chapter ii review of literature 2.1 the understanding of...

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 The Understanding of Syntax

Syntax is one of branch linguistics which studies of logical relation. There are

some definitions of Syntax.

“Syntax is a word which comes from the Greek. It means, in that language, the joining of several things together; and, as used by grammarians, it means those principles and rules which teach us how to put words together so as to form sentences. It means, in short, sentence-making. Having been taught by the rules of Etymology what are the relationships of words, how words grow out of each other, how they are varied in their letters in order to correspond with the variation in the circumstances to which they apply, Syntax will teach you how to give all your words their proper situations or places, when you come to put them together into sentences” (William Cobbett:1818)

“Syntax studies the organization of words into phrases and phrases into sentences” (

Bolinger,1975:171).

“Syntax is the part of grammar dealing with the other types of grammatical units” (Bi

ber, 2002:13).

“Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are

constructed in particular language” (Chomsky, 1961:11)

“Sintaksis membicarakan kata dalam hubungannya dengan kata lain, atau unsur-

unsur lain sebagai ujaran” (Chaer, 1994:2006) “syntax talks about word and its

relation with other words, or other elements as an utterance”

Universitas Sumatera Utara

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2.2 The Basic Structure of English Syntax

2.2.1 Word Class

One way to begin studying of logical relation is to consider the traditional

parts of speech (also called word classes): nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives,

adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and interjections. To know surely what

part of speech a word is, we have to look not only at the word itself but also at its

function.

2.2.1.1 Noun

A noun is the name of a person, place or thing (Frank, 1972: 6). A noun can

function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject

complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective, and an adverb. For

examples: house, mother, Indonesia, person, place, thing or idea is usually preceded

by articles or demonstratives. Noun in English can be classified into two types,

namely:

1.Concrete nouns are words for a physical object that can be perceived by the sense

– we can see, touch, smell the object. Concrete nouns can be classified into:

� Common nouns are words used to name all member of a class or group such as:

boy, girl, iron, glass, teacher, pupil, bus, and cup.

� Proper nouns are words used to name a specific person, place, or thing. Such as:

Bill Gates, Medan, and Mr. Andi Sirait.

� Material nouns are words used to name all materials. Such as: gold, bronze,

copper, steel, silver, zinc, and coal.


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� Collective nouns are words for a group of people, animals, or objects considered

as a single unit, such as press, public, team class, crew, crowd, enemy, faculty,

family, audience, committee, and government.

2.Abstract nouns are words for concepts – it is an idea that exists in our minds only.

Such as: beauty, justice, mankind, truth, happiness, sadness, and goodness.

2.2.1.2. Pronoun

A pronoun is a word that replaces or stands for (“pro” = for) a noun. For

examples: I, you, and we. According to Burton (1986:54) pronoun can be divided

into five types. They are:

1. Definite Pronouns: she/her/, it, I/ me, we/us, you, they/them.

2. Indefinite Pronouns: some, something, someone, anything, anyone.

3. Demonstrative Pronouns: this, that, these, those.

4. Interrogative (Question) Pronouns: who, which, what, whose.

5. Possessive Pronouns: my/mine, your/yours, his, her/hers, its, our/ours, your/yours,

their/ theirs.

2.2.1.3 Verb

A verb is word used to show an action or a state of being. According to the

object they are requiring, verbs can be:

1.Transitive verbs: verbs which takes a direct object (no prepositions are needed to

connect verb and object). For example: I ride a car.

2.Intransitive verbs: verbs which does not require an object. This includes both

intransitive verbs which take an indirect object (usually with a preposition), such as


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(He is walking in the park), and intransitive verbs which have no object at all, such

as He fell down.

2.2.1.4 Adjective

An adjective is a modifier that has the grammatical property of comparison. It

describes or modifiers noun. It is often identified by special derivational endings or

by special adverbial modifiers that precede it. Its most usual position is before the

noun it modifies, but it fills other position as well. There are two types of adjectives.

They are:

a. Determiners consist of a small group of structure words without characteristic

form, they are:

1. Articles: it signals definite and indefinite meaning. For example: a and an.

2. Demonstrative adjective: it is identical to a demonstrative pronoun, but it is used

as adjectives to modify noun or noun phrase. For example: this, these, that, and

those.

3. Possessive adjective: it is similar to a possessive pronoun, but it modifies a noun

or noun phrase. For examples: my, your, Gita’s, and the boy’s.

4. Numeral adjective: four, one hundred, fourth, one hundredth.

5. Indefinite adjective: it is similar to an indefinite pronoun. It modifies a noun,

pronoun, and noun phrase. For examples: some, few, all, and more.

6. Relative and interrogative adjective: it is like an interrogative pronoun, but it

modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own. For example: whose,

what, and which.


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b. Descriptive adjectives usually indicate an inherent quality (beautiful, intelligent),

or a physical state such as age, size, and color. Inflectional and derivational endings

can be added only to this type of adjective. Some descriptive adjectives take the form

of:

1. Proper adjectives, such as a Catholic church, a French dish, and a Shakespearian

play.

2. Participial adjectives, these consist of present participle (e.g: an interesting topic, a

disappointing experience) and past participle (a bored student, a tired housewife).

3. Adjective compounds, these consist of with participles (e.g: a good-looking girl, a

heart-breaking story) and with –ed added to nouns functioning as the second element

of a compound. The first element is usually a short adjective (e.g: ill-tempered, far-

sighted).

2.2.1.5 Adverb

An adverb is a word that describes or modifies a verb. There are four

classifications adverbs of based on its meaning.

1. Adverb of manner: has the most characteristic adverbial form (an –ly ending

added to a descriptive adjective). For examples: beautifully, badly, and slowly.

2. Adverb of place and direction. For examples: left, straight, here, away, and

outside.

3. Adverb of time: points to the time both definite time and indefinite time. For

examples: recently, nowadays, soon ,yesterday, today, tomorrow, , and already.

4. Intensifying adverbs: serve as quantifiers or emphasizers. For example: somewhat,

extremely ,very, too, quiet, and fairly.


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2.2.1.6 Interjection

An interjection is a word that expresses emotion and has no grammatical

relation to other words in the sentence. For examples: Oh! Hurrah! Nonsense!, etc.

2.2.1.7 Preposition

A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence.

The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the objectof the

preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical

relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence.

Preposition may be arranged in the following classes:

1.Simple Prepositions

At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to,but,yet, up, with

2. Compound Prepositions

About, above, across, along, admidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind,

below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within,

without.

3. Phrase Prepositions( Groups of words used with the force of a single

preposition.)

According to, agreeaby to, along with, away from, because of, by means of, by

reason of, by virtue of, by way of, comfomably to, for the sake of, in accordance

with, in addition, in (on) behalf, in case of, in comparison to, in compliance with, in

consequence of, in course of, in favour of, in front of, in order to,in place of,in

reference to,in regard to,in spite of ,instead of in the event of, on account of, owing

to, with a view to, with an eye, with reference to, and with regard to.


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2.2.1.8 Conjunction

A conjunction is a word which connects two words or clauses or sentences

and shows the relation between them.

There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative

conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions, and each type is used differently within

a sentence.

1. Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect two words or groups of words with

similar values. They may connect two words, two phrases, two independent clauses

or two dependent clauses.

For example, in each of the following sentences the coordinating conjunction

“and” connects equal words or groups of words:

1.Connects two words: John and Reggie stayed up all night practicing their guitars.

2.Connects two phrases: The squirrel scurried up the tree trunk and onto a low

branch.

3.Connects two clauses: Several managers sat with their backs to us, and I could

almost hear them snickering at us lowly workers.

There are only seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language, and

they are often remembered by using the acronym “FANBOYS”: for, and, nor, but,

or, yet and so.

2. Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that cannot stand by

themselves. A set of correlative conjunctions is usually located within the same


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sentence, and if not, each one from the pair is located in separate but closely related

sentences. The five correlative conjunctions include:

Both, and

Either, or

Neither, nor

Not only, also

Not only, but also

3. Subordinating Conjunctions

These conjunctions are used to join an independent and complete clause with

a dependent clause that relies on the main clause for meaning and relevance. The

dependent clause cannot exist on its own as a sentence and often does not make sense

without the main clause.

The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent clause but

the dependent clause itself can be placed either ahead of or following the

independent clause.

1.Since they had misbehaved, the boys were given one week suspensions from

school.

Here, we see the dependent clause is ‘they had misbehaved’ which is not a valid

sentence by itself.The independent main clause is ‘the boys were given one week

suspensions from school’.They are joined by the subordinating conjunction ‘since’.

2.He was fond of playing basketball because it was his father’s favourite game.

In this sentence, because is the subordinating conjunction as it introduces the

dependent clause ‘it was his father’s favourite game’. The main clause in this


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sentence is ‘he was fond of playing basketball’ as it is the sentence which can be said

independently and still be grammatically correct.

Subordinating conjunctions connect two groups of words by making one into a

subordinating clause. The subordinating clause acts as one huge adverb, answering

the questions “when” or “why” about the main clause, or imposing conditions or

opposition on it.

Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions changing a clause into

adverbial subordinating clauses in different ways:

I can go shopping after I finish studying for my exam. (when)

Because the night was young, Gertrude decided to take a walk. (why)

I’ll give you a dime if you give me a dollar. (condition)

Although he never figured out why, Hanna winked on her way out the door.

(opposition)

Other subordinating conjunctions are -As if, As in, As long as, As much as, Assuming

that, Before, Even though, How, In order that, In that, Now that, Once, Providing

that, So long as, So that, Than, That, Though, Unless, Until, When, Whenever,

Wherever, Whether, While. subordinating conjunction.dkdklsand the ste of discourse.

Cputati

2.3 Logical Relation

Logical relation is use conjunctions as a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins)

parts of a sentence. There seem to be two basic types of conjunctions. They are:

coordinating conjunctions used to connect two independent clauses and

subordinating conjunctions used to establish the relationship between the dependent

clause and the rest of the sentence.In several types of logical relation, preposition is

also use as the joiner.


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There are some defenition from some linguist experts of logical relation. The

defenitions as follows:

1. “ Logical relations are relations in which there is always the notion of cause-

EFFECT. Cause and effect are an action-reaction combination. The cause is the

reason something happens, and the effect is what happens as a result. Cause and

effect is seven tools of quality, shows the relationship of all factors (causes) that lead

to the given situation (effect)” Beekman and Callow (1974:300) and Barnwell

(1980:178)

2. A logical relation is an interpropositional relation in which a proposition is related to

another, in reasoning, as:

A premise to a conclusion, or

An antecedent to a consequent

(Ekkehard Konig:1986)

3.“The logical relation of a sentence (or utterance) is a formal representation of its logical structure; that is, of the structure which is relevant to specifying its logical role and properties. There are a number of (interrelated) reasons for giving a rendering of a sentence's logical form, to give the proper form for the determination of truth-conditions, to show those aspects of a sentence's meaning which follow from the logical role of certain term (the truth-functional account of conjunction) and to formalize or regiment the language in order to show that it is has certain metalogical properties” (Robert E Longacre:1983). 4.“ Logical relation shows the relationship of all factors (causes) that lead to the

given situation (effect). It identifies major causes and breaks them down into sub-

causes and further sub-divisions” (Bruce Hollenbach:1975)

5.Logical relation is a problem-solution pattern. A problem-solution pattern divides

information into two main section, one that describe a problem and one that describe

a solution.This pattern is typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer’s

general purpose is to convince the reader to a support a certain course of action.The


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pattern is designed to compel the reader to make some kind of change opinion or

behaviour by establishing that a problem exist, then providing a solution.In the

problem section, the writer identifies different aspects of the problem being

discussed and offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section,the writer

identifies a potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution over

others.

Beekman , Callow and Barnwell’s theory of logical relation is so compact

and easy to understand. Next, the writer will introduce the seven kinds of logical

relation completely.

2.3.1 Kinds of Logical Relation

Barnwell Beekman and Callow (1974:300) and Barnwell (1980:178) in Meaning

Based Translation divide logical relation into seven kinds. It is sometimes called

argumentation relations. Logical Relations can be divided into seven kinds. Each of

logical relations is discussed and exemplified. However, in order to focus on the

contrast between them, the following examples are given.

2.3.1.1 Reason-RESULT

In the reason-RESULT relation the proposition which has the role of reason

answer the question “why this result?”. In your written and spoken assignment you

will often need to annswer question ‘why?’.When you want to explain why

something happens, you can use a reason clause introduced by the conjunction such

as because, since, so, and therefore.


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Notice the following sentences:

1.Mary took a vacation because she was tired.

2.Since Mary was tired, she took a vacation.

2.3.1.2 Means-RESULT

Means-RESULT is the relationship in which the means proposition answer

the question “how did this result come about?” The Means-RESULT relation

use conjunction Such as by, with, through . For example, He won the race by practici

ng a lot.The RESULT is he won therace and the means by which he did this was he

practiced a lot. Means always carries the idea of intention ,whereas, reason does not.

In the following sentences, the part of the sentence which encodes the means

proposition is in italics:

1.By working very hard, he finished early.

2.They protected the house from the thieves through constant vigilance .

3.The students won the tournament by playing together well.

4.By putting money in the Bank, he saved enough to buy a house.

2.3.1.3 Purpose –MEANS

Purpose-MEANS is a relationship in which the MEANS proposition answer

the question “what was done in order to achieve this purpose?. Here again, there is

deliberate intention in that a deliberate MEANS was used to bring about at particular

purpose.The difference between means-RESULT and purpose-MEANS is that the

RESULT was actually brought about but the purpose may or may not have been

fulfilled.


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Notice the difference between the following:

Means-RESULT : By studying hard, he passed his exam.

Purpose-MEANS: In order to pass the exam, he studied hard (but he didn’t pass).

Purpose-MEANS relation is often signaled by conjunction in order to and

so that. Sometimes the infinitive is used. For example, She went to call him to dinner

consist of two propositions; the MEANS, she went, and the purpose, (in order that)

she call him to dinner.

In the following sentences the part of the sentence which is encoding a purpose

preposition is in italics:

1.Jhon went to the store to buy a book.

2.In order to get there on time, they took a taxi.

3.I came to wake you up.

4.He hang it up to dry ( in order that it dry out)

This relation is often marked with such conjunction Therefore, Thus, In

consequence, Consequently, For this /that reason.

In the following display (adapted from Beekman, Callow, and Kopesec

1981:102) may be helpful in showing the contrast between the three relations

discussed above.

Cause-effect Intention Effect Cause answer the question:

REASON-

RESULT

No Actual Why this result?

MEANS-RESULT Yes How did this result come about ?

MEANS-

PURPOSE

Potential What action was undertaken to

achieve the intended result?


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2.3.1.4 Concession-CONTRAEXPECTATION

A Concession CONTRAEXPECTATION is a relation of unexpectedness bet

ween propositions. Some propositions in the relation as unexpected (the

contraexpectation) in light of some other propositions (the concession).Concession-

CONTRAEXPECTATION relation has an element of “unexpectedness.” There are

three parts:

1.a cause (the concession part)

2.an expected effect, and

3.An unexpected result (the CONTRAEXPECTATION part).

Notice the following sentence: Although the doctor told Bill to stay home,he went to

the ball game.The three parts are:

1.The cause : The doctor told Bill to stay home.

2.The expected effect : Bill stayed home.

3.The unexpected effect : Bill went to the ball game.

Notice that second proposition, that is, the expected effect, is not included in

the English sentence.Only the cause and the unexpected effect occur. However, the

English sentence, In spite of the doctor’s instruction, Bill went to the ball game

instead of staying home, includes all three. The english sentence The doctor told Bill

to stay home, but he didn’t includes the cause and the expected effect negated. All

these forms have the same meaning.

In English, this relation is often marked by the subordinating conjunction

such as although, (even) though, whereas, even if, yet, in spite of, but. In the

following sentences, the part of the sentence which is enconding a concession

proposition is in italics. Implicit information is added in parentheses.

1.Although the children ate a lot of green apples, they didn’t feel sick.


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(Implied expected effect : They ought to feel sick)

2.I waited a long time but no one come.

(Implied expected effect: Someone would come)

3.In spite of what the man said they didn’t stay.

(Implied expected effect : They would stay)

4.Even if I get up early I’ll have to hurry.

(Implied expected effect : I shouldn’t have to hurry.)

2.3.1.5 Grounds-CONCLUSION

Grounds-CONCLUSION relation answer the question “What fact is this

conclusion based on?” The relationship between the grounds and CONCLUSION

can be stated with the words therefore, I conclude that, or one concludes that

between the two propositions. For example, The door is unlocked so Mary must be

home consist of two proposition. The grounds, The door is unlocked and the

CONCLUSION, Mary must be home. The relationship could be stated: The door is

unlocked, therefore, I conclude that Mary is home. In English, the grounds-

CONCLUSION relation typically uses the words so and must be. In the following

sentences, the part of the sentences, the part of the sentence which is encoding the

grounds proposition in in italics.

1.The wind is blowing so it must be that it is going to rain soon.

2.It must be late because it’s getting dark.

3.Mary must have come, I see her son by the door.


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2.3.1.6 Grounds-EXHORTATION

The Grounds-EXHORTATION relation is most like the grounds-

CONCLUSION relation, however, in grounds-CONCLUSION the CONCLUSION

is a statement and in Grounds-EXHORTATION the EXHORTATION is always a

command. Notice the difference between the two following examples:

grounds-CONCLUSION : The floor is clean, therefore, someone must have swept it.

Grounds-EXHORTATION : The floor is clean so kept it that way.

The conjunction which typically are used in English to mark the grounds-

EXHORTATION relation are so and therefore. In the following sentences, the part

of the sentence which is encoding the grounds proposition is in italics:

1.Father just painted the table, so don’t touch it.

2.It’s getting late, so let’s go to bed.

3.Peter like fish, so give him plenty.

2.3.1.7 Condition-CONSEQUENCE

The Condition CONSEQUENCE relation is also of the cause EFFECT type. H

owever, the cause, that is, the condition, is either hypotical or there is some element

of uncertainty. This relation has often been subdivided into contrary-to–fact and

potential fact.This subdivisions is pointed out in Barnwell 1980:183-184. Both types

are characteristically signaled by conjunction if. If that had happened, then this

would have happened. For example, if it had rained, I would have stayed home; If

Jhon gets home in time, we’ll go.

In a contrary to fact Condition CONSEQUENCE relation, the condition is hy

pothetical or imagined and did not, will not, or no is not expected to actually take

place. It is simply describing a condition which might have been but as a matter fact


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did not occur or is not expected to. For example, notice this sentence if were

younger, I would go to Europe. The first proposition is the condition and is contrary-

to-fact since I am not younger. I would go to Europe, which is the consequence, is

also simply hypotical. In the sentence If he had not missed the bus, he would be there

now, the first proposition is the condition and the second is the

CONSEQUENCE. Neither is a fact. They are only imagined.

Notice that the contrary-to-fact condition-CONSEQUENCE examples given

above are in the past tense.That is, they are things that propositions are in the future

tense.This is true when they refer to EVENTS which are not expected to happen. For

example, If I were to die tommorow, who would run the store?

The second type of condition-CONSEQUENCE relation is that of a potential

fact. The propositions are either in the present or future. It is also unknown wheter

the condition will be met which will result in the CONSEQUENCE or not. For

example, If you get there early, you will get inside. Since it has not yet happened, this

is simply a potential fact.The CONSEQUENCE of getting inside is dependent on the

condition of getting there early.

In the following sentences, the part of the sentence which encodes the

condition proposition is in italics.The first four examples illustrate contrary-to-fact

and the second two is potential fact.

1.If you had asked me, I would have helped you.

2.If he had eaten his dinner, he wouldn’t be hungry now.

3.Jhon would have caught the bus, if he had not stopped to talk.

4.I would have come earlier, if you had asked me to.

5.If a will is not signed, it is not valid.

6.If you get up early, you will not see the sun rise.


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