CHAPTER I11

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

R E V I E W 7 OF RELATED LITERATURE

Research takes the advantage of the knowledge, which has

accumulated in the past as a result of constant human endeavour. It can

never be undertaken in isolation of the work that has already been done on

the problems which are directly or indirectly related to a study proposed by a

researcher.

Since effective investigation is based upon past knowledge, a careful

survey of the previous studies related to the investigation is needed. It

eliminates the duplication of what has been done and provides useful

hypotheses and helpful suggestions for significant investigation.

This research initiated by the researcher is the first of its kind not

only in Kerala but irl India as such. This study has been done earlier only in

Western Countries especially in subjects like Science and Mathematics. So

such a method of re:jearch in History is a novel idea that is highly essential

to give the required boost for the teaching of History. This has to be deeply

studied and analysed.

The investigator conducted a close study of researches done in the

area of 'Inquiry Approach'. The review of the related studies is presented as

follows :

According to Menvin (1970) and Gross (1972), a number of research

reviews concerning methods of inquiry in social studies have been

completed, since Inquiry became an influential Social Studies Tool. The

general consensus has been that research evidence, for the most part, is

fragmentary and inconclusive.

In summarizing the research reviewed for a twenty year periods

Wiley (1977) writes:

A large proportion of the effectiveness of the research conducted in

social studies falls under the heading of research on instructional methods

labelled 'critical thinking', 'inquiry' and the like. Most of this research

shows no significant differences between critical thinlung methods and so

called traditional methods.

Indiana experiments in inquiry conducted by Massialas (1966)

indicated that, at the secondary level, inquiry methods showed greater

efficacy over traditional methods.

Schlenker (1970) found that students of inquiry oriented teaching

showed a greater fluency in inquiry and critical thinking but showed no

difference in content mastery and information retention.

Hunkins (1972) completed a selective review of research on inquiry

in Social Studies, which resulted in the following conclusions:

(i) The research on inquiry at the elementary level seems to contain

methodological flaws inherent in non-longitudinal and one-time studies.

(ii) Generally, there is no solid research, which supports the overall

superiority of inquiry. Superiority of inquiry is considered in terms of

the teacher's colnmitment to the fostering of critical thinking skills.

Smith (1974) reported a study which blended inquiry with individual

tutorial sessions focussing on the analysis of data. Eleventh grade students

provided the sample. The Inquiry Approach proved to be effective in

individualized instniction.

The review completed by Marsh (1975) indicated that the inquiry

method is superior in terms of recall, transfer and retention of data and in

developing specific skills in questioning and concept building. The results

are tentative since many of the studies contain methodological flaws.

Troyka ( I 97 5) reported the effects of role-playing in problem-posing

situations. The examination of data from different points of view effectively

blended the stress on thinking skills that the inquiry method offers with the

interest in audience and social situation that rhetorical approaches to writing

offer.

Hinrichson and Schaumburg (1975) reported no difference between

inquiry and lecture in terms of academic performance.

Analysis of research conducted by Shavelson (1976) has resulted in

the compilation of common methodological problems which practitioners

should bear in mind when considering the research. They are:

(i) Some research offers vague descriptions of the type of inquiry teaching

involved.

(ii) Lack of suitable evaluation tools has hampered relevant research results.

(iii) There has been a recurring problem in establishing initial comparability

between groups. Most studies have made use of combination of

intelligence quotient, chronological age and sex. Only a few studies have

considered affective domain comparability.

(iv) Comparability of tasks and materials used with experimental and control

groups have not been explicitly considered by researchers.

(v) Comparability of instructors is often overlooked.

(vi) Studies were oftr:n not longitudinal and sample sizes were often not

substantial.

(vii) Many studies are not based on explicit theoretical foundations.

(viii) Many studies fail to explain results in the context of general theoretical

principles.

Martorella (1978) in another summary of research on cognition

reaches the conciusien that there is no significant difference between the

critical thinking method and traditional method in teaching Social Studies.

Olmo (1978) found that the inquiry techniques are successful in

providing examples, clarifying themes, sustaining interest, encouraging

synthesis and application of concepts. It also encourages the forming of

generalizations.

Hillocks (1979) who is most strongly identified with the inquiry

approach as a method of writing instruction, worked with ninth and eleventh

graders in this study of descriptive writing. Descriptions of activities

working with sets of observation data clearly flesh out the "treatments"

which yielded the improvements observed in his experimental group.

Whitehead (1979) reported that the students' problem solving ability

tended to improve when teachers taught the required skills and explicitly

explained what was expected of them. These students' problem solving

skills were clearly superior to those students whose teacher acted mainly as a

discussion controller rather than an instructor.

Fancett and Hawke (1982) reported that the teachers tend not to be

social inquirers thernse..ves. When innovative practices are implemented in

social studies classrooms, it is not a reflection of usual patterns of classroom

strategies. Thus, there seems to be a discrepancy between attitude and

research findings about inquiry and the attention given to it in the classroom.

Tyrell (1982) reviewed 88 comparisons between traditional lecture

and discussion methods and noted that 51 % favoured the lecture method and

49% favoured the discussion method. Subsequently, there was very little

difference in achievement scores between either method. Tyrell also

emphasized the following results, which may assist the teacher in making

hidher choice of strategies:

(i) When appropriately used, the lecture and inquiry discussion methods

were relatively equal in providing knowledge acquisition opportunities.

(ii) In one study, the lecture-recitation method was found to be superior in

ternis of subsequent test scores to inquiry and public issue discussion

method. The effectiveness of the approach, however, depended upon

student ability and performance.

(iii) Different strategies may be more appropriate for different abilities.

Hillocks and Johannessen (1983) described an approach to pre-

writing activities, which emphasized task analysis and inquiry activities in a

very useful theory and research into practice (NCTE).

Barry Beyer (1985) has developed a five-stage skill teaching

framework which proved to be a helpful guide for teachers and students. It is

found to be very effective in developing skills in the students.

Johnson (1991) reported that the application of the Inquiry Approach

in middle school Science activities resulted in the following out comes:

(i) It developed science concepts.

( i i ) U s c f ~ l in practic ng process skills.

(iii) Developing quantitative thinking.

(iv) Helped to integrate science subjects.

(v) Helped in experiencing success.

Cobb (1991) reported the effectiveness of the Inquiry Approach in

learning Mathematics. An Inquiry Approach to learning Mathematics was

proposed and supported with the results of a yearlong research project that

exposed second graders to mathematical learning experiences using this

approach. The Inquiry Approach proved more effective in learning

Mathematics than the traditional method.

Germann (1991) found that the directed Inquiry Approach is

effective in learning science process skills and scientific problem - solving.

Concept mapping, advance organizers diagrams, the theme approach, and

focussing were used to help students to develop science process skills.

Kleinfeld (1991) reported that the reflective Inquiry Approach to

teacher preparation was based on analysis of teaching 'cases' and was

particularly relevant for teachers in Alaska's rural multi cultural schools.

The Inquiry Approach helped students learn to ask ethical as well as

pedagogical questions and to reflect upon larger issues embedded in the

details of school life.

Warren (1991) reported an innovative instructional intervention

model that represented a promising approach to the language education of

minority students. The Cheche Komen (search for knowledge) model used a

collaborative inquiry approach to science in which students posed their own

questions, planned and implemented research, collected and analyzed data,

built and revised theories, drew conclusions and made decisions. The goal

for the students was to develop scientific ways of thinking, talking and

acting. The model was tested with Creole speaking Haitian students in two

urban eastern S C ~ O O ~ : ~ , a public elementary school and a public high school.

The model proved effective in developing scientific ways of thinking,

talking and acting.

Haukoos (1991) reported a study on a 2 week that provided an

opportunity to obtai:n new content and methods for teaching Science and

Maths. The objectives of the study were to convince teachers that (i) science

was to be taught-using an inquiry approach with hands-on manipulative in a

problem solving sitcation and (ii) integration of culture with science was

necessary. Results indicated that there were statistically significant increases

in participants' understanding of how science and American Indian culture

could be integrated and in the value of hands-on student centered strategies.

National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second

Language Learning (1992) reported a study on the effects of a collaboration

Inquiry Approach to science on language minority students (middle and high

school) learning. The approach emphasized involving the students, most of

whom have had very little schooling, in "doing science" in ways that

scientists practice. The findings indicated that at the beginning of the school

year the students' reasoning was non-analytic and bound to personal

experience. By contrast, at the end of the school year they reasoned in terms

of a larger explanatory system; used hypotheses to organize and give

directions to their reasoning and demonstrated an awareness of the function

of experimentation in producing evidence to evaluate hypotheses.

Driscoll's study (1992) described two phases of the planning of a

professional development center for teaching and teacher education,

utilizing a reflective and collaborative Inquiry Approach. Two themes

guided the study: (i) the dissonance between teacher education and teaching

and (ii) preparation of teachers to respond to the changing population of

children and families. The major result of phase one was the development of

a pre-service and in-s'xvice program entitled "classrooms as families",

which addresses the social and support needs of children, teachers and

families. Phase two findings suggested that university and school district

faculties provide models of practice for pre-service teachers; teacher

education should increase the study of family systems, communication,

conflict resolution, and time and stress management.

The Comprehensive Instructional Management System (CIMS) -

Science Program (1992) e~nph;~sizcd a hands-on Inquiry Approach to

learning and includec an assessment component that comprised of written

tests and performance- based tests, designed to assess student mastery of the

content and process. The first section of the report provided background and

implementation information for the program and described the program

evaluation methodology. The second section summarized the CIMS

approach to Science education and described the program's activities related

to staff development and cumculum revision. The third section reported the

evaluation of the program. Based on the findings, the following

recommendations we:re made (i) program, district and school staff should

continue to collabclrate in revising the CIMS - science curriculum

incorporating suggestions by classroom teachers and science cluster

teachers; (ii) consideration should be given to exploring alternative for

"authentic" assessm(:nt strategies that asses problem solving skills; and

(iii) class room teachers should observe science cluster teachers

demonstrating lessoris using a discovery-based approach to prepare them to

assume primary responsibility for science instruction.

A case study methodology was employed by Thazp (1992) to gain

insight into student's beliefs, thinking and behaviour. Results are reported

according to theme:s that emerged concerning the student's beliefs about

understanding Mathematics, learning priorities, learning strategies, and

mathematical power. Findings indicated that rule-based learners in the

problem-solving inquiry-oriented (PSIO) environment: (i) chose to ignore

opportunities to think. about relationship and concepts in-depth; (11) used

inappropriate cues based on emotion and external factors to decide when

understanding is achizved; and (iii) remained uninvolved in their learning

and became more pas!;ive towards the end of the study.

Myers (1993) examined whether the inquiry based problem solving

model supports sustained exploration of a multimedia database. The result

showed that the discrepant event Inquiry Approach provided motivation for

sustained learning activities; however, it did appear to be at least one factor

that led to a meaningful learning experience.

Wolf (1993) compared two instructional approaches to the same

Geography lesson. The result concluded that the Inquiry Approach provided

more opportunities for students to apply intellectual skills than expository

instruction.

Scruggs (1 993) reported that twenty-six junior high school students

with learning disabilities shldied two science units via an activity-based,

inquiry-oriented appioach and a textbook approach. Students performed

higher on immediate and delayed unit tests when they had learned by the

Inquiry Approach,and reported a preference for this approach.

Pondany (1991) in his study asserted that the teachers should educate

students to use historical research methods, even in the elementary and

intermediate grades. It argued that although History should be taught as a

'Story well-told', it should also be discovered, just as historians discover it

in the course of their research. The findings of the study proved the

effectiveness of learning History through investigation.

Hughes's study (1994) highlights the impact of the Inquiry Approach

on both teaching and learning in a technology rich grade -1 classroom

participating in the co-operative alliance for gifted education. Data was

collected in the first 2 years of a larger study from a teacher, eight students

and their parents, who were interviewed about changes resulting from

inquiry learning through using classroom computers. Analysis uncovered the

learning domains of thought processes, collaboration (social interaction),

and attitude (confidence and interest). Change in these areas was evident to

teachers, students and :?arents. Technology itself appeared to be a factor in

the development of student thinking and in the development of teacher

attitudes.

Thacker (1994) described a study that compared the performance of

introductory Physics students on two examination problems. One problem

was qualitative and siinilar to those used in an Inquiry Approach. The

second problem was a typical quantitative problem. Those students enrolled

in the inquiry based intioductory course performed significantly better than

those in the traditional course.

Maor (1994) reported a study focused on students development of

inquiry skills in a computerized learning environment, seven year 11 classes

(n =120) interacted with a computerized date base, 'Birds of Antarctica', and

curriculum materials while the teacher used an Inquiry Approach to

learning. Students perceived their classes as more investigative and open-

ended and improved their inquiry skills. Inquiry Approach is found to be

effective in developins the inquiry skills.

The purposes of Gregg's study (1995) were to: (i) identify interaction

patterns that emerged during Mathematics instruction in elementary school

classrooms that established an 'inquiry' Mathematics tradition (ii) describe

any gender-related differences in these patterns, and (iii) attempt to account

for the presence or absence of such differences. Preliminary analysis

suggested that aspects of an Inquiry Approach to Mathematics instruction

had a positive impact in providing gender-equitable learning opportunities

for boys and girls.

Mancino's historical case study (1995) examined reasons for the

domination of the traditional curriculum in South Carolina education since

the turn of the century, although theorists and other scholars have advocated

using integrated approaches to meet the changing needs of the society. It is

found that the changing economy needs 'symbolic analysts', whose

educational needs are best met by a inquiry-based approach. It is concluded

that an integrated, inquiry-based curriculum design is essential to meet the

new economic needs c~f the U.S.

A simple model of scientific inquiry was developed by Haury (1995)

using non-technical language. One group of elementary school teachers was

introduced to the moclel during a two-week summer session institute where

t h e model was used in conjunction with activity-based approaches to

teaching. The model was introduced as the central heuristic device for

designing and developing science lessons and units of study. Survey results

provided evidence that; (i) the model is well understood by most teachers

and facilitates an understanding of the nature of scientific inquiry; (ii) the

model facilitates an activity-based; inquiry -oriented approach to science

teaching; and (iii) the teachers report that students react favourably to

instruction- based on the model.

The objective of the descriptive case study conducted by Cobem

(1995) was to come to a better understanding of the cognitive structure of 16

ninth graders from a semi rural high school. A modified naturalistic Inquiry

Approach using a semi structure interview technique was employed. Results

showed that students' ideas were often both rich and rational. Yet within the

richness of students' comments little pertained to science, and only one

student's conceptua1i:zation of nature reasonably matched the naturalistic

mechanistic view of nature common to science education.

Cawley's study (1995) for high ability in language arts students of

grades 2-3, used an inquiry-based approach to investigate literature in an

inter-disciplinary curriculum. The guiding theme of the unit was the

recognition of change as a concept that affects pupils and their relationships

as well as the world around them. The result showed that the students

considered the rolc: of memory in their lives, through writing about

memories and through research on the role of technology in preserving

memories.

Green wood (1995) reported the Science Education Program and

Leadership (SEPAL: project, a model science program for elementary

teachers and students, designed to improve the teaching of science at the K-8

level. The program was founded on experimental learning for teachers and it

promoted an inquiry-oriented approach, which proved to be an effective

method for science teaching.

Haukoos (1995) reported that the teachers of American Indian

Elementary school students attended a two week, emphasizing integration of

science instruction with culturally relevant materials and activities and used

a hands-on inquiry approach. A one-year follow-up found that initial

changes in teachers' behaviour and practices had largely been lost. It proved

the difficulties in transferring teachers' conceptual change to classroom

practice.

King (1 995) presented an Inquiry-based Approach to promote critical

thinking in psychology. The model emphasized, helping the students to ask

thoughtful question:;. The research result supported the use of questioning

techniques to enhance critical thinking.

Demastes (1995) reported the details of two studies; (i) study A

described the conceptual change teaching module to teach a unit on

evolution to non major Biology students; and (ii) study B used high school

students, and the instruction was based on the Inquiry Approach to science.

The Inquiry Approach proved to be effective in imparting science education.

The study conducted by Skoda (1996) reveals that most Americans

do not view their experience with History in the classroom favourably, yet

they continue to llke history. Boring classrooms are the product of

ineffective teaching methods. The Biographical Approach to History proved

effective in reinvigorating the contemporary classroom.

Peck's study (1996) examined first grade teacher's use of inquiry

pedagogy to maximii:e literacy learning and teaching in her classroom. The

setting for the study .Mas a classroom in the Cleveland, Ohio school district.

In this classroom literacy events build upon students' prior knowledge and

experience gleaned from their lives outside the classroom and from what

they do within the classroom community. Data was collected through

interviews during the first ten weeks of the school year. Findings suggest

that reciprocity, with the teacher as the learner and the learners as teachers,

and both as inquirers, is the essence of inquiry pedagogy.

Thomas (1996) found that the shared inquiry between teachers and

students is inherently motivating and supporting students' intrinsic

motivation. When students themselves participate as educational theorists,

learning experiences become more engaging for both students and teachers.

Bray (1996) described Bhutan's experience with the New Approach

to Primary Education (NAPE), which showed what could be accomplished

in a small developing state when conditions were favourable. Curricula were

more closely aligned to the nature of Bhutanese society, and NAPE was

replacing passive, rote learning with a more active Inquiry-based Approach.

The study conducted by Klassen (1997) is essentially an

investigation of what a critical theory position enhanced by attention to a

post modem and broader perspective would mean for social studies

education in general and for Alberta in particular. It is found that if programs

adopt a critical multi-cultural and broader perspective, a student's sense

agency and a concern for 'otherness' can be effectively fostered.

Rosebery (1997) in his study explored the ways in which a beginning

elementary elassroo~n teacher gained a foothold in teaching Science. The

analysis included episodes from the teachers first three years of teaching

while participating i n an educational research project that investigated an

Inquiry-based Approach to teacher professional development. The

particulars of the teacher's experiences learning scientific content and

practices are examined as well as the initial stn~ggies to bring students' ideas

into contact with standard scientific knowledge and ways of knowing. The

study reveals that the Inquiry-based Approach is very effective for the

teacher's professional development.

Maxim's study (1997) proved the effectiveness of the Inquiry

Approach on the perfbrmance of young children in Science. The study

supported the approach for young children that allow them to perform

actions on objects and observe the reactions. It described some techniques to

use to encourage an Inquiry Approach.

Adler (1997) analyzed a short teaching episode in a multilingual

secondary Mathematics classroom in South Africa where the teacher used a

participatory Inquiry Approach. It is found that such an approach to teaching

and learning Mathematis created dilemmas of mediation for teachers.

Toma (1 997) examined the models through which different academic

disciplines approach inquiry. Faculty working in different models viewed

their work differently, applied different evaluative standards and accepted

different types of values. Although the discipline was found more

conspicuous than the model, the latter was equally important in

understanding epistemological processes. Scholars in the field of law used

explored models.

Van's study (1997) described inquiry learning as defining a purpose

for inquiry (the problem), postulating tentative answers or solutions testing

various hypotheses, drawing tentative conclusions and applying those

conclusions to new situations. The study asserted that acquisition of these

skills supported clemocratic citizenship. Inquiry Approach is proved

effective for developing all these qualities.

Hughes (1997) examined a project in which an Inquiry Approach to

learning and teaching in an urban First-grade class room resulted in a

student-created database. Thc study illustrated how computer integration in

readingllanguage arts instruction caused students to participate more in-

group inquiry, using their individual abilities to contribute to group projects;

it also helped students to organize information, keep records and present

findings.

Wubbels (1 997) conducted a pre-service program to prepare teachers

for a Curriculum based on the realistic approach. The program appeared

successful in changing student teachers' views of Mathematics education

towards this more inquiry -oriented approach and in promoting effective

teacher behaviour in classrooms. Only a small number of teachers

recognized the prii~ciplc of building on pupils' own constructions.

Shephered (19'98) examined how the implementation of a curriculum

intervention the probe method, impacted critical thinking skills of fourth and

fifth grade students in a private school. The probe method is a problem

based learning method using a group investigative co-operative leaming

approach to solve a real-world problem. The experimental group of fourth

and fifth graders after participating in the nine-week project, showed a

significantly greater increase in critical thinking skills in comparison to the

control group of similar subjects. The probe method proved effective for

improving critical thinking skills and attitudes towards solving problems.

Myers (1998) reported on a 2-year study of changes that occurred in

one instructor's teaching of an introductory undergraduate course on teacher

education across four semesters. The study examined; how emphasizing

technology changed the instructor and the students; how the shift toward a

constructivist, inqu!.~y-oriented approach affected student learning and

attitudes; how change in class location affected the instructor's teaching and

class dynamics, (:lass discussions, student interaction and student

performance. Data came from class observations and videotapes, analysis of

class videotapes, personal reflections by the investigators, interviews with

the instructor, discussions with the investigators, copies of student work and

student surveys. Results indicated that considerable technology was added,

and it was a positive move. Subtle changes in the instructor's teaching

resulted from the sh~ft to a more constructivist, inquiry- based orientation.

Changes in location allowed for more flexibility in teaching and more

interaction with students.

The long term impact of inquiry-based science instruction is explored

in Gibson's (1998) study. It examined the relationship between an inquiry -

based science program on students' attitudes towards science and interest in

science careers several years after participation in the program. The purpose

of the study was to evaluate the long-term effects of the Summer Science

Exploration Program (SSEP) conducted at Massachusetts. Results suggest

that a two-week summer science program using an inquiry-based approach

may have helped middle school students with a high level of interest in

science maintain that level of interest through their years in high school.

Teaching methods were also affected student interest and achievement in

science.

Rakow's study (1998) investigated the development of an

understanding of scientific inquiry by pre-service teachers as a result of their

participation in a five-week elementary science methods class. The study

focused on the effectiveness of a one-hour method course in science on

inquiry. Data collected by way of the final examination suggest that students

in this course develop an understanding of scientific inquiry. They provided

results demonstrati~ig that even a short-term exposure to a science methods

class can result in a change in vocabulary. These changes are compatible

with an Inquiry Approach to elementary science teaching.

socis