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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Definition of Translation

Definition of translation has been explained by many experts. One of the

definitions of translation reveals by Hatim and Munday (2004: 6). They define

translation as “the process of transferring a written text from source language (SL) to

target language (TL)”. The definition emphasize that the source text and the target

text is in form of written text.

Moreover, there are similar definitions of translation from two experts, there

are Catford and Bell. Catford (1965) defines translation as the replacement of textual

material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another

language (target language). Then, Bell (1991) defines translation as “the replacement

of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text

in a second language”. Both of them emphasize that producing equivalent text is

important thing in process of translation.

Furthermore, Nida and Taber (1969) add that translation as a process to

produce the closest natural equivalent of the source language into the receptor

language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In broad outline

the experts have similarities in defining what the translation is. However, Nida and

Taber have a more comprehensive definition by adding the characteristics of the

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closest equivalence in two aspects, namely the meaning and the style of the

translation.

B. Problems of Translation

Problem of translation is often found by the translator in translation process.

This is because the differences of language and cultural system owned by the source

text with language and cultural system owned bythe target text. The language is a part

of social culture. As explained by Nababan in „Penerjemahan dan Budaya‟. He states

that“Konsep bahwa bahasa adalah budaya, dan budaya diwujudkan melalui perilaku

kebahasaan, dapat pula diterapkan dan dikaitkan pada bidang penerjemahan.”

(http://www.proz.com/doc/2074, published at 10/21/2008). From the explanation

above, it can be concluded that the translator should be able to translate the ST into

language and cultural system which is applicable in TT.

According to Nababan (2008:55), problems of translation were distinguished

into four types:

1. The different system between source language and target language system.

Every language has its own system. The essential thing in translation is knowledge

about language system from ST language and TT language. In translation, translator

is demanded not only be able to produce an equivalent word but also to comprehend

both ST language system and TT language system. The differences can be seen from

the structure at syntactic, syntagmatic, lexical and morpheme. As well as English and

Indonesian also has a different language system.

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2. The semantic and stylistic complexity.

Talking about translation it means that talking the meaning of the words. The

semantic complexity refers to the meaning of the words. The meaning of the words

are very wide and subjective because it is depend on the socio-culture where the

language forming. For example in Bahasa, the word “Petani” is described by

Indonesian people as poor people who work in rice field. While in Europe and

America, the word “Farmer” is described as rich people who have very large farm

land. The stylistic complexity also can be a problem of translation. Literary works;

such as poem, poetry, and drama have their own style. The style in literary works was

influenced by the culture in the society.

3. The difference of translator‟s competence

Translator handles the important role in translation process. Their competence in

translation effects in their translation quality. A good translator must be able to

overcome the problems of translation. To be expert in translation and produce a good

translation are needed wide knowledge and experiences. The knowledge of the text

which will be translated such as what is the type of text and who is be the target

reader will help translator in solving problems in process of translation. While

translator experiences in translation also become important needs in overcome the

problems of translation.

4. The quality of the source text

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The low quality of source text can be one of problem of translation process. This

problem can arrive from the ambiguities, grammatical errors, mistyping or spelling

errors in the source text.

Moreover, Baker (1992) also distinguishes the common problems of non-

equivalence into eleven types:

1. Cultural-specific concepts

It is related to the cultural background differences. The word or phrase from source

language may express a concept which is very unfamiliar or unknown in the target

language. This case may happen because there is no similar culture which is

described by source language in target language.

2. The source language concept is not lexicalized in the target language

The word or phrase from source language may express a concept which is familiar or

known in the target culture but simply not lexicalized.

3. The source-language word is semantically complex

The word or phrase from the source language may semantically complex.

4. The source language and the target language make different distinction in

meaning

The target language sometimes creates more or fewer distinction in meaning than the

source language does.

5. The target lacks of superordinate

The target language word may has only a specific meaning (hyponymy) without the

general meaning (superordinate).

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6. The target language lacks of specific term (hyponymy)

The target language tends to have general words (superordinate) but lack specific

ones (hyponyms).

7. Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective

Physical or interpersonal perspective is associated to where things or people are

related to one another or to place.

8. Difference in expressive meaning

Sometimes there is word in target language which is has equal proportional meaning

with source language may have different expressive meaning.

9. Differences in form

There is no equivalent for a particular form between source language and target

language.

10. Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms.

It is possible that when the source language has an equivalent particular form in target

language but it is different in frequency with the purposes of using the specific form.

11. The use of loan words in the source text

Finding the same meaning of loan word in the target text can be a problem for

translator in translation process.

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C. Translation Techniques

Molina and Albir (2002:509) define that translation technique is “procedures

to analyze and classify how translation equivalence works”. Translator technique can

be used to analyze the steps taken by translator in translating process. It is possible to

translator applying more than one techniques to translate one sentence. There are

eighteen translation techniques reveal by Molina and Albir (2002:509-511), those

techniques are:

1. Adaptation

The translator replaces ST cultural element into the target culture which has the same

character or appropriate for the target reader.

Example:

ST: killing two birds with one stone

TT: sekali mendayung dua tiga pulau terlampaui

The translator adapts the idiom which has same meaning in the target text.

2. Amplification

It means that the translator makes implicit meaning in the source text to be explicit

into target text. Sometimes translator also paraphrases some information which is

implicit in the source text to avoid misunderstanding in the target text. This technique

is similar to addition and paraphrasing.

Example:

ST: There are a couple of Yankee people in here.

TT: Ada sepasang orang Amerika disini.

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3. Borrowing

This technique is done by borrowing the word or phrase from source language. There

are two types of borrowing, first is pure borrowing (borrowing without adjustment).

For instance the word „blender‟ is translated into „blender‟ in Bahasa. While the

second is naturalized borrowing it is borrowing with an adjustment in spelling or

pronunciation. E.g. the word „tractor‟ is translated into „traktor‟ in Bahasa.

4. Loan translation (Calque)

The translator translates words or phrases from source language literally. This

technique is similar to acceptation.

Example:

ST: lieutenant general

TT: letnan jendral

5. Compensation

This technique is done by delivering the messages into the other part of translation

text. It is because stylistic influence of source language of source text cannot be

applied in target language. This technique is similar to conception.

Example:

ST: a pair of scissor

TT: sebuah gunting

6. Description

The translator changes a technical term or phrase into description of the form and

function.

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Example:

ST: Grits

TT: jagung yang digiling namun masih kasar

7. Discursive creation

This technique is done by using equivalence which is out of context. It is done to

draw reader‟s attention. This technique is similar to proposal technique.

Example:

ST: The Godfather

TT: Sang Godfather

8. Establish equivalence

The translator uses term or expression that was common in daily conversation or it is

states in dictionary.

Example:

ST: Sincerely yours

TT: Hormat kami

9. Generalization

This is a technique that uses more general terms in the target language to specific

term in source text. This is because the target language does not have specific term.

This technique is similar to acceptation technique. E.g. the words

Example:

ST: saucepan

TT: panci

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10. Linguistic amplification

This technique is done by adding linguistic elements into target language. This

technique is frequently used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing.

Example:

ST: everything is up to you!

TT: semua terserah diri anda sendiri!

11. Linguistic compression

This technique is done by synthesizing linguistic elements in the TT. This is usually

found in simultaneous interpreting and in subtitling.

Example:

ST: Yes, so what?

TT: Y? (Spanish)

12. Literal translation

The translator translates words or expressions word by word. The ST and the TT has

same structure.

Example:

ST: He also won several competitions.

TT: Dia juga memenangkan beberapa lomba.

13. Modulation

This is a technique which is applied by changing point of view, focus or cognitive

category due to the source language. The changing of point of view can be lexical or

structural.

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Example:

ST: nobody doesn‟t know him

TT: semua orang mengenalnya

14. Particularization

The translator uses more concrete or specific term from superordinate to subordinate.

This technique is opposition to generalization.

Example:

ST: public transportation

TT: bus

15. Reduction

This technique is done by applying omission partially. It is because the omission is

considered does not reduce the message. In other word, this technique makes implicit

the explicit information. It is opposition to amplification technique.

Example:

ST: She got a car accident

TT: Dia mengalami kecelakaan

16. Substitution

The translator changes linguistic elements for paralinguistic elements (intonation or

sign). E.g., to translate the Arab gesture of putting your hand on your heart as Thank

you. It is used above all in interpreting” (ibid: 511).

17. Transposition

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This technique is done by changing grammatical category. This strategy often called

as translation shift. E.g. the word „huge‟ in English is translated into phrase „sangat

besar‟ in Bahasa.

18. Variation

“To change linguistic or paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) that affect

aspects of linguistic variation: changes of textual tone, style, social dialect,

geographical dialect, etc”

Example:

ST: Give it to me now!

TT: Berikan barang itu ke gue sekarang!

D. Translation Quality Assessment

An assessment of translation quality is needed to know whether good or not a

translation product. Translation quality assessment can be done in many ways.

According to Larson (1984:489), there are some ways to test a translation. Those are:

1. Comparison with the source language. The translator compares several points

of the text of SL to TL carefully. This is done to check the equivalence of the

information of the text.

2. Back-translation. The translator asks a person who is real bilingual and able to

da back translation. However, back-translation cannot be applied to test the

naturalness of the translation.

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3. Comprehension test. The purpose is to check whether a translation is

understood by target readers correctly without knowing the source language

and to find out what the translation is communicating to the audience.

4. Naturalness and readability test. The purpose is to check if the form of the

translation is natural and style is used appropriately or not.

5. Consistency test. It is related to the consistency of the translator in translating

some words or phrases and key term in the text. The purpose is to make sure

that the same term is surely used or that there are different terms used in

certain context for some reason.

Moreover, Nababan (2008:83), states that to criticize the translation product is

a very difficult task, because it needs vast ability in translation to do. The critic must

have both ability in translation theory and practice. Not everyone can criticize a

translation result, because only those who mastering in the theory and practice of

translation that can do that. There are three main parameters that cover the

measurement of the translation product. Those three are:

1. Accuracy

Accuracy is related to the meaning or the contain equivalence between

source text and target text. A translation product categorized as an accurate

translation if there is no addition and distortion of meaning or messages

contained in TT. Accuracy is very essential in transferring the messages from

ST to TT, so it is important to conduct a test to analyze the accuracy of

translation products. According to Larson (1984:490) the main purpose of

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accuracy test are to check the equivalence of information in a text and to find

another problems by comparing the source text and target text. By analyzing

the accuracy level of translation, it can be ascertainable whether the meaning

is conveyed successfully or not.

2. Acceptability

Besides accuracy, acceptability aspects also play an important role in

conveying the meaning in translation, as is stated by Baker (1992:57),

“Accuracy is no doubt an important aim in translation, but it is also

important to bear in mind that the use of common target-language

pattern which are familiar to the target reader plays an important role

in keeping the communication channels open”

Translation as a bridge between two languages and cultures must pay

attention in word or expression choices. The translator have to be able choose

the familiar words or expressions in order to make a good translation product.

The knowledge about two languages and cultures are needed for the translator

to make an acceptable translation. As stated by Nida and Taber (1974:14) “the

best translation does not sound like a translation”. Moreover in the Dictionary

of translation studies, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997:2-3) state that “a

translation which leans toward acceptability can thus be thought as fulfilling

the requirement of “reading as an original” written in target language rather

than that of “reading as the original”. A translation product is considered as an

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acceptable translation if the targets readers feel like they read the original

version rather than the translation version.

3. Readability

The last main parameter to assess the quality of translation is the

readability. Readability refers to the reader‟s ability in understanding the

translation. According to Nababan (1997) the readability of translation is

affected by many factors, such as length of the sentence, grammatical, new or

difficult word, and language complexity which is used in translation. The

translation is considered as a readable translation if the readers can understand

the content or the meaning of translation without reading twice.

E. Sentences

Sentence is used by people to communicate each other. They deliver sentences

in expressing what they feel and what they want. When people act as the speaker,

there is an expression in their mind that they are trying to express through their

utterances. According to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (1995: 1071),

sentence is a set of words expressing a statement, a question, or a command. Hurford,

Heasley, and Smith (2007) also have similar definition about sentence. They define

sentence as grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete thought.

Moreover, according Shopen (2007) sentence is divided into 3 types of major

sentences, which are declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

1. Declarative sentences

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Declarative sentences are frequently used for speech acts such as

claiming, stating, accusing, criticizing, promising, and guaranteeing.

Declarative sentences can be used for representative, declaration, commissive,

expressive, and directive speech act.

Example: „I need some notebooks.‟

From the example above, the sentence is a declarative sentence

because the sentence ends with a period. However, the declarative sentence

above has illocutionary act as requesting if stated by a buyer in a book store.

2. Interrogative Sentences

Interrogative sentences are conventionally associated with the speech

act of requesting information, asking questions, introducing deliberations, etc.

Interrogative sentence here can be used for directive speech act.

Example: „Where do you put your book?‟

The example above is an interrogative sentence because the sentence

ends with a question mark and the illocutionary function is directive speech

act as asking information.

3. Imperative Sentences

Imperative sentences have their basic use in all attempts to get or

advise the hearer to do something. The imperative sentence can identify the

illocutionary of directive speech acts.

Example: Clean the kitchen!

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The example above is an imperative sentence because the sentence

ends with an exclamation mark and its function is to get the hearer to do

something. The illocutionary function of this sentence is directive speech act

as commanding.

F. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is branch of linguistic study. The pragmatics definitions are stated

by many linguists. According to Levinson (1983: 9), pragmatics is a study of the

relation between the language and the context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in

the structure of a language. Beside the knowledge about language, the knowledge

beyond the meaning of words and grammatical relations, namely to do with the

context of use are needed to understand an utterance. In line with this definition of

pragmatic, Leech (1993: 8) defines pragmatics as study about meaning in the relation

to speech situation. The situation covers some elements such as, who are the speaker

and the hearer, the context of situation, the purpose of the utterance, and the

illocutionary acts.

Yule (1996:3) in his book states four definition of pragmatics, they are:

1. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.

2. Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning.

3. Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said.

4. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance.

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From the definitions above, it can be concluded that pragmatics is branch of

linguistic that studies all aspects of the meaning of utterances based on the speaker

intention.

G. Speech Act

Yule (1996: 47) states that “Actions performed via utterances are generally

called speech acts.” When speakers utter something, they also perform an act by his

utterance. Moreover, in his book entitled Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of

Language, Searle (1976) defines speech act as acts performed in the utterances of a

sentence are in general function of them meaning of the sentence. In generally,

speech acts can be defined as an act that a speaker performs when making an

utterance. Austin (1962) classifies speech acts into three parts, they are:

1. Locutionary Acts

It is an act of saying something by words or sentence which is appropriate in

the meaning existed in the dictionary and appropriate in the rule of syntax.

For example, „Donny is studying now.‟

The sentence above belongs to locutionary act if the speaker only informs the

hearer without having purpose when making this utterance.

2. Illocutionary Acts

The speaker has purpose and function in his utterance related with who is the

speaker and the hearer, when and where the speech act is done.

For example, „Donny is studying now.‟

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If the utterance above is proposed by mom to her husband not only to give

information but also to ask her husband to turn off the TV when their son is

studying, so the example above belongs to illocutionary act.

3. Prelocutionary Acts

It is effect which is produced by the speaker‟s intention in his utterance. The

speaker influences the hearer by his utterance.

For example, „Donny is studying now.‟

When the hearer realizes what the speaker‟s intention in his utterance, so the

effect is the hearer will turn off the television.

Searle (1976) presented a list of what he regarded as the basic categories of

illocutionary acts or speech acts. They are:

1. Assertives

According to Searle (1976) “The point or purpose of the members of the

assertive class is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of

the expressed proposition”. Moreover, Yule (1996) called this speech act as

Representatives. He defines representative speech act as a speech act that state what

the speaker believes to be the case or not.

Example: „It was a warm sunny day.‟

The utterance above shows that the speaker believes that today was warm

sunny day. Other examples of representative speech acts are; statements of fact,

assertion, and conclusion.

2. Directives

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The illocutionary functions of directives are the speaker‟s attempts to get the

hearer to do something. Moreover, Yule (1996) states that directives express what the

speaker wants.

Example: „Open the door, please!‟

By this utterance, the speaker makes the hearer to open the door. The speaker

make the world fit via the hearer.

3. Commissives

The illocutionary functions of commissives are to commit the speaker to some

future course of action. Yule (1996) adds that commissives express what the speaker

intends.

Example: „I am going to your house tonight at 7 pm.‟

By this utterance, the speaker promises to the hearer that he will go to the

hearer‟s house tonight. The speaker commits herself to a future action.

4. Expressives

Searle (1976) states “The illocutionary point of this class is to express the

psychological state specified in the sincerity condition about a state of affairs

specified in the propositional content”. Moreover, Yule (1996) defines expressive

speech acts as speech act used by speakers to state what they feel.

Example: „I apologize for stepping on your toe.‟

The example above shows that the speaker is making an apology to the hearer.

The utterance above is categorized as expressive speech act as showing the speaker‟s

feeling of sorrow.

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5. Declarations

According to Yule (1996) declarations are kinds of speech act that change the

world by the speaker‟s utterance. He also states that the speaker has to have a special

institutional role, in a specific context to perform a declaration appropriately.

Example: „I now pronounce you husband and wife.‟

The utterance above is speaker‟s declaration to change hearers‟ status. In

declaration, the speaker changes the world via his utterance.

H. Directive Speech Acts

According to Searle (1976) directive speech acts are speech acts which have

illocutionary function to get the hearer to do something. Directives are attempts of

speakers to make the hearer to do something. The directive speech act is marked by

verb presence. They can be form of asking for information, commanding, requesting,

begging, pleading, praying, entreating, and also inviting, permitting, and advising.

Searle (1976) also adds daring, defying and challenging, which Austin lists as

behabitives belongs to directives.

The similar definition of directives was proposed by Yule (1996). He states

that directive speech acts “are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get

someone else to do something.” Speakers use directives to make the hearer to do

something for them. In line with Yule‟s opinion, Qadir and Riloff (2011) also state “a

directive speech act occurs when the speaker expects the listener to do something as a

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response.” This definition means that when speakers expect the listener to do

something as a response, they use directive speech act.

In general, directive speech act can be defined as speech act used by speakers

to make the hearer to do something by their utterance.

I. Subtitling

According to one of the website which provides subtitling service by

multilingual expert, http://www.planetveritas.com/audio-visual/subtitling/ “Subtitling

is used to translate dialogue from a foreign language to the native language of the

audience. It is the quickest and the cheapest method of translating content, and allows

viewers to hear the original dialogue and voices of the actors.” It means that the

subtitling is part of translation. In subtitling the viewer as audience is allowed to hear

the original dialogue and actor‟s voices.

Moreover, Paveti (as cited in Bruti, 2006) states that “It is recognised that

interlingual subtitles reduce the original script by simplifying it.” In subtitling there

are space limit and time constraints which give effect to the translation result. So, the

translator is expected to be able to transfer the messages into more simply and neat

without any distortion of meaning.

The subtitling consists of text which is generally put in the bottom side of

cinema, television, or others audio visual instruments. The text changes following the

dialogue expressed by actors.

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J. The Movies

„The Lorax‟ is an animated 3D musical, comedy film directed by Chris

Renaud. This film was released in March, 2012 adapted from Dr. Seuss‟ children‟s

book (1972) with the same title. The film produced by Illumination Entertainment

had won three awards, two categories in ASCAP Film and Television Music Award

(2013), one category in Teen Choice Award (2012) and this film also became

nomination in six categories in some awards. The film has grossed $214,030,500 in

North America, and $134,809,816 in other countries, for a worldwide total of

$348,840,316.

The Lorax is about Tneed-ville, a city which was covered by steel walls, full

of fake and plastic. There was no nature and living tree in this city. Ted Wiggins as a

teenager who lived in this city had a crush on Audrey, who wished to see a real tree.

Ted would bring Audrey‟s dream to see a real tree became real and he decided to find

it. His Granny told that he should met Once-ler who lived outside the city. Ted

decided to go alone. He found the city‟s waste disposal and realized the city where he

lived in a muddle. Once-ler told that his greed had brought the condition of the city

became bad. To expand his „tneed‟ factory, Once-ler cut downall of the trees in the

forest guarded by The Lorax. All of the inhabitant leaf the forest included The Lorax.

Before his going, The Lorax left a Truffula seed. Once-ler asked Ted to plant the seed

and repopulated the world with trees. Ted should struggled in planting the seed

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because a rich man who had an air fresh manufacture, Aloysius O‟hare did not allow

him to plant the seed.

This film told the audiences to keep trees because trees became essential

things to people‟s life. Without trees the fresh air was not a free thing. As in Tnedd-

ville city, the people should buy the fresh air from O‟hare.

K. Previous Study

The research of directive speech acts translation has been done by Ari

Wahyuni in 2014. The title of her research is Analisis Teknik Penerjemahan Tindak

Tutur Direktif dalam Film Alice in Wonderland dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Kualitas

Terjemahan. She found 6 types of directive speech acts in the transcript of the

dialogue of the film. They are: requestive 13.99%, question 13.99%, requirement

53.89%, prohibitive 3.63%, advice 5.70%, and warning 8.81%.

Moreover, she also found 12 translation techniques used by translator in

translating directive speech acts. They are literal 39.62%, establish equivalence

23.11%, reduction 13.21%, modulation 6.60%, linguistic amplification 3.77%,

borrowing 3.77%, transposition 2.83%, adaptation 2.36%, generalization 2.36%,

discursive creation 0.94%, particularization 0.94%, and deletion 0.47%.