chapter thirteen gender roles and gender differences

Chapter Chapter ThirteenThirteen

Gender Roles And Gender Roles And Gender Gender

DifferencesDifferences

Gender-Role Standards and Gender-Role Standards and StereotypesStereotypes

This field continues to be very This field continues to be very controversial. controversial. – This is a prime example of a politically This is a prime example of a politically

sensitive area--i. e., one where the attitudes sensitive area--i. e., one where the attitudes of the scientists have to be scrutinizedof the scientists have to be scrutinized

Defining sex and genderDefining sex and gender

– GenderGender: masculine or feminine behaviors: masculine or feminine behaviors

– SexSex: biological and physical attributes: biological and physical attributes

– Gender typingGender typing: culturally assigned roles : culturally assigned roles


Defining sex and genderDefining sex and gender

– Gender-based beliefsGender-based beliefs: expectations: expectations

– Gender stereotypesGender stereotypes: based on beliefs: based on beliefs

– Gender rolesGender roles: distinct behaviors displayed: distinct behaviors displayed

– Gender identityGender identity: perception of self: perception of self

– Gender-role preferencesGender-role preferences: desires: desires


Gender socialization begins at birth: Gender socialization begins at birth: – Parents have a role in socializing gender: Dress boys and girls Parents have a role in socializing gender: Dress boys and girls

differently, select toys based on gender, and often react negatively differently, select toys based on gender, and often react negatively if they behave in ways they think are gender inappropriate. if they behave in ways they think are gender inappropriate.

Gender stereotypesGender stereotypes– Males: controlling, dominant, independent,Males: controlling, dominant, independent,

controlling and manipulating the environment; controlling and manipulating the environment; assertive, dominant, assertive, dominant, competitive. competitive. Females: relatively passive, loving, sensitive, Females: relatively passive, loving, sensitive, and supportive in social relationships, and supportive in social relationships, especially in their family roles as wife and especially in their family roles as wife and mother. mother.

– Warmth in personal relationships, the Warmth in personal relationships, the display of anxiety under pressure, and the display of anxiety under pressure, and the suppression of overt aggression and sexuality suppression of overt aggression and sexuality as more appropriate for women than men.as more appropriate for women than men.


These stereotypes are true cross-These stereotypes are true cross-culturally as well.culturally as well. – This implies that the origins of these This implies that the origins of these

stereotypes does not lie in local stereotypes does not lie in local cultures. cultures.

– But there are some variations.But there are some variations. African American families: African-American families do African American families: African-American families do

not have clearly different boy-girl gender-role distinctions. not have clearly different boy-girl gender-role distinctions. They also encourage girls to be aggressive and assertive. They also encourage girls to be aggressive and assertive.

Mexican American families: For example, Mexican-Mexican American families: For example, Mexican-Americans have very clearly differentiated gender-role Americans have very clearly differentiated gender-role socialization standards. socialization standards.


Sex stereotypes that men are more Sex stereotypes that men are more aggressive than women and women more aggressive than women and women more interpersonally sensitive than men are interpersonally sensitive than men are very robust, even among more educated very robust, even among more educated people, both sexes, all social classes. people, both sexes, all social classes.

– Probably because they have some Probably because they have some truth in them! truth in them!

– Keep in mind that male/female Keep in mind that male/female distributions overlap.distributions overlap.


Some recent findingsSome recent findings

– Older, less educated women: Older, less educated women: stereotypicalEducation differences: In stereotypicalEducation differences: In the US, females and college-educated the US, females and college-educated women age 18-35 are more likely than women age 18-35 are more likely than older or less educated women to perceive older or less educated women to perceive female role as more assertive, female role as more assertive, independent, and achievement-striving. independent, and achievement-striving.



– Sex differences: Men are more likely to have Sex differences: Men are more likely to have traditional gender stereotypes than women, traditional gender stereotypes than women, especially if they are the sole wage earner in especially if they are the sole wage earner in the family. Fathers are more concerned that the family. Fathers are more concerned that their children maintain behaviors appropriate their children maintain behaviors appropriate to their gender; fathers play a more important to their gender; fathers play a more important role than mothers in children's gender role than mothers in children's gender stereotyping. stereotyping.



– Age differences: Young children are especially Age differences: Young children are especially rigid in gender stereotyping; children between rigid in gender stereotyping; children between ages 3-6 are more gender stereotypes than ages 3-6 are more gender stereotypes than adults. This reflects a general tendency for adults. This reflects a general tendency for young children to have rigid, absolutist sense young children to have rigid, absolutist sense of rules. (This is also the case in moral of rules. (This is also the case in moral reasoning where young children allow no reasoning where young children allow no exceptions to rules like "stealing is bad.") exceptions to rules like "stealing is bad.")

Gender differencesGender differences (Table 13-1, p. 556-557.) (Table 13-1, p. 556-557.)

NOTE: There are overlaps in all of these areas so that, for example, some NOTE: There are overlaps in all of these areas so that, for example, some girls are more physically aggressive than some boys. Physical Sex girls are more physically aggressive than some boys. Physical Sex Differences:Differences:

Girls more advanced physically throughout childhood; they mature earlier Girls more advanced physically throughout childhood; they mature earlier and their development stops sooner. and their development stops sooner.

Boys have larger lungs and heart, and they are superior at activities Boys have larger lungs and heart, and they are superior at activities involving gross motor activities and strength; males more likely to suffer a involving gross motor activities and strength; males more likely to suffer a wide range of developmental disorders (speech defects, ADHD, mental wide range of developmental disorders (speech defects, ADHD, mental retardation), genetic defects retardation), genetic defects (because of x-linkage; WHY?),(because of x-linkage; WHY?), and are more and are more susceptible to malnutrition and disease. susceptible to malnutrition and disease.

Boys are more physically active; in preschool they are more likely than Boys are more physically active; in preschool they are more likely than girls to play in a physically active style in larger groups away from the girls to play in a physically active style in larger groups away from the teacher. teacher.

Girls tend to have a few intimate friendsGirls tend to have a few intimate friends Boys have a larger number of "pals"Boys have a larger number of "pals"——guys they hang out with but don't guys they hang out with but don't

have close, intimate, confiding relationships. have close, intimate, confiding relationships.


Cognitive Sex Differences: Cognitive Sex Differences: – Girls superior at verbal abilities (vocabulary, reading comprehension, verbal Girls superior at verbal abilities (vocabulary, reading comprehension, verbal

creativity) during early to middle childhood. These differences become creativity) during early to middle childhood. These differences become attenuated as children get older, and disappear by adolescence. attenuated as children get older, and disappear by adolescence.

– Boys have greater visual-spatial ability beginning around age 10. (Visual-Boys have greater visual-spatial ability beginning around age 10. (Visual-spatial ability is involved in manipulating objects in two- or three-dimensional spatial ability is involved in manipulating objects in two- or three-dimensional space, reading maps, aiming at a target.) space, reading maps, aiming at a target.)

– Boys also excel at mathematics beginning around age 12. Boys also excel at mathematics beginning around age 12.

Some studies indicate that boys have a higher IQ on average than girls by Some studies indicate that boys have a higher IQ on average than girls by late adolescence (~4 IQ points). late adolescence (~4 IQ points). – Theory: Girls' development ends sooner than boys, and boys continue to Theory: Girls' development ends sooner than boys, and boys continue to

develop. This is controversial. develop. This is controversial.

Girls superior in Conscientiousness: Focused attention, responsibility, Girls superior in Conscientiousness: Focused attention, responsibility, dependability, delay of gratification. dependability, delay of gratification. – Conscientiousness is strongly correlated with school success.Conscientiousness is strongly correlated with school success.


Social Sex Differences: Social Sex Differences: – Boys more aggressive, especially physical aggression Boys more aggressive, especially physical aggression

and direct verbal assault. and direct verbal assault. (Girls use indirect forms of (Girls use indirect forms of aggression such as exclusion, negative gossip.)aggression such as exclusion, negative gossip.)

– Boys more into risk-taking and sensation seeking as well Boys more into risk-taking and sensation seeking as well as curiosity and exploratory behavior; boys attracted to as curiosity and exploratory behavior; boys attracted to physically dangerous occupationsphysically dangerous occupations

– Girls more compliant with demands of parents and Girls more compliant with demands of parents and teachers. (Conscientiousness) teachers. (Conscientiousness)

– No sex differences in attachment classification. No sex differences in attachment classification. However, Girls more nurturant and dependent. However, Girls more nurturant and dependent. (Affectional System) Infant girls more attracted to faces (Affectional System) Infant girls more attracted to faces and may recognize mother's face earlier. and may recognize mother's face earlier.

– Girls more fearful of possible personal threats and Girls more fearful of possible personal threats and dangers. No sex differences for social phobias, or dangers. No sex differences for social phobias, or possibly more common among boys. possibly more common among boys.


Sex Differences in Atypical Development: Sex Differences in Atypical Development: – Boys more likely to have genetic defects, physical disabilities, mental Boys more likely to have genetic defects, physical disabilities, mental

retardation, reading disabilities, speech defects, and school and emotional retardation, reading disabilities, speech defects, and school and emotional problems. problems.

– Boys are more likely to have genetic defects because of x-linkage: Boys only Boys are more likely to have genetic defects because of x-linkage: Boys only have one X-chromosome and therefore any recessive gene on the X-have one X-chromosome and therefore any recessive gene on the X-chromosome is expressed. Girls are likely to get a dominant normal gene from chromosome is expressed. Girls are likely to get a dominant normal gene from their father's X-chromosome. their father's X-chromosome.

– Boys are "the less canalized sex"Boys are "the less canalized sex"——they are more open to environmental they are more open to environmental influences, including negative environmental influences. This may be seen as a influences, including negative environmental influences. This may be seen as a high risk strategy. Boys are more vulnerable to stress such as family high risk strategy. Boys are more vulnerable to stress such as family disharmony. disharmony.

The evolutionary theory of sex (see below) implies that boys are expected The evolutionary theory of sex (see below) implies that boys are expected to be the high risk sex in general; this is related to the finding that boys are to be the high risk sex in general; this is related to the finding that boys are more aggressive and more attracted to sensation seeking. Both aggression more aggressive and more attracted to sensation seeking. Both aggression and sensation seeking are high risk/high reward undertakings. and sensation seeking are high risk/high reward undertakings.

Developmental Patterns of Gender TypingDevelopmental Patterns of Gender Typing

Figure 13-1: 15- to 36-month-old toddlers have clear preferences for toys Figure 13-1: 15- to 36-month-old toddlers have clear preferences for toys that are "gender appropriate"; but girls are more likely than boys to choose that are "gender appropriate"; but girls are more likely than boys to choose "gender inappropriate" toys. "gender inappropriate" toys.

In general, the male role is more clearly defined: there is a narrower range In general, the male role is more clearly defined: there is a narrower range of activities considered appropriate for males. of activities considered appropriate for males. – Boys who play with "girl" toys or retreat in the face of aggression "fear Boys who play with "girl" toys or retreat in the face of aggression "fear

derision" (p. 558). "Although we tolerate tomboys, we reject sissies" (pp. 558). derision" (p. 558). "Although we tolerate tomboys, we reject sissies" (pp. 558). – The condemnation comes from both parents (especially fathers) and peers. The condemnation comes from both parents (especially fathers) and peers.

Based on survey data, boys in the US like guns, boxing, wrestling and Based on survey data, boys in the US like guns, boxing, wrestling and karate, team sports, and fixing and making things more than girls. karate, team sports, and fixing and making things more than girls. Girls prefer dolls, sewing, cooking, dancing, and looking after younger Girls prefer dolls, sewing, cooking, dancing, and looking after younger children more than boys. children more than boys.

Parents encourage these patterns by, for example, assigning household Parents encourage these patterns by, for example, assigning household tasks. tasks. – "Even in the 21st century, girls are more likely to make beds, clean, prepare "Even in the 21st century, girls are more likely to make beds, clean, prepare

meals, wash dishes, and do laundry. Boys are more likely to fix things, take out meals, wash dishes, and do laundry. Boys are more likely to fix things, take out the garbage, and mow lawns" (p. 559). the garbage, and mow lawns" (p. 559).

Stability of Gender TypingStability of Gender Typing

Masculinity and femininity develop early and are Masculinity and femininity develop early and are stable personality characteristics. stable personality characteristics. – This is not surprising, since many of the traits that show This is not surprising, since many of the traits that show

sex differences are linked to personality systems. sex differences are linked to personality systems. – There is some change in later adulthood as men become There is some change in later adulthood as men become

more nurturant and expressive, especially in old age. more nurturant and expressive, especially in old age. Probably due to less testosterone. Probably due to less testosterone.

Becoming a parent results in a divergence of Becoming a parent results in a divergence of gender roles. gender roles. – Even among egalitarian couples who are committed to Even among egalitarian couples who are committed to

sharing household tasks equally, the onset of parenting sharing household tasks equally, the onset of parenting means a return to traditional gender roles. means a return to traditional gender roles.

Biological Factors in Gender Differences: Biological Factors in Gender Differences:

HORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORHORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Women have small amounts of the male hormone testosterone Women have small amounts of the male hormone testosterone

and men have small amounts of female hormones like and men have small amounts of female hormones like progesterone and estrogen. In childhood, the differences are progesterone and estrogen. In childhood, the differences are quite small, but they increase markedly in adolescents and quite small, but they increase markedly in adolescents and adults. adults.

There are two surges of hormones, prenatally and during There are two surges of hormones, prenatally and during adolescence. adolescence. – The surge of hormones prenatally affects behavior in childhood, and The surge of hormones prenatally affects behavior in childhood, and

the surge during adolescence activates and enhances the early the surge during adolescence activates and enhances the early predispositions created by the prenatal surge. predispositions created by the prenatal surge.

– These are critical periods for the effects of hormones on later behavior.These are critical periods for the effects of hormones on later behavior.


HORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORHORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Animal studies: Young, Goy, and Phoenix (1967) Animal studies: Young, Goy, and Phoenix (1967)

injected female monkeys with testosterone prenatally injected female monkeys with testosterone prenatally or around the time of birth. or around the time of birth. – Genetic female offspring were Genetic female offspring were

pseudohermaphrodites. Their genitalia were more pseudohermaphrodites. Their genitalia were more masculine (large clitoris), and their behavior was masculine (large clitoris), and their behavior was also masculine (more aggressive, more mounting also masculine (more aggressive, more mounting behavior [a male mating behavior], more rough behavior [a male mating behavior], more rough and tumble play, more socially dominant). and tumble play, more socially dominant).

– Similar behaviors are elicited in genetically female Similar behaviors are elicited in genetically female rodents injected with testosterone. rodents injected with testosterone.


HORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORHORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

NOTE: Levels of testosterone are also NOTE: Levels of testosterone are also influenced by the animal's experience. influenced by the animal's experience. Animals that have been repeatedly defeated in Animals that have been repeatedly defeated in fighting have lowered testosterone, and fighting have lowered testosterone, and winners have elevated testosterone as a result winners have elevated testosterone as a result of their experience. of their experience. – This also occurs with humans: Winning an athletic This also occurs with humans: Winning an athletic

event results in a surge in testosterone. event results in a surge in testosterone.


HORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORHORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR Human Studies: Girls who have received testosterone or Human Studies: Girls who have received testosterone or

testosterone-like hormones prenatally have masculinized testosterone-like hormones prenatally have masculinized behavior. behavior. – These girls are genetic females but their genetalia are typically These girls are genetic females but their genetalia are typically

masculinized at birth (enlarged clitoris, fused labia that resemble a masculinized at birth (enlarged clitoris, fused labia that resemble a scrotum). scrotum).

– They often receive an operation to make her appear more feminine. They often receive an operation to make her appear more feminine. – These girls have masculinized behavior: Tomboyish, liked vigorous These girls have masculinized behavior: Tomboyish, liked vigorous

athletic activities, simply utilitarian clothing; little interest in dolls, athletic activities, simply utilitarian clothing; little interest in dolls, babysitting, or caring for younger children, jewelry, cosmetics, or hair babysitting, or caring for younger children, jewelry, cosmetics, or hair styles. styles.

– They also had a more male-type achievement pattern and male-type They also had a more male-type achievement pattern and male-type attitudes toward sexuality. They preferred boys as playmates and boys' attitudes toward sexuality. They preferred boys as playmates and boys' toys. toys.


HORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIORHORMONES AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

HORMONES AND COGNITIVE SKILLS HORMONES AND COGNITIVE SKILLS – There is evidence for a critical period for brain There is evidence for a critical period for brain

organization and hemisphere lateralization organization and hemisphere lateralization (males more lateralized). (males more lateralized).

– Testosterone surge prenatally is responsible. Testosterone surge prenatally is responsible. This surge makes females process verbal This surge makes females process verbal information better and males process spatial information better and males process spatial information better. information better.

– Female fetuses exposed to abnormally high Female fetuses exposed to abnormally high levels of androgens are better at spatial levels of androgens are better at spatial abilities. abilities.

Sex differences in Spatial Sex differences in Spatial ReasoningReasoning

Figure 13-2, p. 563: Figure 13-2, p. 563: Water task; Light bulb in a car going uphill: Water task; Light bulb in a car going uphill: Male advantage is only found for spatial Male advantage is only found for spatial

(geometric) ability, not for computational ability, (geometric) ability, not for computational ability, basic math skills or algebra. basic math skills or algebra. – Biological influences do not rule out environmental Biological influences do not rule out environmental

influences. influences. – Text notes that the differences are relatively small (but Text notes that the differences are relatively small (but

small differences lead to large differences in proportions at small differences lead to large differences in proportions at the high end of the distribution). the high end of the distribution).

– Girls enroll in progressively fewer math courses over the Girls enroll in progressively fewer math courses over the high school and college years. Even girls with superior high school and college years. Even girls with superior math ability seem less interested in math as they get older math ability seem less interested in math as they get older (e.g., 34% of advanced physics classes). But the gender (e.g., 34% of advanced physics classes). But the gender gap is narrowing. gap is narrowing.

BRAIN LATERALIZATION: BRAIN LATERALIZATION:

Brain becomes increasingly specialized with age, with right Brain becomes increasingly specialized with age, with right hemisphere more specialized for spatial tasks and left hemisphere more specialized for spatial tasks and left hemisphere more specialized for verbal tasks. Women who hemisphere more specialized for verbal tasks. Women who suffer left hemisphere damage are less likely to have suffer left hemisphere damage are less likely to have damage to verbal abilities. damage to verbal abilities.

In a task where children had to identify objects inside a In a task where children had to identify objects inside a bag, sight unseen, boys were better when feeling with their bag, sight unseen, boys were better when feeling with their left hand (controlled by the spatial centers in the right left hand (controlled by the spatial centers in the right hemisphere). For girls there was no difference between hemisphere). For girls there was no difference between hands in their ability to identify objects. hands in their ability to identify objects.

In a rhyming task where subjects were asked if nonsense In a rhyming task where subjects were asked if nonsense words rhymed, both sides of women's brains were words rhymed, both sides of women's brains were activated. For men, only the left hemisphere (underlying activated. For men, only the left hemisphere (underlying verbal abilities) was activated. verbal abilities) was activated.

Cognitive Factors in Gender Cognitive Factors in Gender TypingTyping

A.) KOHLBERG'S COGNITIVE A.) KOHLBERG'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY a.) Child notices physical and behavioral a.) Child notices physical and behavioral clues, and classifies herself as a girl; clues, and classifies herself as a girl; b.) the child then finds it rewarding to b.) the child then finds it rewarding to behave in gender-appropriate manner and behave in gender-appropriate manner and imitate same-gender models. imitate same-gender models. EXAMPLE: A girl says, "I am a girl because I EXAMPLE: A girl says, "I am a girl because I am more like my mother and other girls am more like my mother and other girls than like boys; therefore I want to dress like than like boys; therefore I want to dress like a girl, play girl games, and feel and think a girl, play girl games, and feel and think like a girl." like a girl."


Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: 1.) Gender identity: Recognizing that you are 1.) Gender identity: Recognizing that you are a boy or a girl; this then organizes incoming a boy or a girl; this then organizes incoming information. information. – This occurs between age 2 and 3. Recent research: This occurs between age 2 and 3. Recent research: – Even in early infancy, babies male and female Even in early infancy, babies male and female

faces as being in different categories; but they faces as being in different categories; but they don't think of themselves as being in one category don't think of themselves as being in one category or the other. or the other.

– By age 2, they identify traits as being male or By age 2, they identify traits as being male or female (men wear ties), but they do not see female (men wear ties), but they do not see themselves as a belonging to a gender category themselves as a belonging to a gender category until about age 3. until about age 3.


Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: 2.) Gender stability: Child accepts the idea that 2.) Gender stability: Child accepts the idea that males remain male and females remain female; males remain male and females remain female; e.g., a girl will no longer think she will grow up to e.g., a girl will no longer think she will grow up to be like her father or Batman. be like her father or Batman. – This occurs between ages 4 and 5. Children of this age This occurs between ages 4 and 5. Children of this age

still have some gaps in their understanding. Two 4-year-still have some gaps in their understanding. Two 4-year-olds: olds:

– Jeremy wears a barrette to nursery school. Another boy Jeremy wears a barrette to nursery school. Another boy accuses him of being a girl because "only girls wear accuses him of being a girl because "only girls wear barrettes." Jeremy pulls down his pants to show that he barrettes." Jeremy pulls down his pants to show that he really is a boy. The other boy replies, "Everyone has a really is a boy. The other boy replies, "Everyone has a penis; only girls wear barrettes." penis; only girls wear barrettes."


Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: Kohlberg’s THREE STAGES: 3.) Gender constancy: Recognizing that 3.) Gender constancy: Recognizing that superficial changes in appearance or in superficial changes in appearance or in activities will not change a person's gender. activities will not change a person's gender. – A boy who wears a dress is still a boy; a girl who A boy who wears a dress is still a boy; a girl who

plays football is still a girl. plays football is still a girl. – A child who understands gender constancy would A child who understands gender constancy would

not suppose that wearing a barrette makes one a not suppose that wearing a barrette makes one a girl. girl.

This theory has been empirically confirmed This theory has been empirically confirmed cross-culturally. cross-culturally.


B.) GENDER-SCHEMA THEORY: AN INFORMATION-B.) GENDER-SCHEMA THEORY: AN INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH PROCESSING APPROACH – Children develop Children develop schemasschemas or naive theories that help them or naive theories that help them

organize gender differences and gender roles. They tell organize gender differences and gender roles. They tell children what kinds of information to look for in the children what kinds of information to look for in the environment and how to interpret this information. environment and how to interpret this information.

– EXAMPLE: 5- and 6-year-old children shown gender-consistent EXAMPLE: 5- and 6-year-old children shown gender-consistent (boy playing with train) or gender-inconsistent (girl sawing (boy playing with train) or gender-inconsistent (girl sawing wood). A week later, children distorted the information from wood). A week later, children distorted the information from the gender inconsistent pictures: They said that they had seen the gender inconsistent pictures: They said that they had seen a boy sawing wood. Memory for gender consistent pictures was a boy sawing wood. Memory for gender consistent pictures was better, and children were more sure that they remembered it better, and children were more sure that they remembered it correctly. Boys who have gender constancy pay more attention correctly. Boys who have gender constancy pay more attention to TV characters of the same sex. to TV characters of the same sex.

Gender schemas are more important for younger children Gender schemas are more important for younger children because their schemas are more rigid. Some people are because their schemas are more rigid. Some people are more "gendered" in their thinking than others. more "gendered" in their thinking than others.


C.) COMPARISON OF KOHLBERG'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL C.) COMPARISON OF KOHLBERG'S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL AND GENDER-SCHEMA THEORIES AND GENDER-SCHEMA THEORIES

Kohlberg predicts that achievement of gender constancy should Kohlberg predicts that achievement of gender constancy should influence children's gender-typed choices. As a result, it predicts influence children's gender-typed choices. As a result, it predicts that before age 5-7 there should be little or no preference for that before age 5-7 there should be little or no preference for gender-typed activities. This is massively contradicted by gender-typed activities. This is massively contradicted by observation of children's behavior. observation of children's behavior.

Gender schema theory does not make this prediction. It proposes Gender schema theory does not make this prediction. It proposes that children simply need to be aware of basic information about that children simply need to be aware of basic information about gender, such as identifying activities as gender appropriate. gender, such as identifying activities as gender appropriate. – Children who identify themselves as being a boy or a girl engage in Children who identify themselves as being a boy or a girl engage in

more gender-appropriate behavior, and they do this around age 2 more gender-appropriate behavior, and they do this around age 2 — — way before they achieve gender stability or constancy. way before they achieve gender stability or constancy.

– Achievement of gender identity is sufficient to result in gender-typed Achievement of gender identity is sufficient to result in gender-typed play. play.

Some data indicate that children engage in gender-typed play Some data indicate that children engage in gender-typed play before they have gender identity. This is compatible with before they have gender identity. This is compatible with biological theories that boys are simply attracted to certain types biological theories that boys are simply attracted to certain types of toys and activities independent of cultural labeling. of toys and activities independent of cultural labeling.

Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology: Theory of Sex: Robert Trivers Theory of Sex: Robert Trivers

(1972)(1972) 1.) MALES DEFINED AS SEX WITH SMALL 1.) MALES DEFINED AS SEX WITH SMALL

GAMETES, FEMALES ARE SEX WITH LARGE GAMETES, FEMALES ARE SEX WITH LARGE GAMETES GAMETES

2.) FEMALES TEND TO INVEST MORE IN 2.) FEMALES TEND TO INVEST MORE IN REPRODUCTION THAN MALES. REPRODUCTION THAN MALES. – TYPICAL MAMMALIAN FEMALE: PREGNANCY, LACTATION, TYPICAL MAMMALIAN FEMALE: PREGNANCY, LACTATION,

CAREGIVING'VERY HIGH COST IN TIME AND ENERGY CAREGIVING'VERY HIGH COST IN TIME AND ENERGY TYPICAL MAMMALIAN MALE: SPERM'VERY LOW COST TYPICAL MAMMALIAN MALE: SPERM'VERY LOW COST

. .


(1972)(1972) 3.) ECONOMICS 101: WHEN YOU HOLD 3.) ECONOMICS 101: WHEN YOU HOLD

VALUABLE RESOURCES, YOU DON'T GIVE VALUABLE RESOURCES, YOU DON'T GIVE THEM AWAY. THEM AWAY. – FEMALES EXPECTED TO BE SELECTIVE, FEMALES EXPECTED TO BE SELECTIVE,

DISCRIMINATING MATERS DISCRIMINATING MATERS – FEMALES WANT: FEMALES WANT:

MALES WHO WILL INVEST IN OFFSPRING, MALES WHO WILL INVEST IN OFFSPRING, MALES WITH GOOD GENES, HIGH SOCIAL MALES WITH GOOD GENES, HIGH SOCIAL STATUS, ETC. STATUS, ETC.


(1972)(1972) 4.) ECONOMICS 101: MALES DO NOT HOLD RESOURCES. THEREFORE THEY 4.) ECONOMICS 101: MALES DO NOT HOLD RESOURCES. THEREFORE THEY

MUST COMPETE IN ORDER TO GET THEM. THIS RESULTS IN THE MUST COMPETE IN ORDER TO GET THEM. THIS RESULTS IN THE PREDICTION THAT MALES WILL BE MORE AGGRESSIVE. PREDICTION THAT MALES WILL BE MORE AGGRESSIVE.

IN GENERAL, MALES MUST COMPETE FOR FEMALES, AND THE MAIN IN GENERAL, MALES MUST COMPETE FOR FEMALES, AND THE MAIN OBSTACLE IS OTHER MALES: OBSTACLE IS OTHER MALES: – ELEPHANT SEALS: DEFEATING MALES IN COMBAT ELEPHANT SEALS: DEFEATING MALES IN COMBAT – CHINESE EMPERORS: CONTROLLING MALES AND FEMALES CHINESE EMPERORS: CONTROLLING MALES AND FEMALES – MOVIE STARS MOVIE STARS – SUCCESFUL HUNTERS in hunter-gatherer societies; SUCCESFUL HUNTERS in hunter-gatherer societies; – RICH MEN IN ALL SOCIETIES ARE ATTRACTIVE TO FEMALES (The Anna RICH MEN IN ALL SOCIETIES ARE ATTRACTIVE TO FEMALES (The Anna

Nicole Smith Nicole Smith phenomenon) phenomenon)


(1972)(1972) 4. (Cont.) MALES HAVE MORE TO GAIN BY BEING HIGH ON 4. (Cont.) MALES HAVE MORE TO GAIN BY BEING HIGH ON

AGGRESSION, RISK-TAKING, SENSATION-SEEKING, SOCIAL AGGRESSION, RISK-TAKING, SENSATION-SEEKING, SOCIAL DOMINANCE: SUCCESSFUL MALE CAN MATE POLYGYNOUSLY, DOMINANCE: SUCCESSFUL MALE CAN MATE POLYGYNOUSLY,

SUCCESSFUL FEMALE CAN MATE ONLY ONCE. SUCCESSFUL FEMALE CAN MATE ONLY ONCE.

EVEN IN A MONOGAMOUS SYSTEM, SUCCESSFUL MALES WILL EVEN IN A MONOGAMOUS SYSTEM, SUCCESSFUL MALES WILL HAVE ACCESS TO HIGHER QUALITY FEMALES (MORE NURTURANT, HAVE ACCESS TO HIGHER QUALITY FEMALES (MORE NURTURANT, MORE PRONE TO FIDELITY, HIGHER INTELLIGENCE, ETC.) RISK-MORE PRONE TO FIDELITY, HIGHER INTELLIGENCE, ETC.) RISK-TAKING AND SOCIAL DOMINANCE PAY OFF MORE FOR MEN. TAKING AND SOCIAL DOMINANCE PAY OFF MORE FOR MEN.

THEREFORE MEN GAIN MORE BY CONTROLLING SOCIETY THEREFORE MEN GAIN MORE BY CONTROLLING SOCIETY (PATRIARCHY), AND THEY GAIN MORE BY GOING TO WAR. (PATRIARCHY), AND THEY GAIN MORE BY GOING TO WAR.

Evolutionary Psychology: Theory of Evolutionary Psychology: Theory of Sex: PredictionsSex: Predictions

WHEN GENGHIS KHAN AND THE MONGOLS WHEN GENGHIS KHAN AND THE MONGOLS CONQUERED MOST OF ASIA, THEY REALIZED CONQUERED MOST OF ASIA, THEY REALIZED AN ENORMOUS GENETIC PAYOFF BECAUSE AN ENORMOUS GENETIC PAYOFF BECAUSE THEY ESTABLISHED HAREMS WHEREVER THEY ESTABLISHED HAREMS WHEREVER THEY WENT. THEY WENT. – THE MONGOL Y-CHROMOSOME IS STILL FOUND THE MONGOL Y-CHROMOSOME IS STILL FOUND

AT HIGH FREQUENCIES IN ALL THE AREAS THEY AT HIGH FREQUENCIES IN ALL THE AREAS THEY CONQUERED. CONQUERED. ~32 million direct descendants~32 million direct descendants

– A MONGOL FEMALE WOULD NOT HAVE A MONGOL FEMALE WOULD NOT HAVE SIMILARLY BENEFITED BY THIS SORT OF SIMILARLY BENEFITED BY THIS SORT OF CONQUEST.CONQUEST.

Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology: Theory of Sex: PredictionsTheory of Sex: Predictions

FEMALES ADOPT A MORE CONSERVATIVE FEMALES ADOPT A MORE CONSERVATIVE STRATEGY: HIGHER ON FEAR, BEHAVIORAL STRATEGY: HIGHER ON FEAR, BEHAVIORAL INHIBITION. INHIBITION.

FEMALES ALSO EXPECTED TO BE MORE FEMALES ALSO EXPECTED TO BE MORE NURTURANT AND LOVING AS MATE NURTURANT AND LOVING AS MATE DISCRIMINATION SYSTEM (females benefit by DISCRIMINATION SYSTEM (females benefit by choosing males who love them and are willing to invest choosing males who love them and are willing to invest in their children) AND BECAUSE OF ITS ROLE IN in their children) AND BECAUSE OF ITS ROLE IN NURTURANCE (females who are high on affectional NURTURANCE (females who are high on affectional system are prone to nurturance). system are prone to nurturance).

Evolutionary Psychology: Evolutionary Psychology: Theory of Sex: PredictionsTheory of Sex: Predictions

Male sexual jealousy more directed Male sexual jealousy more directed at ensuring paternity confidence.at ensuring paternity confidence.

Female sexual jealousy more Female sexual jealousy more directed at ensuring continued directed at ensuring continued affection as a sign of continued affection as a sign of continued support.support.

The EndThe End

chapter thirteen gender roles and gender differences

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