the preparation of syrup offerrous iodid as a preserving agent, on account of itsdeoxidizing property.Phosphorous Acid (H2(PHO3) or H3P03). As can be

seen from the formula, this is a dibasic acid. It pos-


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ACIDS OF PHOSPHORUS 57sesses strong deoxidizing properties. The acid and itscompounds are of little medical importance.

Phosphoric Acid (Formula, H3PO 4 ; Molecular Weight,98). This is the most important of the acids of phos-phorus. It is found in nature as phosphates in various// /?/rocks, principally as calcium phosphate, Ca3(P04)2.It is found in the animal economy as magnesium andcalcium in the bones, in the blood as Na2HP04 , and inthe urine as NaH2PO4 .This acid is generally made by the action of dilute

HNOa upon phosphorus. The official acid exists in twostrengths: Acidum phosphoricum, containing 85 percent, by weight of H3P0 4 , and Acidum phosphoricumdilutum, containing 10 per cent.

It forms three classes of salts: the first, in which butone of its replaceable H has been substituted by ametal, e. g., NaH2PO 4 ; the second, wherein two of theH have been replaced, e. g., Na2HPO 4 , this latter saltbeing the sodium phosphate of pharmacy and com-merce; and the last class, in which all the H is replaced,e. g., Na3PO 4 .

Tests. H3PO 4 neutralized with ammonia-water,(NH4OH), or a phosphate added to a solution of silvernitrate, produces a yellow precipitate, wholly soluble inHN03 and NH4OH.With magnesium mixture, consisting of MgS04 ,NH 4C1, and NH4OH, a granular white precipitate ofMgNH 4PO 4 is produced.


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CHLORIN 59water, and in this form they exist in commerce. Theycombine directly with most metals, forming chlorids,iodids, bromids, and fluorids. Chlorin and fluorin aregases. lodin is a solid. Bromin is a liquid at ordinarytemperature. In the gaseous condition each possessesa distinctive color, has a disagreeable and irritatingodor, and is a powerful disinfectant.

CHLORINSymbol, Cl; Atomic weight, 35.Occurrence in Nature. Found largely as sodium

chlorid, NaCl, as common salt, rock salt; in salt lakes,seas, and oceans; also as the chlorids of potassium, mag-nesium, and calcium.

Preparation. Made commonly by heating black oxidof manganese with HC1 or H2SO 4 :

MnO2 + 4HC1 = MnCl2 + 2C1 + 2H,O orManganese Manganese

dioxid. chlorid.

MnO2 H- 2NaCl + 2H2SO4 = 2C1 + MnSO4 + Na2SO4 + 2H2Manganesesulphate.

Chlorin is also produced by the action of HC1 or H2SO4upon the so-called chlorid of lime/' or bleachingpowder, which is a mixture of CaCl2 and Ca(ClO)2.

CaCla.Ca(ClO) 2 + 4HC1 = 4C1 + 2CaCl2 + 2H2OChlorid of lime.

On a commercial scale, chlorin is now extensivelymade by the electrolysis of common salt.


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CHLORIN 61Hydrochloric Acid, Muriatic Acid (Formula, HC1;

Molecular Weight, 36). This acid is obtained by theaction of H2SO4 upon a chlorid, usually NaCl:

2NaCl + H2S04 = 2HC1 + Na2SO4It is a colorless gas, with a penetrating odor and

irritating to inhale. Its great affinity for H2 is shownby the formation of a white cloud when the gas comesin contact with the moisture in the atmosphere. Thegas dissolved in water is the hydrochloric acid of theU. S. P., and contains nearly 32 per cent, by weight ofHC1. The dilute acid contains 10 per cent. HC1 isfound as a constituent of the gastric juice, the exactquantity being somewhat in doubt, but approximately0.2 per cent.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. Tonic, refrigerant,antiseptic, irritant, and poisonous. Given before meals,it checks the flow of gastric juice and diminishes acidity.Given two or three hours after food, it increases theacidity, increases the saliva, checks fermentation, andallays thirst. Dose: strong acid, 2 to 5 minims; dilute,5 to 30 minims, both well diluted.

Tests. With the exception of silver, mercurous andlead chlorids, all other chlorids are soluble.HC1 or a chlorid added to silver nitrate, AgNO3 ,

produces a white precipitate of silver chlorid, AgCl,soluble in NH 4OH and reprecipitated upon the additionof HN03 . This reprecipitation by HN03 distinguishes


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62 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESchlorids from all other substances, producing white pre-cipitates with silver nitrate, soluble in NH4OH.

Nitrohydrochloric Acid, Aqua Regia; NitromuriaticAcid. When HC1 and HN03 are mixed, chemical actiontakes place, liberating Cl and chlorin derivatives. Thisacid is remarkable for its solvent action upon gold andplatinum, due to the free chlorin contained in it. Neitherof the acids entering into its manufacture has any effectupon these metals. A dilute acid is also official.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. Tonic, antiseptic,astringent, escharotic, and cholagogue. It is used inintestinal indigestion with diarrhea, chronic hepatitis,jaundice, scrofula, whooping-cough, and bronchitis;and externally as an escharotic. Dose: strong acid,2 to 5 minims; dilute acid, 5 to 30 minims, both welldiluted.

Toxicology. Same as under Sulphuric Acid.IODIN

Symbol, I; Atomic weight, 126.This is found in nature combined as the iodids of

sodium and potassium.It is contained in sea-water, from which it is taken up

by plants. Its chief source of supply is from the ashesof sea-weeds, called kelp. By washing these ashes thesoluble constituents contained in them are dissolved,and after removal of other substances contained in thesolution, and the latter evaporated to dryness, the iodin


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IODIN 63is obtained by a process similar to obtaining Cl, by treat-ing the residue with MnO2 and H2S0 4 .

2KI + MnO2 + 2H,SO4 = 2 + K3SO4 + MnSO, + 2H,OPotassium

iodid.

It is also obtained from the mother liquor of Chilisaltpeter, NaNO3 .

It is also found in small quantities in the animaleconomy as a constituent of the thyroid gland.

Properties. Todin is a crystalline substance, possess-ing a metallic luster, a characteristic odor, and a sharp,biting taste. When heated it gives off violet vapors.It is only slightly soluble in water. The solubility isgreatly increased by the addition of binary halogensalts. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, carbon disulphid,and chloroform. lodin possesses antiseptic properties,and today a solution of it in alcohol replaces the anti-septics formerly used in surgical operations. It stainstissues brown. These stains can be removed by NH4OHor sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 . It is an irritant poison,and the best antidote is sodium thiosulphate or starch,followed by emetics.

Tests for lodin and lodids. lodin turns blue withboiled starch. lodids with soluble lead salts producea yellow precipitate of lead iodid, PbI2 . lodids withmercuric salts produce a red precipitate of mercuriciodid, HgI2 , soluble in excess of either reagent.

Chlorin-water treated with iodids liberates the iodin,


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64 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESand, if carbon disulphid or chloroform is added andshaken, the lower layer will be turned violet.

Medicinal Properties and Uses. lodin is antiseptic,counter-irritant, and alterative, rapidly absorbed bymucous membranes and eliminated in urine, saliva,milk, and by the intestinal and nasal mucous mem-branes. It is mostly used externally for enlarged glands,abscesses, swollen joints, and for its counter-irritantproperties in general.

Official Preparations Containing lodin. Liquor iodicompositus, Lugol's solution, contains 5 per cent, ofiodin and 10 per cent, of potassium iodid dissolved in100 parts of water. Tincture of iodin contains 7 percent, of iodin and 5 per cent, of potassium iodid dissolvedin sufficient alcohol to make 100 parts. Unguentumiodi contains 4 per cent, each of iodin and potassiumdissolved in glycerin and incorporated with sufficientointment base to make 100 parts.

Hydriodic Acid (Formula, HI; Molecular Weight,127). This, as noted under the halogens, is a gas dis-solved in water constituting the HI of pharmacy,which is made by adding tartaric acid to potassiumiodid in the presence of alcohol, and, after cooling,separating the acid from the cream tartar, or potassiumbitartrate. It contains 10 per cent, by weight of theabsolute acid, and is principally used to make thesyrup of hydriodic acid, which contains i per cent, byweight of absolute HI. The acid readily decomposes.


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BROMIN 65This decomposition is somewhat retarded by addinghypophosphorous acid.

BROMINSymbol, Br; Atomic weight, 80.This element, like iodin, is found in sea-water and

in a large number of mineral waters as magnesium, cal-cium, and sodium bromids, and is prepared like chlorinand iodin, by treating the dried bromids with Mn02and H2S0 4 or with chlorin.

MgBr2 + 2C1 = MgCl3 + 2BrMagnesium Magnesiumbromid. chlorid.

It is a reddish-brown liquid, three times as heavy aswater, giving off suffocating reddish-brown vapors ofan irritating odor. It is slightly soluble in water; likeiodin, its solubility is increased by addition of thebinary halogen salts. It is freely soluble in alcohol,ether, carbon disulphid, and chloroform. It is a bleach-ing agent, disinfectant, and a corrosive poison.

Toxicology. Ammonia-water well diluted may begiven. Sodium thiosulphate is of service. Demulcentdrinks to allay irritation. External heat, atropin, andstrychnin.

Medicinal Properties. Bromin by itself is never giveninternally, but its various compounds are extensivelyused, and will be considered under their individualheads. Externally, it is rarely used as a corrosiveirritant and for glandular enlargements.

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66 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESHydrobromic Acid (Formula, HBr; Molecular Weight,

81). Made by treating bromin under water with H2Suntil the brown color of Br has disappeared.

ioBr + 2HaS + 4H2O = ioHBr + H2SO4 + iSThe liquid is filtered from the precipitated sulphur,

and separated from theH2SO 4 by distillation. The diluteacid, which is official, contains 10 per cent, by weight ofHBr.

Medicinal Properties. Sedative, narcotic; in smalldoses, stimulant similar to potassium bromid, but doesnot depress like it. Dose: f fluidram, in syrup orwater.

Tests for HBr and Bromids. Chlorin-water or HN03added to bromids liberate Br. If shaken with carbondisulphid or chloroform the lower layer will be turnedbrown.

Silver nitrate added to bromids produces a whiteprecipitate, only slightly soluble in NH4OH (differencefrom chlorids). FLUORIN

Symbol, F; Atomic weight, 19.This element is found as fluorspar, CaF2 , also in the

enamel of the teeth and in the bones of mammals. Itis a yellowish gas, of an irritating, suffocating odor;it is a powerful oxidizing agent, greater than any otherelement; and it combines with all elements exceptoxygen, with which it combines neither directly norindirectly.


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ACIDS OF THE HALOGENS 67Hydrofluoric acid is a colorless gas, obtained by the

action of H2SO4 upon calcium fluorid:CaF, + H2SO4 = 2HF + CaSO4 .

Hydrofluoric acid is used to etch glass. The glass iscovered with paraffin or wax and scratched with a sharpneedle. It is then exposed to the hydrofluoric gas, orto a solution of it in water, kept in a rubber or gutta-percha container.

After removal of the protective, the exposed surfacewill be found to be etched.

ACIDS OF THE HALOGENSChlorin. Bromin. lodin. Fluorin.

HC1, HBr, HI, HF,Hydrochloric acid. Hydrobromic acid. Hydriodic acid. Hydrofluoric

acid.HC10, HBrO, HIO,Hypochlorous acid. Hypobromous Hypoiodous acid.

acid.HC1O2 , HBrO2 , HIO2 ,Chlorous acid. Bromous acid. lodous acid.HC1O3 , HBrO3 , HIO3 ,Chloric acid. Bromic acid. lodic acid.HC1O4 , HBrO4 , HIO4 ,Perchloric acid. Perbromic acid. Per-iodic acid.


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METALLIC ELEMENTSWE have thus far considered only the non-metallic

elements. We will now take up the more importantmetallic elements. For convenience of study themetals will be divided into certain groups which haveproperties very much in common.The metals are divided into two classes: the light

metals, having a specific gravity (Sp. G.) from 0.6 to 4,and the heavy metals/ 7 Sp. G. ranging from 6 to 22.5.Each class is further divided into other groups.

LIGHT METALSAlkali metals. Alkaline earth metals.

K, Na, Li, (NHJ. Ba, Ca, Sr, and Mg.Oxids, carbonates, Soluble oxids. In-

and most soluble salts, soluble carbonates,

Earth metals.Al.Insoluble oxids, but

its chemical behaviorphosphates, and sul- leans strongly towardphates (except Mg). the iron group.

Iron group.Fe, Co, Ni, Mn, Zn,

Cr.

HEAVY METALSLead group.

Cd, Pb, Cu, Bi, Ag.Arsenic group.

As, Sb, Sn, Au, Pt,Sulphids insoluble in Mo.

Sulphids soluble in dilute acids. Sulphids insoluble indilute acids. Sulphids insoluble in dilute acids.ammonium sulphid. Sulphids soluble inammonium sulphid.

Metals possess properties which distinguish them fromthe non-metals. All have a metallic luster, with the

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METALLIC ELEMENTS 69exception of iodin, the non-metals do not possess this.They are conductors of heat and electricity. Theyrange in color from silver white to the yellow of gold.Copper is red. At ordinary temperature they aresolid, except mercury, which is the only liquid metal.All can be fused by heat and some even distilled, with-out changing their metallic nature. When mixedwith other metals they form alloys and still retain theirmetallic nature. When mercury constitutes one ofthe ingredients of an alloy it is termed an amalgam.Metals treated with non-metals lose their metallicproperties, but in a few instances, as in the compoundsof iron and sulphur, the luster is retained. Metalsreplace hydrogen in acids, forming salts.

Salts, which have already been referred to on page 17,were described as acids in which part or all of the re-placeable hydrogen has been exchanged for a metal orbasic radicle. They are divided into normal, acid,basic, and double salts.Normal Salts. A normal salt is one in which all the

replaceable hydrogen of the acid has been exchangedfor a metal or base; for example, if all the hydrogen inH2S0 4 was replaced by sodium, Na2SO4 would be pro-duced. From its chemical behavior we should expect anormal salt to have a neutral reaction toward litmus.If both the acid and the metal or base are of equalintensity, such will be the case. Sodium sulphate, theexample just shown, will be found neutral, as in this


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70 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESinstance both the acid and the metal are of equal in-tensity. Sodium carbonate, Na2C03, which is theoret-ically derived from H2CO3 , is chemically a normalsalt, because all the hydrogen of the H2CO3 is replacedby sodium, but, as has already been shown, H2CO3 isa weak acid, and, the metal possessing strong alkalineproperties, the salt will possess alkaline reaction towardft/ //litmus. In aluminum sulphate, A12(SO4) 3 , we have anentirely different condition. The formula shows thatthere is no replaceable hydrogen left; hence, chemically,it is a normal salt; but as aluminum is a weak base,combined with a strong acid, the salt possesses acidproperties toward litmus and other substances.

Acid Salts. In this case only part of the replaceablehydrogen has been exchanged by a metal or basic radicle.If but one H in H2SO 4 is replaced by Na, NaHSO 4 isformed. This is called an acid or bisalt. As these saltsmay, in reality, be considered as partly acid, we couldinfer that they should possess acid reactions; and this isgenerally true. If, on the other hand, a weak acid wereused with a strong base or metal, the salt would have analkaline reaction, as in sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3 ,in which we have the strong metal, Na, with the weakacid H2CO3 .Basic or Subsalts. These contain a greater portionof base than is required to make a normal salt. Thereis no fixed rule which will apply to all cases. Severalviews are entertained. The most common is that they


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ALKALI METALS 71are combinations of normal salts to which an oxid of ametal has been added.

Pb(C2H3 2) 2 + PbO = Pb20(C2H3O,) 2Lead acetate. Lead oxid. Basic acetate of lead or

lead subacetate.

Another theory is that they may be regarded asmetallic hydroxids, the hydroxyl, (OH), having beenreplaced by acid radicles. Bismuth hydroxid is Bi-(OH) 3 ; replace one of the (OH) by the acid radicle (N08),and the resulting compound is Bi(OH)2NOs.Double Salts (Also Called Multiple Salts) In. these

salts the replaceable hydrogens of the acid have beenexchanged by two or more metals or bases. If inH3PO 4 two H are replaced by Mg and the other by(NH4) magnesium ammonium phosphate will be formed,// / ///Mg(NH 4)PO 4 . Tartaric acid has the formula of H2-(C 4H 4O6) ; if one H is replaced by Na and the other byK the double salt of potassium and sodium tartrate,commonly called Rochelle salts, KNaC4H4Oe, will beformed.

ALKALI METALSThese are K, Na, Li, and the compounds of am-

monium. They possess properties showing a greatresemblance to one another in both their chemical andphysical behavior. They are soft; silver white in ap-pearance; univalent, that is, have but one bond; andwhen thrown upon water decompose it, liberating


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72 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSEShydrogen. They must be preserved under coal oilor the hydrocarbons. Their hydroxids and carbon-ates, except lithium carbonate, are soluble in waterand possess a strong alkaline reaction; they saponifyfats and completely neutralize acids. Since thesalts of these metals are so similar, they will betreated together, except in cases where special dis-tinctions will be noted.

POTASSIUM AND SODIUMPotassium (Symbol, K; Atomic weight, 39; Valence,

i) is found in nature as the nitrate and chlorid, infeldspar and in plants, from which it is extracted asthe carbonate from the ash. As sulphate and chloridit is found in enormous quantities in the Strassfurtmines. Medicinally, the potassium compounds de-press the heart and lower muscle activity.Sodium (Symbol, Na; Atomic weight, 23; Valence, i)

is found principally in the form of the chlorid, as rock-salt, common salt, and also dissolved in water. It isalso found, as the nitrate, in Chili saltpeter.Potassium Hydroxid (KOH; Molecular Weight, 56)

and Sodium Hydroxid (NaOH; Molecular Weight, 40).Caustic soda and potassium. These are made by

boiling dilute solutions of their respective carbonateswith calcium hydroxid. The hydroxid is separatedfrom the insoluble calcium carbonate, CaC03 , by de-


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74 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESerties. Sodium carbonate of pharmacy contains imolecule of water of crystallization, and has the for-mula of Na2CO3.H2O. In commerce this salt occursin the form of large crystals, more commonly calledsal soda or washing-soda, containing 10 molecules ofwater of crystallization, Na2CO3.ioH2O.

Medicinal Properties. The carbonates of these metalsare not often used except as antacids, well diluted, indoses of 5 to 20 gr.Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3 ; Molecular Weight,

100) and Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCOs; MolecularWeight, 84). These are made by passing CO2 intosolutions of their respective carbonates.They are less alkaline than the carbonates, and areprincipally used as antacids in doses of 5 to 40 gr.Sodium bicarbonate is combined with sugar and nut-megs to form the troches of sodium bicarbonate, eachcontaining nearly 3 gr. of it.Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4 ; Molecular Weight, 174)

and Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4.ioH2O; MolecularWeight, 322). The former exists in nearly all thefluids of the body and in the urine. Sodium sulphate,also known as Glauber's salts, is made by the actionof H2S04 upon NaCl, and is usually obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of HC1.

2NaCl + H2SO4 = N^SCX + 2HC1Medicinal Properties. Sodium sulphate is a hydra-

gogue cathartic, and is given in doses of 2 to 8 drams.


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POTASSIUM AND SODIUM 75Sodium Thiosulphate (Formula, Na2S2O3.5H2O; Mo-lecular Weight, 248). This compound, which is improp-

erly called hyposulphite of soda and even hypo, islargely used in photography. It is useful as an anti-dote to iodin-poisoning, and is used in paper-makingto neutralize the chlorin used as a bleaching agent.Medicinal Properties. Alterative, resolvent, and anti-

fermentative. Dose, from 5 to 30 gr. As an antidote,the dose depends upon the amount of poison taken.Sodium Phosphate (Formula, Na2HPO 4.i2H2O;

Molecular Weight, 358). It was stated under Phos-phoric Acid (see p. 57) that it was possible to have threesodium phosphates: Na3PO 4 ; Na2HPO 4 , the officialsodium phosphate and which is found in the blood;and NaH2PO 4 , found in the urine.The official sodium phosphate is made by neutraliz-

ing with sodium carbonate, Na2C03 , a solution of acidcalcium phosphate, which is obtained by the action ofH2SO 4 upon calcium phosphate, and the evaporationof the solution removed from the precipitated calciumphosphate.

Medicinal Properties. Alterative in doses of 20 to 30gr. Purgative and hepatic stimulant in doses of 2 to 6drams.Sodium phosphate is soluble in about 5.5 parts of

water. Its solubility is greatly increased by the addi-tion of citric acid. The Liquor sodii phosphatis com-positus is practically a 100 per cent, solution of it, due to


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76 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESthe formation of more soluble compounds. The granu-lar effervescent sodium phosphate contains 20 per cent, ofthe dried salt combined with tartaric and citric acids,with sodium bicarbonate. Sodium phosphate exsiccatedis the crystallized salt heated, not above 100 C., untilit no longer loses water. It is two and a half timesmore active than the regular sodium phosphate.Sodium Sulphite (Formula, Na2SO3.7H20; MolecularWeight, 252). Made by neutralizing a solution ofNa2CO3 with S02 . When an excess of S02 is used,sodium bisulphate is formed. Sodium sulphite existsin crystalline form without odor, while sodium bi-sulphite gives off the odor of SO2 .

Medicinal Properties. Antifermentative in doses of5 to 30 gr.Sodium pyrophosphate (Formula, Na 4P207.ioH20;

Molecular weight, 446) is produced by heating sodiumphosphate to a low red heat.

2Na2HPO4 = Na4P2O7 + H2OMedicinally, it is similar to the phosphate.Potassium Nitrate, Saltpeter (KNO3 ; Molecular

Weight, 101) and Sodium Nitrate, Chili Saltpeter(NaNO3 ; Molecular Weight, 85). These salts are foundnative, are purified by crystallization, and are the prin-cipal sources of HNO3 .

Medicinal Properties. Refrigerant and diuretic indoses of 5 to 15 gr. Purgative in doses of 2 to 6 drams.


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POTASSIUM AND SODIUM 77Sodium Nitrite (KNO2 ; Molecular Weight, 85) and

Potassium Nitrite (NaNO2 ; Molecular Weight, 69).These are made by heating potassium or sodium nitratewith metallic lead, which removes the oxygen. It isused in the preparation of the official spirits of nitre.

Medicinal Properties. Sodium nitrite is a cardiacdepressant and antispasmodic, similar in action to amylnitrite and nitroglycerin, but milder and more uniform.Dose, i to 5 gr.Sodium Chlorid, Common Salt (Formula, NaCl;

Molecular Weight, 58). This substance is the principalsodium compound, and is largely used as a source ofthe other sodium compounds. It is found in all partsof the animal economy, the total quantity in the bodybeing estimated as no grams. It aids absorption ofalbuminoid substances by osmosis. It furnishes theHC1 of the gastric juice through decomposition. It iseliminated by the urine as the double chlorids of sodiumand potassium, and also by the perspiration.

This elimination is decreased in febrile conditions.When pure, it is non-hygroscopic and, as commonly

found, contains calcium and magnesium chlorids, whichabsorb moisture from the air, becoming damp andcaking.Potassium lodid (KI; Molecular Weight, 165) and

Sodium lodid (Nal; Molecular Weight, 149). Made bythe action of iodin upon the respective hydroxids ofpotassium and sodium, and fusing the mixed iodid and


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POTASSIUM AND SODIUM 79hypophosphites and in emulsion cod-liver oil with hypo-phosphites.Potassium Chlorate (KC1O3 ; Molecular Weight, 122).This compound is made by the action of Cl on heated

solution of KOH.6C1 -f 6KOH = sKCl + KC1O3

Also by oxidizing by electrolysis a solution of potas-sium chlorid.

It is a white crystalline substance, a powerful oxidiz-ing agent, and must not be triturated, in the dry condi-tion, with organic matter. Yields chlorin upon addi-tion of strong acids.Medicinal Properties. Alterative, oxidizant, astrin-

gent, and diuretic. Dose, 5 to 20 gr. It enters into thepreparation of troches of potassium chlorate, which con-tain about 2 gr. each.

Salts of Potassium and Sodium with Organic Acids.Acetic, benzoic, citric, tartaric, and salicylic acid, whenacted upon by the carbonates of sodium, potassium,ammonium, or lithium, produce the corresponding salts.These will be considered under the Organic Acids.Tests of Potassium and Sodium.- Potassium. If to

a solution of a potassium salt a solution of tartaric acidis added until acid in reaction, and a small amount ofalcohol is added, a granular white precipitate of creamof tartar is produced.

Potassium compounds when held in a non-luminous


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80 CHEMISTRY FOR NURSESflame impart a violet color to it, not obscured by blueglass.Sodium. As practically all sodium compounds are

soluble, no test by precipitation can be carried out, aswith the other metals. The compounds of this metalimpart to the non-luminous flame a yellow color, ob-scured by blue glass.

LITHIUMSymbol, Li; Atomic weight, 7.Lithium is found, in very small quantities, in various

waters. It is also found as the carbonate and phosphate.It is characterized by the crimson color which it gives tothe non-luminous Bunsen flame. The carbonates andphosphates are insoluble and, in this respect, differ fromthe other metals of the alkalis, Na and K.The salts of lithium which are official are the benzoate,

bromid, carbonate, citrate, and salicylate.Medicinally, they are supposed to possess diuretic

properties and to be solvents for calculi.AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

/The salts of the radicle ammonium (NH 4) possessboth physical and chemical properties quite similar tothose of potassium and sodium.Ammonium Hydroxid, Ammonia-water, NH4OH. (See

page 33.)Ammonium Carbonate, Sal Volatile (Formula, NH4-

HCO3.NH2NH 4CO2). This is not the normal car-


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AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS 8lbonate, the formula of which would be (NH 4) 2C03 , butis a mixture of acid ammonium carbonate and am-monium carbamate, obtained by sublimation (see pageno) of a mixture of ammonium sulphate and calciumcarbonate. It is a volatile salt, with the odor of am-monia, and is used principally in the preparation ofspirits of ammonia aromatic.Medicinal Properties. Cardiac stimulant, expectorant,and rubefacient. Used in bronchitis, pneumonia, andfaintness. Dose, 2 to 3 gr.Ammonium Chlorid, Sal Ammoniac (NH 4C1; Mo-

lecular Weight, 53). Made by neutralizing NH4OHwith HC1, and purifying.

Medicinal Properties. Stimulant, irritant, and ex-pectorant. Dose, 3 to 20 gr. It is contained in thetroches of ammonium chlorid, which contain ij gr. each,combined with extract of licor

chemistry and toxicology for nurses by philip asher

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