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Page 1: Chapter II - Shodhganga · 2018-07-09 · 28 Chapter 2 Review of related literature Introduction The focus of the present chapter is to review the research work that has already done

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Chapter II

Review of Related

Literature

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Chapter 2

Review of related literature

Introduction

The focus of the present chapter is to review the research work that has already done in

the area of Information Communication Technology (ICT), so as to gain a comprehensive

understanding with respect to the objectives, nature, structure, presentation and

effectiveness of ICT programmes and also to identify the explored areas that need to be

studied with reference to various dimension of ICT programmes. An attempt was made to

scan through the related literature from various resources.

Papert (1980) studied on ‘Children, computer and powerful idea’. He understood the

importance of digital media and how it could be used to enable children to learn better

within a constructivist learning environment. He believed that in order for children to

assemble and modify their ideas, the traditional tools such as pencils, copies and texts

were inadequate. He felt that computers were the appropriate tool to enable the learner to

take control of the learning process. He found that a complementary relationship exists

between technology and constructivism, the implementation of each one benefiting the

other. Recent attempts by educators to integrate technology in the classroom have been

within the context of a constructivist framework.

Laird (1985) worked on ‘Approaches to training and development’. He believed that

effective learning occurs when the senses are stimulated. Online instruction allows

learners to use their sensory systems to register the information in the form of sensations.

He found that the vast majority of knowledge held by adults (75%) is learned through

seeing. Hearing is the next most effective (about 13%) and the other senses - touch, smell

and taste account for 12% of what they know. He claims that the use of the Internet for

research or producing a website to publish their project results can enhance students'

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organizational skills, connect them with a real audience and foster a better understanding

of the World Wide Web.

Cameron and Ulrich (1986) studied on ‘Transformational leadership in colleges and

universities’. He found that the lack of administrative support as a barrier to adoption of

innovation in the Nigerian education system.

Davis (1993) in his study ‘Tools for learning’ believes that there is no single magical

formula for motivating students. Many factors affect a given students' motivation to work

and to learn: Interest in subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to

achieve, self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. With

colorful and attractive graphics, interesting and illustrative animations, appropriate sound

effects, ICT provides multisensory stimulations and real-world experiences. Teachers

using ICT in teaching process can gain the learners' attention, motivate students to spend

more time on learning activities with greater concentration, and engage them through

production work. ICT can extend the range of alternative teaching methods beyond the

conventional classroom (e.g. self-paced learning, collaborative team or group activities,

and distance learning).

Learning with Software website (1996) suggested that with the use of software in

learning, but it focused more on pedagogical strategies of incorporating ICT in teaching:

a) Rotational use of computers,

b) Needs-only basis,

c) Computer as reward,

d) Computer use on contract,

e) Computer as electronic blackboard,

f) Integrating the computer,

g) Computer as surrogate teacher,

h) Computer as cognitive tool.

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The division was started from a simple tracheotomy of the degrees of integration which

was more general and a bit crude. The division according to the software used was a more

complicated one which included more detailed observations. The division according to

pedagogies and practices in the classrooms was better for incorporating ICT in teaching.

Nason (1996) conducted study on ‘Format- free data base and the construction of

knowledge in primary schools’. He found that when students worked collaboratively in a

small group to generate a format-free computer database, it was a very effective way of

establishing a knowledge building community within a primary school classroom.

Bates (1997) reported lack of training and skills as obstacle to ICT use in institutions of

higher learning in Tanzania.

Sandholtz et al. (1997) worked on ‘Teaching with technology, creating student-centered

classrooms’. They reported that there were positive changes in student attitude. Their

interest and motivation typically extended to the last week of school and as students

became involved in working on computers, the time they spent on assignments and

projects often increased. Students' enthusiasm and interest resulted in greater on-task

behavior and they were highly involved in their assignment and frequently able to work

with little assistance. The project increased student initiative as they worked beyond the

requirements of their assignments, and independently explored new applications and

developed new skills. Student experimentation and risk taking increased.

Brosseuk (1998) conducted study on ‘Using a data-base in the lower primary

classrooms’. He found that when student use data bases and spread sheets it leads to a

real life context enhanced the teaching and learning in an enjoyable and practical way,

and developed students' general thinking processes and problem solving skills. Students

were enthusiastic and fascinated when using the electronic tools to solve problems.

Dalton (1998) in his study ‘Computers in schools’ asserts that training is directed at

changing people's knowledge, experience, skills and attitudes. The scarcity of adequately

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trained and experienced analysts, software engineers, systems and network managers,

restrains ICT development education system in Uganda. He emphasized the importance

of training for the adoption and diffusion of computers in schools.

El-Hindi (1998) conducted study on ‘Constructivist teaching with Internet’. He assumed

that learning through the Internet is very compatible with constructivism. Constructivism

assumes that learners are active and curious and the process of knowledge construction on

the Internet is in keeping with these paradigms. The Internet is a powerful resource to

support learners' natural curiosity. The Internet rethinks the idea of the teacher as the sole

source of knowledge, by providing a vast world of information. He found that by using

the Internet, teachers can focus less on being the centre of learning and allow for more

discoveries on the part of the student. Instead of being passive recipients listening to their

teachers, students can devise their own ways of gathering information. Effective use of

the Internet can help teachers move toward facilitating constructivist learning

environments.

Krysa (1998) in his study ‘Factors affecting the adoption and use of computer

technology in schools’ stated that computer training should not be limited to teachers who

teach computer but all teachers should train computer and its usage. The need for

computer training is explained by the fact that most of the presently recruited teachers

received little or no training in their formal education concerning use of computers in

teaching. It could also be a reflection of the need to update teachers’ knowledge in the

world of fast moving technology of communication. Training all teachers on the

educational use of computers gains special importance when considering integrating the

computer into regular curriculum. Teachers need to know how to use computers first

before they can integrate them in the curriculum. This could make ICT innovation simple

to adopt and implement as the innovation becomes compatible with the current objectives

of the users.

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He points to professional development and training as a solution to successful ICT

implementation. He also reported that successful implementation of computers can only

occur if administrators offer teachers support and leadership. In addition to administrators

developing a philosophy to guide the implementation of computer technology, they can

support the technological professional development of teachers by establishing flexible

schedules so that teachers can practice what they have learned (or to continue their

learning); encouraging and facilitating team teaching and peer coaching allowing teachers

to visit each other's classrooms to observe computer technology integration; and

scheduling regular meetings among teachers using technology to plan and evaluate

instruction.

Teo et al. (1998) in his study ‘Factors influencing desktop computer usage among novice

and experienced users’. They found that competence of individual teachers handling

computers is very low. Most of them lack both educational and technical training.

Research findings indicated that there is need to equip teachers with computer technology

skills and knowledge through effective training on how to use computers in teaching.

Dix (1999) investigated study on ‘Enhanced mathematics learning: does technology make

difference?’Study showed the effectiveness of technologically-based instruction in

secondary school, by comparing students’ achievements resulting from technology-rich

assignments with those achievements resulting from equivalent assignments presented in

traditional format. She found that, although there is no significant difference in

achievement with either method, use of computers in mathematics does appear to

positively influence student motivation.

Farrell (1999, cited in Sife et al, 2007) reported that ICT training and workshops are

needed not only to improve the skills of the instructors, but also as a means of getting

them involved in the process of integrating ICT in teaching and learning.

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Jonassen et al. (1999) conducted study on ‘Learning to solve problems with technology’.

They reported that after analyzing applications of IT in various schools and projects

grouped these learning activities around several mind tools, which can be used by

teachers to enable students to learn effectively. These are Databases, Semantic Networks,

Visualization Tools, Micro worlds, Expert Systems and Mental Models.

Finger et al. (1999) conducted study on ‘Information technology and Australian

teachers’. He found that while schools are obtaining increased levels of ICT infrastructure

and increasing the number of computers, state education systems in Australia and the

United States have also highlighted the importance of the professional development of

teachers. He noted that teacher training should precede the integration of ICT into

classrooms, citing four elements necessary for the effective integration:

• Teachers first: teacher professional development comes before integrating ICT into

programs

• Complementarily: skills taught at the same time technology is introduced;

• Workability: assessing whether the new technology improves teaching and learning and

whether it will work for teachers and students; and

• Equity: ICT leads to a re-allocation of resources, and this should produce an equitable

result.

He argues that any planning for integration of ICT into education has to include two

factors: teachers’ professional development and ICT infrastructure and a considered

response to the issue of teachers’ resistance to change is further training. Such programs

can assist teachers in acquiring new skills, knowledge, and support, and help them

integrate ICT into their teaching.

Vincent et al. (1999) investigated study on ‘The progress of geometric understanding of

twelve 11-12 year old girls in a private girls’ school in Melbourne, using Cabri

geometry’. They found that the girls each had their own notebook computers but had not

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used the software before. The study suggested that Cabri can result in significant progress

in understanding of geometric properties and relationships even after relatively few

lessons.

Bransford et al. (2000) reported the pedagogical paradigm needs to shift toward more

student-centered learning. This shift is not trivial or easily accomplished, particularly in

countries with teacher-centered educational traditions. The literature suggests that four

broad sets of changes should accompany the integration of ICT and the move toward a

constructivist model of teaching and learning;

Changes in teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes: The literature on

education reform highlights the importance of changing teachers’ beliefs and

attitudes to create long-term sustainable change. Studies on ICT integration find

that projects fall short of expectations because the educators continue working

within a traditional vision of rote learning. Teachers need to believe that new

approaches to teaching are effective and will make a difference for their students

in order for them to continue using new approaches. Teachers’ understanding

and commitment are particularly important to sustain changes in areas such as

project-based learning or student-centered techniques, which require core

changes to a teacher’s instructional practice.

Changes in how students engage with content: Research in the learning sciences

has established that constructivist theories of learning provide a more reliable

understanding of how humans learn than previous behaviorist frameworks.

Studies have identified a variety of constructivist learning strategies (e.g.,

students work in collaborative groups or students create products that represent

what they are learning) that can change the way students interact with the

content .The introduction of ICT into schools and project-based approaches

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should change how students interact with the content through new types of

learning activities.

Changes in relationships among teachers, students, and parents: Recent studies

suggest that, specifically, a supportive and cooperative relationship with the

teacher can be very important for learning. Research in many different countries

has found that the introduction of technology into learning environments

changes teachers’ and students’ roles and relationships.

Changes in the use of ICT tools to promote students’ learning: The ICT

integration in developing country classrooms is challenging. A number of

factors-such as teacher knowledge, time, access to ICT tools, and the alignment

of ICT use with pedagogical goals-appear to help teachers integrate ICT and to

support students’ increased use of ICT tools for learning.

Charp (2000) noted that educational researchers find a positive connection between the

integration of ICT and the successful curricula outcomes when ICT is properly deployed.

Hasselbring et al. (2000) in his study ‘Technology to support teacher development’ had

shown that improving the quality of an education system depends upon teachers’ training

and development. He argues that teachers should be trained to view ICT as a resource and

to use technology in classroom activities, whilst earlier added that education authorities

are responsible for teacher training.

Knezek et al. (2000) reported that educators with higher levels of skill, knowledge, and

tools would exhibit higher levels of technology integration in the classroom.

Kong et al. (2000) investigated study on ‘Possibilities of creative and lifelong learning’.

They found that the integration of IT and curriculum is the main force in promoting the

full acceptance of information technology by teachers and students.

Law (2000) in his study ‘Changing classrooms changing schools’ found that teachers

and students have variously gained in their mastery of ICT skills. When the focus was on

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technology supported teaching, the teachers were all generally more competent, and many

of them have mastered the skills of multimedia production and programming.

Mumtaz (2000) worked on ‘Factors effecting teachers' adoption of technology in

secondary schools’. He pointed out lack of administrative, technical and financial

support as problems that prevent teachers from using computers in their teaching.

Cuban (2001) investigated study on ‘High access and low use of technologies in high

schools’. He found that teachers who used computers in their classrooms largely

continued their customary practice, A very few fundamental changes in the dominant

mode of teacher-centered instruction have occurred occasional to serious use of

computers in their classes had marginal or no impact on routine teaching practices. In

other words, most teachers had adapted an innovation to fit their customary practices, not

to revolutionize them. He noted that the overwhelming majority of teachers employed the

technology to sustain existing patterns of teaching rather than to innovate. In interviews

with 21 teachers he found that 13 said that their teaching had indeed changed because of

their use of information technologies. Changes include planning more efficiently,

communicating with colleagues and parents far more via the Internet, securing education

materials from the Internet, having an additional tool in their customary set of teaching

practice, and seeing students’ access to information as a phenomenal enhancement to

their teaching. Of the 13 teachers who said that their teaching had changed, only four said

that they had modified their daily practices in major ways: organized their class

differently, lectured less, relied more on securing information from sources other than the

textbook, gave students more independence, and acted more like a coach than a performer

on stage.

Grabe (2001) stated that technology should facilitate meaningful learning in the

classroom. Also, it should engage the thinking, decision making, problem solving and

reasoning behaviors of students.

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M2 Communications Ltd (2001) conducted study on ‘ICT investment boost secondary

schools’. They found that there was a consistent trend for pupils in schools with better IT

resources to achieve better grades for English, math and science. It also indicated that

schools that used IT to support a particular subject, tended to achieve better in that subject

than schools which did not use IT.

Mooij et al. (2001) in the study ‘Modeling and supporting ICT implementation in

secondary schools’ found that teachers’ competence and confidence in their skills were

one of the main factors to influence teachers’ willingness to integrate technology in their

teaching and learning process. They claimed that educators lack of knowledge is a serious

barrier to integrate ICT into secondary schools. Educators must attain and maintain an

assured degree of technological competence to make instructional strategies more

effective.

Pelgrum (2001, cited in Afshari et al, 2009) conducted study on ‘The educational

potential of new information technologies’. He claimed that the success of educational

innovations depends largely on the skills and knowledge of teachers. The study reported

that teachers lack of knowledge and skills is among the most inhibiting obstacles to the

use of computers in schools.

Anderson (2002) conducted case studies on ‘The network and administrative’. The

findings of studies are:

i. Changing interactions within the classroom as a direct or indirect result of using

ICT to support teaching and learning; and

ii. The involvement of others (non-teachers) outside the physical classroom in

students’ learning activities. He understood that how the innovative practices led

to a greater emphasis upon students who take responsibility for their own

progress, including self-imposed deadlines, and in other ways improving their

study and work skills.

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Diezmann et al. (2002) conducted survey on ‘Framework for multimedia resources’.

They found clear evidence that students appropriated ICT resources as tools to construct

an understanding of the teaching-learning process in science. Being able to access and

revisit resources over time had the potential to strengthen effectiveness and heighten

students’ interest in science teaching. Although the project included pre-service and in-

service teachers, the experience of using CD ROMs in teaching and learning applies

equally well in primary and secondary schools.

Green et al. (2002) in a study of the ‘Impact of the Internet on teacher practice and

classroom culture’ found that students were engaged when accessing the Internet. Girls

were comfortable searching for information on the Internet and reading multiple pages of

text, and were likely to take the time to read what they found.

Haidar (2002) in his study ‘Emirates secondary school science teachers’ perspectives on

the nexus between modern science and Arab culture’ found that secondary school science

teachers did not view modern science as part of European culture and perceived no

differences between modern science and Arab culture. It appeared that Arab teachers

lacked an understanding of the social component of science and training was required in

this aspect of science. The author argues that when they are discussing culturally critical

scientific issues in class, Arab science teachers should assume the role of cultural brokers

to facilitate students’ understanding of science. Teachers may therefore find difficulty in

delivering the content of science within their community’s ethnic traditions and cultural

knowledge.

Hawkins (2002) reported that school administrators offer very little structural support

and incentives to teachers in effective use of ICT in the classroom. Though lecturers

enthusiastically engage in collaborative projects and constructivist pedagogy,

administrative support given in reference to ICT is not adequate. Teachers use computers

more often for their teaching-learning process if they perceived an adequate support from

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the school administration. Teachers who receive adequate ICT support from the

administrators are more likely to use ICTs in their teaching practice while those who do

not receive ICT support from the higher authorities in school are less enthusiastic in using

computer or do not integrate technology at all. Administrators in school, such as the

principal acts as a mediator to integrate ICT into the educational system by playing a key

role in encouraging, supporting, and helping the teachers to use computers in their

teaching-learning process. The support of the school principal or administrator can

encourage and promote teachers willingness to use the computer as a medium to deliver

instruction. Thus, the role of the school administrator is crucial in providing the force,

support and conditions to enhance the use of computer in the teaching profession. Much

as administrative support is an important factor in positively influencing ICT integration

and implementation.

Levin et al. (2002) point out those students think of the Internet as an important way to

collaborate on project work with classmates more effective. They referred that the

Internet provides ways of presenting material that differs from how it is presented in class

and it is also a resource that is always available, patient and non judgmental.

Agaba (2003) conducted study on ‘Challenges and the way forward’. He found that lack

of skills as one of the problems explaining underutilization of Makerere University

Library electronic information resources by academic staff.

Berner (2003, cited in Afshari et al, 2008) in a case study on the ‘Relationship between

computer use in the classroom and two independent variables: beliefs about computer

competence; and administrative support’, found that the faculty’s belief not computer

competence was the greatest predictor of their use of computers in the classroom.

Therefore, teachers should develop their competence in ICT skills through training based

on the educational goals they want to accomplish in order to use computers in teaching.

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Blackmore et al. (2003) in the study ‘Effective use of information and communication

technology (ICT) to enhance learning for disadvantaged school students’ found that using

ICT in learning offers advantages and opportunities to increase students’ motivation,

helps students to solve problems, and increases students’ attention span.

Deaney et al. (2003) in their study ‘Pupil perspectives on the contribution of ICT to

teaching and learning in secondary schools’ found that students viewed ICT resources as

helpful in tasks and presentations, and also useful in refining project reports and trial

options. They associated ICT with change in the study environment and classroom

relations; ICT applications raised interest and increased motivation on their part.

Nevertheless, whilst the participants valued independent study and the challenge of ICT,

they were concerned that this reshaping of learning might be displacing valuable

teaching.

Munyantware (2003) in his study ‘problems affecting adoption technology by

mathematics and science teachers in secondary schools’ found out that teachers with

lower ICT proficiency are not willing and have less confidence to use ICT for teaching.

This suggests that teachers information communication technological skills are critical for

successful ICT implementation in the classroom.

Rogers et al. (2003) in an analysis of 350 lesson reports submitted by secondary schools

engaged in a UK Science Consortium program. An interesting feature of these data is the

dominance of “normal” science teaching objectives, suggesting that, in general, ICT

facilitates science learning rather than displacing it. Further, teachers rated 92 per cent of

their lessons with ICT as having successfully fulfilled their objectives. The researchers

also reported that successful outcomes were influenced by the following teaching

practices:

Lesson objectives are clearly identified and tasks are clearly defined.

The “time bonus” is used creatively, often involving interventions to encourage

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discussion and investigative approaches ICT activities are explicitly linked to

other activities before, during and after the ICT lesson.

Teachers plan a greater emphasis on interpretation of results and thinking about

science.

Teachers recognize and build upon the technical skill already acquired by pupils.

Al-Moussa (2004) conducted study on ‘Integration of information and communication

technology in Gulf Cooperation Council Countries’. He reported that obstacles to the

integration of ICT into schools in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries were a lack of

computer skills training for teachers and insufficient technical support, plus costs. A

recent Omani higher education survey concerned a questionnaire based on literature from

developed economies faculty member’s perceived moderate levels in obstacles in

applying ICT to their teaching practices: lack of equipment, lack of institutional support,

disbelief of ICT benefits, lack of confidence, and lack of time.

Nachmis et al. (2004) stated that staff training should be a continuous process for regular

updates with the development of ICTs. Faculty staff requires ICT training not just in the

choice and use of appropriate technologies, but on how people learn and in instructional

design.

Schaffer et al. (2004, cited in Afshari et al, 2009) reported that when technology is

introduced into teacher education programs, the emphasis is often on teaching about

technology instead of teaching with technology. Hence, inadequate preparation to use

technology is one of the reasons that teachers do not systematically use computers in their

classes. Teachers lack the necessary skills and thus need to be given opportunities to

practice using information communication technology during their teacher training

programs so that they can see ways in which technology can be used to augment their

classroom activities. Teachers are more likely to adopt and integrate ICT in their courses,

when professional training in the use of ICT provides them time to practice with the

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technology and to learn, share and collaborate with colleagues. The statement suggests

that training teachers to update their ICT skills may aid the integration of computers into

the classroom setting. To promote ICT integration in schools, school leaders should adopt

strategies that make ICT part of their daily routine or tasks of the teachers. These

strategies may include using e-mail as the mode of communication among staff, accessing

the Intranet to download data and using a word-processor to complete lesson plans for

submission.

Bauer et al. (2005) stated in their study ‘Towards technology integration in schools’ that

although teachers were having sufficient skills, were innovative and easily overcame

obstacles, they did not integrate technology consistently both as a teaching and learning

tool. Reasons being outdated hardware, lack of appropriate software, technical difficulties

and student skills levels. The study found that professional development has a significant

influence on how well ICT is embraced in the classroom. This implies that teachers

training programmes often focus more on basic skills and less on the integrated use of

ICT in teaching. Despite the numerous plans to use ICT in schools, teachers have

received little training in this area in their educational programs.

Jhurree (2005) in his study Technology integration in education in developing countries

reported that education reform is occurring throughout the world and one of its tenets is

the introduction and integration of ICTs in the education system. The successful

integration of ICTs into the classroom warrants careful planning and depends largely on

how well policy makers understand and appreciate the dynamics of such integration.

Integration of ICTs in education has been a contentious issue he claims some people

argue that technology will change the educational landscape forever and in ways that will

create a dramatic increase in the performance of learners.

Kozma (2005) have demonstrated that ICT can help deepen students’ content knowledge,

engage them in constructing their own knowledge, and support the development of

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complex thinking skills. He reported that ICT alone cannot create this kind of teaching

and learning environment. Teachers must know how to structure lessons, select resources,

guide activities, and support this learning process; many traditionally-trained teachers are

not prepared to take on these tasks.

Peansupap et al. (2005) conducted study on ‘Factors enabling information and

communication technology diffusion’. They found that lack of ICT skills as a key barrier

to adopting and using ICT applications in Australian construction organizations. They

indicated that the failure of ICT change derives from the traditional beliefs of managers

and ICT experts that technology is a magic bullet and so neglect role of people in any

change management task. Solving technical issues can minimize users resistance to

technological innovation and thus, ICT implementation success is often realized by

managers who understand the management of technological change. Thus, if teachers

perceive ICT as a beneficial tool, compatible with their current activities, easy to use and

have observable outcomes, they could demonstrate positive attitude towards ICT. This

can positively influence ICT Implementation in institutions of higher learning.

UNESCO (2005) reported that teachers, professors, technical and administrative staff

must be given training that enables them to integrate new information and communication

technologies into their teaching programs. The lack of technical skills of maintaining the

functionality of computers confused teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom.

Akankwasa (2006) conducted study on ‘Problems affecting the levels of computer use

for instructional purposes by technology teachers in government schools’. He found out

that although many teachers share beliefs that educational technology could promote

learning and that the use of ICT is desirable, they are reluctant to use educational ICT

because of insufficient support and resources.

Albirini (2006) stated that technology competence comprises not only technology

knowledge but also the skills and experience essential to put them into use. Technology

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competency allows the teachers to turn into most efficient individuals in dealing with

daily tasks such as to communicate with the students’ parents; to keep records; to do

research in their option domain; and to prepare presentations. Computer competence,

therefore, can be observed in terms of teachers beliefs concerning their knowledge, basic

skill, and capability of performing essential functions using the computer.

Also he reported that computer competence refers to educators’ beliefs about their

computer knowledge and skills. Computers are an essential part of many work places and

employers need both men and women with computers skills. Although some come to the

job with computer related education, many workers need training or retraining to keep up

with new computer hard ware or software.

International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (2006) held

its Second Information Technology in Education Study, an international comparative

study of pedagogy and ICT use in schools in 22 countries. The study focused on the role

of ICT in teaching and learning in mathematics and science classes, and examined the

extent to which practices conducive to the development of “21st century skills” were

present, in comparison to traditionally important practices. The study found that the

impact of ICT use on students was highly dependent on the teaching approaches adopted.

Greater student gains in 21st century skills were reported by teachers who provided more

student centered guidance and feedback and who engaged more frequently in advising

students on group work and enquiry projects. On the other hand, the study found that

higher levels of reported ICT usage did not necessarily equate with higher levels of

learning gains. No significant correlation was found between using ICT in traditional

instructional activities and perceived students’ learning outcomes.

Munyantware (2006) in his study ‘Problems affecting teachers’ adoption of technology

in classrooms among science and mathematics teachers in Kisoro District’, reported that

in addition to social support from colleagues, perceived support from the school

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influences teachers adoption decision. The study suggested that continuous support to

teachers gives them confidence in using computers in teaching their relevant courses in

institutions of higher learning.

Aryatuha (2007) studied on ‘Relationship between computerization and organizational

effectiveness’. He found that the availability of computer hardware and software should

be accompanied with training of the users and constant technical support. Without this,

even though high quality hardware and software are available, they could be wasted or

remain underutilized by the users.

Cox et al. (2007) conducted study on what factors support or prevent teachers from using

ICT in their classrooms? The researchers argue that decades after the introduction of ICT

into classrooms, there were unanswered questions about the impact of technology on

students’ learning, and the manner by which it affects simple and complex learning tasks.

In relation to the outcomes and recommendations for their study, they highlight the

absence of rigorous studies as impacting:

(a) Government policies;

(b) Teacher education programs:

(c) Advancing national curricula;

(d) Designing or reforming classroom implementation, and

(e) Analyzing costs and benefits.

Farrell (2007) conducted study on Survey of ICT and education in Africa. He found that,

though the Faculty of Computing and Information Technology at Makerere University

trains staff in e-learning and support e-learning in the whole university, comparatively

few teachers have the skills to make pedagogical use of ICT for teaching across the

curriculum. This could be due to inadequate ICT training skills, lack of time and negative

attitude by teachers towards ICT implementation.

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Fleming et al. (2007) studied on ‘Predicting preserves teacher competence in computer

technology, modeling and application in training environments’. They surveyed 79

pre-service teachers on their training experience and computer technology skills. Results

suggest that the more extensively pre-service teachers observe computer technology being

used and the more they use ICT in and out of the student teaching classroom, the more

likely they were to report competence in the computer technology skills.

Hennessey et al. (2007) studied on ‘Teacher perspectives on integrating ICT into subject

teaching, commitments, constraints, and caution and change’. They examined

pedagogical approaches to use ICT tools such as multimedia simulations, data logging

tools, and interactive whiteboards, and the means by which they may be adapted to the

cognitive and structuring resources available in the classroom setting. The researchers

found that teachers were moving away from only using practical experiments towards

“What if” explorations where the outcomes of ICT-based experiments can be

immediately accessed; for example through the use of simulations to demonstrate

scientific concepts and physical processes; thereby bridging the gap between scientific

and students’ informal knowledge. ICT was also integrated with other practical activities

to support incremental knowledge building, consolidation, and application.

Hsin-Kai et al. (2007) in a study ‘Factors effecting teachers adoption of technology in

classroom in Taiwan’ found that although many teachers share beliefs that educational

technology could promote learning and that the use of technology is desirable, they are

reluctant to use computers (ICT) because of insufficient support and resources provided

by schools. He also reported that teachers’ technological skills (e.g. technology

proficiency and computer literacy) are critical for successful implementation of ICT in the

classroom. Teachers should understand the enabling conditions of certain technologies in

order to engage students in ICT-based learning activities successfully. Teachers who have

lower ICT proficiency are usually not willing and have less confidence to use ICT for

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teaching. Teachers who have strong engagement towards their own professional

development are more motivated to computers.

Sife et al (2007) reported that administrative support is critical to the successful

integration of ICTs into teaching and learning processes. It can be argued that

administrators can provide the conditions that are needed, such as putting in place an ICT

policy, incentives and resources. He stated that for the adoption of ICTs to be effective

and sustainable, administrators themselves must be competent in the use of the

technology, and they must have a broad understanding of the technical, pedagogical,

administrative, financial, and social dimensions of ICTs in education.

Malcolm et al. (2008) reported that lack of professional development programs for

teachers to upgrade their skills on emerging technologies is a barrier to ICT

implementation administrators.

Yang (2008) in a case study ‘Examining university students and academic understanding

of ICT in higher education at Curtin University of technology’ reported that university

teachers who received support from administrators had a high commitment to the

adoption of ICT for teaching and learning. Data in the study suggested that the adoption

of ICT in teaching and learning would be promoted by greater support of the change at

the management level of the University. A crucial factor contributing to the promotion of

the innovation is the availability of infrastructure resources: hardware, in terms of the

number of computers in the school available for students and teachers for educational

purposes, and the quality and functioning of equipment (speed of processors, peripherals

and access to the internet) as well as available software. However, availability of ICT

alone is insufficient and must be accompanied by technical as well as pedagogical

support. He also reported that lack of technical support as one of the major barriers that

resulted in computers being underutilized in the classes. Teachers do not use computers in

teaching when they are not sure where to turn for help in case something goes wrong.

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Priscilla et al. (2008) conducted study on ‘Factors that could possibly influence the use

of laptops among educators’. They reported that guidance from a head of department is

very important in encouraging the development of electronic lesson materials to

encourage computer use for the specific subject in the teaching-learning environment.

The study found out that the success of integrating ICT into the teaching-learning

interaction among school teachers depends on the support provided by the principal of the

school.

Abdi et al. (2009) conducted survey research ‘The utilization and integration of ICT in

chemistry teaching in Iranian high schools’. They found that in general they highly need

to change chemistry curriculum using ICT and they had very positive views toward ICT

and comments were effective for changing the learning environment.

Afshari et al. (2009) studied on ‘Factors effecting teachers’ use of information and

communication technology policy for education’. They stated that schools should work to

convince ICT staff on how ICT integration in classrooms is very important. Ministry of

Education and Sports should encourage Schools to purchase highly reliable technologies;

improve systems for checking and maintaining ICTs in the classroom. This could be done

by creating new approaches (including staff training) to guarantee that extremely rapid

responses are made to breakdowns. They reported that with information technology

support, teachers are able to access school network, internet and computer accessories

(printer, digital camera, data projector, large TV screen, scanner and video camera). They

also reported that as beginners of computer use, teachers need technical training support

to assist them in teaching-learning process when they face constraints whereas for

competent teachers, they are eager to share their expertise and provide technology support

to their colleagues. Thus, lack of technical knowledge of maintaining the functionality of

computers confused teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom. They found the effective

use of computers by teachers depends not only on their attitudes, but also on the training

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they have received Teachers competence presupposes: positive attitudes to ICT,

understanding of educational potential of ICT, ability to use ICT effectively in the

curriculum and ability to manage ICT use in the classroom.

Bahr (2009) in his study ‘Technological barriers to learning’ found that the complex ICT

environments may adversely impact on student learning. Learning is enhanced when

integrating pedagogies are employed to soften the sometimes high-load information

environments of ICT. Further, a framework for ICT in education needs to consider the

professional capacities of teachers in their differing abilities to effectively design and

integrate technologies for learning.

Beauchamp et al. (2009) conducted research on ‘Pupils’ attitudes towards school science

as they transfer from an ICT-rich primary school to a secondary school with fewer ICT

resources’. They studied a group of science students from a technology-rich primary

school who moved to a less ICT-oriented secondary school in rural UK. They found that

the lack of ICT in the secondary school caused some frustration; however, the group

remained predominantly enthusiastic about science. The students particularly enjoyed the

practical aspects of science lessons, something that they had not experienced in the

primary school, and which they reported compensated for the relative lack of ICT in

science teaching.

Granić et al. (2009) studied on ‘Design, implementation and validation of a Europe-wide

pedagogical framework for e-learning’. The study was pedagogical framework for online

learning in secondary schools from static e-learning and mobile (m-learning) approaches.

They found that successful integration required administrative support, adequate

resources and appropriate continuing professional development; however, with

experience, the teachers’ knowledge improved and their opinion of the program’s

effectiveness increased. The researchers note that effective implementation of the ICT

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framework offered scope for both collaborative and autonomous learning which improved

teaching and learning performance in the Europe-wide network of schools.

Park et al. (2009) investigated on ‘ICT in science education: A quasi-experimental study

of achievement, attitudes toward science, and career aspirations of Korean middle school

students’. The researchers found some evidence that ICT assists high-achieving students

and encourage enrolment in science.

Wolcott et al. (2011) in their study ‘Faculty participation: Motivations, incentives, and

rewards’ found that intrinsic motives, such as job satisfaction and trying new technology

tools and teaching strategies, were the most influential factors in faculty decisions to get

involved in online learning. They found that faculty who wanted to participate were

least influenced by extrinsic motivations such as monetary support, course release time,

and tenure and promotion credit. Furthermore, some universities who did not provide

faculty release time to develop online courses have had other staff members do this

work, as with instructional designers, multimedia developers, and technology experts.

Young et al. (2012) studied on ‘Preparing instructors for quality online instruction’. They

found that warned an instructor’s online role can be more difficult than one experienced

in traditional classrooms. Online instructors were thought to have the extra burden of

preparing courses well in advance, constantly facilitating the course, modeling good

communication skills, and adjusting courses for the varied needs of students.

Reid (2013) studied on ‘Quality assurance, open and distance learning, and Australian

universities’. They found that determined online instructors moved through different

phases of their online learning experience, and their needs changed at each stage.

Furthermore, considering educational leaders were responsible for the quality of online

programs and instruction they also needed to engage in professional development, and

experiment with online learning environments, infrastructures, and technologies.

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Summary of review of related literature

As observed from the related literature from various scholars and past researchers

collected from secondary sources i.e. textbooks, magazines, internet and journals, it

shows that to a large extent ICT implementation in developing countries is still minimal.

As regards to cost of ICT training materials, most studies indicate that to a large extent,

costs were very high and thus affecting ICT implementation in institutions of higher

learning as supported by Makau (1986) for Kenya, and Mumatz (2005) in Tanzania.

However, few scholars like Tusubira and Mulira (2004); Ensafi et al. (2007) were

taking another positive trend in the case of higher education. Other scholars were

concerned with ICT implementation in primary and secondary schools i.e. Makau for

Nigeria, Munyantware for Uganda, thus leaving a gap for institutions of higher learning

which this study intended to close.

For the case of skills development in ICT and administrative support, most scholars and

past studies suggested that to a large extent these two variables positively affected ICT

implementation. For example, Farrell, Agaba and Mugisha for Makerere University,

Kyambogo University, and Mbarara University, respectively. Few scholars like Mooij

and Smeets (2001) in Holland were of the view that possessing ICT skills does not

warrant use of computers in teaching.

By analyzing and synthesizing the different ways of classifying and categorizing ICT

usage in the classrooms, the literature informs a repertoire of using ICT in teaching and

learning. Children who exposed to school ICT programmes learned better than children

not exposed. Also ICT was found to make school more interesting. Also when students

participated in the ICT programmes, programmes were more effective.

Majority of the students and teachers had positive reaction to ICT programmes. Teachers

and principals believed that teaching through ICT is better than traditional way of

teaching. Whenever teachers used follow up activities, students attitudes toward ICT

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programmes were found are higher. The above all, all the research findings revealed that

ICT programmes by and large have been utilized in comprehensive manner in countries

for the benefit of the students. In India the utilization of ICT within the classroom seems

to be meager. The reasons for under-utilization of ICT were manifold.

Literature review shows that due to poor maintenance of computer sets, the sets go out of

order most of the time. The socio economic condition of the rural children adversely

affects the education at the secondary stage of learning. The traditional system of

education is not able to attract them toward formal system of schooling. In this context it

is determined that Information Communication Technology (ICT) can motivate children

to perform better and change their attitude toward school and learning.