chapter 6: ancient rome and early christianity -...

6C h a p t e r

750 B.C.–A.D. 500

Ancient Rome andEarly Christianity

> Change The Roman political sys-tem evolves as more people partici-pate in government. Section 1

> Conflict Roman armies conquermost of the Mediterranean world.Section 2

> Cultural Diffusion The Romanempire spreads Latin culture.Section 3

> Innovation Christianity becomesthe dominant religion in the West.Section 4

> Change Germanic invasions andcultural weaknesses destroy theRoman Empire. Section 5

SThetoryteller

War trumpets rang over the cheers of the people of Rome

who gathered to view the triumphal grand parade. Then sweat-

ing horses jerking at their harnesses rattled the victor’s chariot

over the paving stones, and the people’s cries became louder. On

this day in 146 B.C., the Romans were celebrating their conquest

of the last of the free Greek city-states.

Ironically, however, over the next several centuries Greek

culture would come to form the base of Roman culture and

society. Texts written by Greeks would shape Roman knowledge

in many areas of study. Even after years of Roman rule, the

eastern Mediterranean world would retain Greek as its primary

language.

How did the small city-state of Rome become the centerof a vast, diverse empire that spanned the Mediterraneanworld? What were Rome’s lasting legacies to Europe, Africa,the Middle East, and other parts of the world?

Historical Significance

152

Chapter Themes

Chapter 6 Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 153

Woman playing the cithera, painted on the east wall of a room inthe villa of Publius Fannius Synistor, Pompeii, Italy Art&

History

The European cities of Bonn, Vienna,London, and Paris were each founded bythe Romans. Research the early history ofone of these cities and describe the Romaninfluence on its early architecture andlifestyle.

Your History Journal

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 6—Chapter Overview to preview the chapter.

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The peoples of Italy first came into con-tact with the Greeks around 900 B.C.,when Greek traders sailed up both the

east and west coasts of the Italian Peninsula. Fromabout 750 B.C. to 500 B.C., the Greeks set up farmingcommunities in southern Italy and in Sicily, anisland southwest of the Italian Peninsula. TheseGreek colonists planted olive trees for the oil yield-ed and grapevines from which they could producewine, thus introducing these two major products toItaly. The Greeks also introduced the Greek alpha-bet to the Italians.

The Italian PeninsulaThe Greeks were interested in colonizing Italy

for several reasons, one of which was Italy’s centrallocation in the Mediterranean. A narrow, boot-shaped peninsula, Italy extends from Europetoward the shores of Africa, dividing theMediterranean almost in half. Thus, Italy was ide-ally situated to be the center of trade among threecontinents: Asia, Europe, and Africa. Italy’s rich soiland mild, moist climate also attracted the Greekcolonists. Beyond the mountains and foothills thatcovered three-quarters of the peninsula lay plainswith soil enriched by the silt deposits of mountainstreams.

However, the silt washing down Italy’s shortand shallow rivers blocked the mouths of manyrivers, creating mosquito-infested swamps. Thepeople of Italy suffered recurrent epidemics ofmalaria and other diseases carried by mosquitoes.

Because of Italy’s mountains, the early inhabi-tants of the peninsula generally traded amongthemselves. Italy’s only land connection—to thenorth—was cut off by the Alps. Furthermore, Italy’srocky and marshy coastline lacked good harbors.To increase trade, the Italians eventually turned tothe sea, but until that time came, they remainedattached to the land.

154 Chapter 6 Ancient Rome and Early Christianity

The city of Rome was besieged by LarsPorsena, king of Clusium, and the time had come

for decisive action. Oneyoung Roman hoped tobreak the siege by killingPorsena. After laying hisplan before the Senate, he set out alone towardenemy lines. However, hewas seized as a spy anddragged by guards beforethe very man he hadhoped to kill—Porsena.He spoke boldly: “I am a Roman, my name is

Gaius Mucius. I came here to kill you—myenemy. I have as much courage to die as to kill. Itis our Roman way to do and to suffer bravely.”

—adapted from Early History ofRome, Titus Livy, in The GlobalExperience, Readings in World History to 1500, 1987

S e c t i o n 1

The Roman Republic

SThetoryteller

The Forum

Read to Find Out Main Idea Rome was governed as arepublic, which changed over the years.> Terms to Define

patrician, republic, plebeian, consul, dictator, tribune

> People to Meetthe Etruscans, the Latins, Romulus, the Tarquins

> Places to LocateItaly, Sicily, Rome

CON

NECTIONS

CO

NNECTIONS

Although archaeologists haveunearthed the remains of some Etruscancities, these tell little about Etruscan culture.Murals unearthed in burial chambers, how-ever, have provided significant clues aboutthe Etruscans.

The murals show colorful and livelyscenes of Etruscandaily life. Particu-larly popular sub-jects are scenes ofwrestling matches,religious cere-monies, and peo-ple enjoying musicand feasts.

Today, thedesire to beautifyurban areas hasproduced many

striking murals in cities from Sydney, Aus-tralia, to Caracas, Venezuela. The boldly col-ored works appear on office, apartment, andsupermarket walls. They usually are spon-sored by municipal officials or businesses,and the artists employed draw inspirationfrom sources as varied as fashion magazines,cartoons, and modern art. Among their sub-jects are movie, TV, and sports celebrities aswell as ordinary people involved in dailyactivities, such as shopping on a busy streetor playing basketball at a neighborhoodplayground.

Murals: Etruscan and Modern

Etruscan mural

Early PeoplesArchaeological evidence suggests that people

lived in Italy long before the Greeks arrived orRoman civilization began. The remains of humansettlements reveal that Neolithic cultures may havebegun to form in Italy as early as about 5000 B.C.Early peoples in the Italian Peninsula built villagesand farms, moving on whenever they had exhaust-ed the land around their settlements.

Indo-EuropeansBetween 2000 B.C. and 1000 B.C., waves of Indo-

European immigrants arrived and overwhelmedthese Neolithic peoples. By the time Greek colonistscame to Italy, many peoples inhabited the peninsu-la—including Umbrians in the north, Latins in thecentral plain called Latium (LAY•shee•uhm), andOscans in the south. Like the Greeks, most of thesepeople spoke Indo-European languages.

The EtruscansFrom about 900 B.C. to 500 B.C., one of these

peoples, the Etruscans, ruled northern Italy fromthe plains of Etruria. Little is known about their


origins, although the Etruscans did not speak anIndo-European language as did many of thepeninsula’s other inhabitants. The Etruscanalphabet came from the Greeks, but modernscholars have been able to decipher only a fewEtruscan words.

Although Etruscan writings still baffle ourunderstanding, Etruscan art is expressive, need-ing no translation. In wall paintings, Etruscan fig-ures dance and play music, enjoying a rich andpleasant life. In Etruscan sculpture, men andwomen feast and converse, triumphant soldiersrevel in their victories, and hauntingly beautifuldeities smile and gesture.

Such sculptures ornamented the homes of theEtruscan upper classes. Historians believe thatEtruscan society probably consisted of wealthyoverlords, aristocratic priests, and a slave laborforce made up of conquered peoples. Wealthyoverlords enslaved these peoples to providethemselves with comforts, and aristocratic priestssacrificed prisoners of war or forced them to duelto the death to appease angry gods.

After repeated revolts, the Etruscan lowerclasses and the other Italian peoples under

What subjects are popularlyshown in Etruscan murals? Modernurban murals? What do Etruscanmurals reveal about Etruscan life?What do urban murals today revealabout modern life?

Etruscan rule finally freed themselves from domination by these wealthy overlords and priests.Chief among those who overthrew the Etruscanswere the Latins, whose center was the city of Romein the central plain of Latium.

The Rise of RomeAccording to legend, in 753 B.C., a stocky man

named Romulus was building the wall of a city on a hill overlooking the Tiber River. His twin brother,Remus, came over from the hillside opposite, wherehe too had been laying the foundations for a city. TheRoman historian Livy tells what happened next:

Remus, by way of jeering at his brother,jumped over the half-built walls of thenew settlement, whereupon Romuluskilled him in a fit of rage, adding thethreat, ’So perish whoever else shall over-leap my battlements.’

—Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 29 B.C.

Setting more stone on the stains of his brother’s blood, Romulus is said to have continuedhis building. In time, his namesake city—Rome—grew to include his brother’s hill and the othernearby hills. Romulus was so effective a militaryruler, the myth tells us, that Rome became the great-est city in that part of the peninsula.

In fact, the origins of Rome were probablymuch less violent. At some time between 800 B.C.and 700 B.C., the Latins huddled in straw-roofedhuts in the villages on the seven hills apparentlyagreed to join and form one community. It was thiscommunity that came to be called Rome.

Etruscan RuleAbout 620 B.C. the Etruscans gained control of

Rome. A wealthy Etruscan family, the Tarquins, pro-vided kings to rule over the Romans. The Tarquinstaught the Latins to build with brick and to roof theirhouses with tile. They drained the marshy lowlandsaround Rome and laid out city streets. At the centerof the city they created a square called the Forum,which became the seat of Roman government. TheTarquins also built temples, taught the Romans manyof the Etruscans’ religious rituals, and elevated Rometo a position among the wealthiest cities in Italy.

Then in 534 B.C. Tarquin the Proud came to thethrone. This king’s cruelties so angered the Romansthat in 509 B.C. they drove the Tarquins out. SkilledEtruscan artisans stayed on in Rome, however,helping the city continue to prosper.

Social GroupsUnder Etruscan rule, a new wealthy aristocratic

class had come into being in Rome—Latin noblescalled patricians. Once the Etruscan rulers were driven out, the patricians declared Rome a republic,a community in which the people elect their leaders.

Most of Rome’s inhabitants, however, wereplebeians (plih•BEE•uhns), who included wealthy,nonaristocratic townspeople and landowners aswell as merchants, shopkeepers, small farmers, andlaborers. As citizens, both the plebeians and thepatricians had rights, such as the right to vote, andresponsibilities, such as paying taxes and serving inthe military. Plebeians, however, could not holdpublic office as patricians could.

The Roman RepublicThe patricians organized Rome’s government

into executive and legislative branches. The


GreeksEtruscansLatins

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

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Rome

Etruria

AFRICA

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Tiber River

Strait of Messina

MapMapStudyStudy

Italy 500 B.C.

Notice on the map that Latium divides the Etruscan territory. Region What advantage might this location have provided the Latins when they set out to conquer the Etruscans?

Roman legislative branch at first consisted of theAssembly of Centuries and the Senate, both underpatrician control. Members of the Assembly ofCenturies (named for a military formation of 100soldiers) elected officials of the executive branch.However, the Senate—a group of 300 patrician menwho served for life—had much more power. Theyadvised the consuls, debated foreign policy, pro-posed laws, and approved contracts for construct-ing roads, temples, and defenses.

The executive branch was headed by two patri-cian officials elected for one-year terms. These offi-cials were called consuls because they had to con-sult each other before acting. Either consul couldveto the other’s decisions. The word veto is Latin for“I forbid.” The consuls oversaw other executiveofficials, such as praetors, or judges, and censors, orkeepers of tax and population records. Only a dictator, a leader whose word was law, could over-rule the consuls. But dictators were temporarilyappointed only in time of crisis.

The most admired Roman dictator was the leg-endary hero Cincinnatus (SIHN•suh•NA•tuhs). In458 B.C., a powerful rival threatened Rome, and theSenate sent messengers to tell Cincinnatus that hehad been named dictator to meet this emergency.The messengers found him plowing his fields.Always loyal to Rome, Cincinnatus immediatelyjoined the army and led his forces into battle. Hedefeated the enemy, marched his army back toRome, and then resigned as dictator. He returned tohis plowing 16 days after taking command.

Plebeians Against PatriciansThe plebeians resented their lack of power in

the new republic—especially because they knewthat the patricians could not maintain the republicwithout them. In 494 B.C., many plebeians refusedto fight in the Roman army unless the patriciansyielded to their demands for change.

Plebeian VictoriesFrightened at the loss of their military forces,

the patricians agreed to reforms. They recognizedthe plebeians’ chosen representatives, the tribunes,granting them legal protections and the right to vetogovernment decisions. The patricians also recog-nized the Assembly of Tribes, the body of plebeianswho elected the tribunes. Eventually, the Assemblyof Tribes even won the right to make laws.

In addition to political rights, the plebeiansimproved their social standing. Enslavement fordebt was ended, and marriage between patriciansand plebeians was allowed. However, the repub-

lic’s social structure was still dominated by a smallgroup of powerful and wealthy citizens. Throughtheir struggles, though, the plebeians slowly movedRome closer to democracy.

The Twelve TablesThe most significant plebeian victory was the

creation of a written law code. Roman law restedlargely on unwritten traditions that patricianjudges often interpreted to favor their class. Tomake sure that the laws were applied fairly, the plebeians insisted that they be written down.

In 451 B.C. the patricians finally engraved thelaws on 12 bronze tablets set in the Forum for all tosee. The Twelve Tables, as these tablets were called,became the basis for all future Roman law. TheTwelve Tables established the principle that all freecitizens had a right to the law’s protection.

ReligionEarly Romans worshiped nature spirits. Under

Etruscan influence, they came to think of these spir-its as gods and goddesses. They also adopted thepractice of foretelling the future. Priests known assoothsayers believed that they could gain knowl-edge of future events by observing the flight ofbirds or the intestines of animals.

For almost 500 years, Rome thrived as a repub-lic. During this time, the Romans were influencedby Greek culture. They borrowed Greek deities,giving them Roman names. Aphrodite, the Greek


A Roman Dinner PartyIn ancient Rome, dinnerguests of wealthy Romans

reclined on couches while slaves served them deli-cacies. Main courses might include boiled stingraygarnished with hot raisins; boiled crane withturnips; roast hare in white sauce; leg of boar;wood pigeon baked in a pie; or roast flamingocooked with dates, onions, honey, and wine.

Student Web Activity 6

Visit the World History: The Human Experience Web site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 6—Student Web Activities for an activity relating to Roman social status.

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goddess of love, became the Roman goddess Venus. Ares, the Greek god of war, became Mars.They also made their old gods look Greek, givingthe Etruscan god Jupiter the characteristics of theGreek Zeus.

Roman life remained distinctly Roman, how-ever. Families privately worshiped their ancestralspirits and their storeroom guardians, as well asVesta, goddess of the hearth.

FamilyThe family was the basic unit of Roman society.

Roman households were large and close-knit. Theyincluded all unmarried children, married sons andtheir families, all dependent relatives, and house-hold slaves.

In Roman families the father was absolute headof the household. He conducted the religious cere-monies, controlled property, and supervised theeducation of his sons. He also had the power to sellfamily members into slavery, or even kill them.However, fathers also felt a deep sense of responsi-bility for the welfare of all family members.

Roman wives had few legal rights, but theyhad more freedom than Greek women. They actedas hostesses for parties, did their marketing, andran their households with little or no interference.Occasionally, they did acquire their own propertyand businesses. Wealthy women, with slaves to dotheir work, could study Greek literature, arts, andfashions. Lower-class women spent their time athousehold tasks and in family-run shops.

In early Rome, parents taught children reading,writing, and moral standards. Boys were trained bytheir fathers to be farmers and soldiers. Motherstaught their daughters how to run households.

Rich or poor, most Romans held the same val-ues: thrift, discipline, self-sacrifice, and devotion tothe family and the republic. Long after the RomanRepublic ended, nostalgic reformers saw these astraditional Roman values.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to identify characteristics of theRoman Republic’s government.

Recall2. Define patrician, republic,

plebeian, consul, dictator, tribune.

3. Identify the Etruscans, theLatins, Romulus, the Tarquins.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information Did

the political struggle between

patricians and plebeiansstrengthen or weaken theRoman Republic? Give someexamples from the text to support your case.

Understanding Themes5. Change Why did political

change occur in the RomanRepublic?

An Etruscan farmer and his animals, c. 300 B.C. Etruscan literature, music,

painting, metalwork, and jewelry were admired by the Romans. Why did the Romans drive the wealthy Etruscan family, the Tarquins, from the city?

HistoryVisualizing

Executive Legislative

Roman Government Under Republic

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT


From about 500 B.C. to 300 B.C., Romefaced threats from its many neighborsin Italy. To protect their republic, the

Romans either conquered these opponents orforced them to ally with Rome. In this way theRomans subdued one rival after another, until by264 B.C. Rome ruled the entire peninsula.

Roman forces, however, had faced a toughchallenge from the Greek colonies in southern Italy.In 282 B.C. the Greek colonists received help fromPyrrhus (PIHR•uhs), a ruler in western Greece.Twice Pyrrhus’s armies threw back the Romans, buteach time suffered terrible losses. In 275 B.C. Romanforces finally pushed Pyrrhus’s exhausted troopsback to Greece. Since then, a victory won at toogreat a cost has been called a “Pyrrhic victory.”

Roman LegionsRome’s success in war was due to its strong

army. In the early days of the republic, every malecitizen had to serve in the military when needed.Early Roman armies also used the tactics of Greekphalanx warfare. Roman generals, however,learned that phalanxes were too large and slow tobe effective. They reorganized their troops intolegions of 6,000 men and divided these further intosmall, mobile units of 60 to 120 soldiers. With thisnew organization, the Romans could shatter thephalanxes of their enemies.

Roman soldiers—called legionaries—were welltrained, and deserters were punished by death.With such iron discipline, the legionaries wouldconquer an empire. In a time when victors routine-ly slaughtered or enslaved whole cities, Rome treat-ed conquered foes remarkably well. Some con-quered peoples were allowed to keep their owngovernments if they helped fight Rome’s wars.

The government of Rome had become cumber-some and corrupt. Maecenas, the richest man inRome, was about to propose a radical change.

Called before Mark Anthony,Marcus Lepidus, and Octavian, themost powerful men in Rome, hespoke persuasively. “Ever since wewere led outside the peninsula, fill-ing the whole earth with our power,nothing good has been our lot. Ourcity, like a great ship manned with acrew of every race and lacking apilot, has been rolling and plungingas it has drifted in a heavy sea.”Maecenas looked at his hearers. Oneof them must assume all authority.Rome had to cease being a republic.

—from Roman History, Dio Cassius,in Readings in Ancient History fromGilgamesh to Diocletian, 1969

S e c t i o n 2

Expansion and Crisis

SThetoryteller

Marc Antony

> Terms to Defineindemnity, triumvirate

> People to MeetHannibal, Scipio, Tiberius Gracchus,Gaius Gracchus, Marius, Sulla, JuliusCaesar, Octavian, Marc Antony

> Places to LocateCarthage

Read to Find Out Main Idea Economic and social prob-lems brought down the Roman Republic.

Strait of Messina, a narrow passage between Sicilyand Italy. When the Romans sent a force to securethe strategic waterway, a full-scale war erupted.

The Romans’ strong army conquered most ofCarthage’s colonies in Sicily. However, theCarthaginians lashed out at the Romans with theirhuge and powerful fleet. For a time this naval supe-riority gave Carthage the advantage.

Undaunted, the Romans built a larger fleet. In abattle off the African coast, they stunned theCarthaginians with a new tactic. They snared theenemy’s ships with grappling hooks, boardedthem, and defeated the enemy in hand-to-handcombat. This enabled the Romans to fight on sea aswell as they did on land. Thus, they were able toforce the Carthaginians to retreat.

The war raged on until 241 B.C., but theCarthaginians never regained control of Sicily orthe sea. Threatened with invasion of their home-land, they agreed to hand the Romans a hugeindemnity, or payment for damages.

The Second Punic WarIn 221 B.C. a young soldier named Hannibal

became general of the Carthaginian army in Spain.In 219 B.C. Hannibal grabbed one of Rome’s alliedcities in Spain. His next move was even more auda-cious—to take the war into Italy itself. Leading40,000 soldiers and about 40 elephants, he marchedout of Spain, crossed southern Gaul, and started upthe Alps. His soldiers, however, were terrified bythe sight of those chilly heights, and their fearswere well-founded. Before they reached Italy, cold,snow, hunger, sickness, and attacks by mountainpeoples killed half of Hannibal’s army and most ofthe elephants.

Although outnumbered, Hannibal’s troopsdefeated the Roman armies sent against them. By216 B.C., in a battle at Cannae in southeastern Italy,Hannibal’s soldiers had nearly destroyed theRoman army. But the Romans rallied, refusing toadmit defeat, and raised dozens of new volunteerlegions. Their general, Scipio (SIH•pee•OH),attacked Carthage and forced Hannibal’s recall toAfrica.

In 202 B.C. Scipio’s forces defeated Hannibal’sarmy at Zama, near Carthage. At Scipio’s demand,the Carthaginians gave up their lands in Spain,handed over most of their warships, and agreed toanother indemnity.

The Third Punic WarAfter 50 years of peace, Carthage regained its

prosperity but posed no threat to Rome. TheRomans, however, decided to force war on


Rome gave other peoples partial rights, and tosome peoples even granted citizenship.

The Romans set up permanent military settle-ments—called coloniae—throughout Italy to defendstrategic heights and river crossings. To link thesecoloniae, the legions forged a chain of roads up anddown the Italian Peninsula. As war yielded gradu-ally to peace, some of these roads became majortrade routes.

Rome Against CarthageIn Chapter 3 you read how Carthage became

the Mediterranean area’s wealthiest city. To expandtheir commerce, the Carthaginians had then goneon to conquer the Spanish coast and most of Sicilyby about 300 B.C. The Romans decided to check theexpansion of the Carthaginians—the Punici, as theRomans called them.

The First Punic War In 264 B.C. Carthage threatened to seize the

Roman legionaries are shown in amosaic, or picture made from bits of

stone. Why were legionaries so successful in their conquests?

HistoryVisualizing

Carthage. The most vindictive foe of Carthage wasthe Roman senator Cato, who always ended hisspeeches with the statement: “Carthago delenda est“(Carthage must be destroyed). In 146 B.C. theRomans burned Carthage, and sold its survivingpopulation into slavery. Legend states that theyeven sowed salt in Carthage’s soil so that no cropswould grow. This victory gave Rome complete con-trol of the western Mediterranean.

The Republic in CrisisWhile Rome was fighting the Punic Wars in the

west, its forces were also engaged in the east.Between 230 B.C. and 130 B.C., Rome brought theentire eastern Mediterranean area under its influ-ence. As a result of this conquest, Romans beganreferring to the Mediterranean as mare nostrum—“our sea.”

Rich, Poor, and SlaveryAlthough the Romans had triumphed militari-

ly, they faced growing social discontent in theirnew empire. The conquered provinces, which paidtribute to Rome, complained of corrupt Roman officials stealing provincial wealth for personalgain. In Italy and throughout the empire, wealthyRomans acquired or seized land from war-ravagedsmall farmers who found it difficult to rebuild their


Rome’s legions put down revolts in the provinces, but notwithout cost. Here, women funeral dancers mourn losses. Why

were the provinces not an endless source of wealth to Rome?

HistoryVisualizing

farms, homes, and villages. Turning agricultureinto a profitable business, these landowners createdlarge estates called latifundia (LA•tuh•FUHN•dee•uh) that provided grain, sheep, olives, and fruitsfor urban markets. Labor for the latifundia wascheap because Rome’s conquests brought thou-sands of captives and prisoners of war to work asslaves. By 100 B.C., slaves formed about 30 percentof Rome’s people.

As slave labor replaced paid labor, thousandsof small farmers and rural workers poured into thecities seeking employment. Jobs, however, were notreadily available, and the new arrivals graduallyformed into a class of urban, landless poor. Angryand without hope, the urban poor eked out a mea-ger living and supported any politician whopromised “bread and circuses,” cheap food and freeamusements.

As the gap between rich and poor steadilywidened, upper-class Romans lived with the con-stant danger of revolts. To quell mounting unrest,Rome stationed legions in most provinces. EvenItaly was not safe from uprisings. From 73 B.C. to 71B.C., an army of 70,000 slaves led by the slaveSpartacus plundered the Italian countryside in aneffort to win freedom. With great difficulty, theRomans finally crushed the uprising and killedabout 6,000 of Spartacus’s followers. Putting downrevolts cost Rome troops and money and placed astrain on its resources.

Reformers and GeneralsFeuding among Rome’s leading families also

weakened the republic. As violence increased, someRomans proposed reforms to narrow the social gapand to stabilize society. In 133 B.C. the tribuneTiberius Gracchus proposed limiting the size of thelatifundia and distributing land to the poor. But theSenate, made up of the wealthiest Romans,opposed him, and Tiberius was killed in streetfighting. Ten years later, his brother Gaius Gracchusproposed the same reforms and was also murdered.

Crowding the CitiesAfter the death of the Gracchi, army leaders

came to power in Rome. The first, the generalMarius, became a consul in 107 B.C. after savingRome from attack by Germanic tribes. Because thedwindling number of small farmers had made a cit-izen army obsolete, Marius turned to the unem-ployed urban poor to build a new army. Unlike thecitizen soldiers, Marius’s recruits were paid, givenuniforms and equipment, and promised land whenthey were discharged. As a result of Marius’s action,Rome for the first time had a professional army inwhich soldiers owed allegiance to their commander,not to the republic.

To advance their political ambitions, rival mili-tary and political leaders formed their own separatearmies and used them against each other. From 88B.C. to 82 B.C., Marius and a rival general namedSulla fought for control of Rome. Sulla finally droveMarius into exile and had himself appointed dicta-tor. This practice of using the army to gain politicalpower was copied by a rising young politiciannamed Julius Caesar.

Julius CaesarBorn in Rome in about 100 B.C. of an aristocrat-

ic family, Julius Caesar became one of Rome’sgreatest generals and political leaders. Skillfullymaneuvering himself through Rome’s tumultuousgame of politics, Caesar gradually rose to power. In60 B.C. the ambitious aristocrat allied himself withthe general Pompey and the politician Crassus. Ayear later, with their help he was elected consul. Forthe next decade, the three men ruled Rome as a tri-umvirate, or group of three persons with equalpower. Through force and bribery, the triumviratesilenced government critics, bending senators andtribunes alike to its will.

Caesar’s Military CampaignsWhile serving as consul, Caesar realized he

needed military victories to advance his politicalcareer. In 59 B.C. he took a military command inGaul, which was inhabited by Indo-Europeansknown as Celts (KEHLTS). Caesar conquered theCelts and brought them under Roman rule. He alsocrossed the Rhine River to fight Germanic tribesand twice invaded Britain.

As a result of his victories, Caesar was hailed asa military hero by Rome’s lower classes. But sena-tors, alarmed at Caesar’s growing popularity,regarded him as a political threat. By 50 B.C. the tri-umvirate itself had fallen apart: Crassus was dead,killed in battle while leading Roman forces in Asia,and Pompey had become Caesar’s political rival.

In 49 B.C. the Senate, with Pompey’s backing,ordered Caesar to give up his army and return toRome. Caesar, however, had no intention of turninghimself over to his enemies. He assembled 5,000loyal troops and crossed the Rubicon, a stream that


Political strife following the murdersof the Gracchi aided the rise of the

young Julius Caesar, sculpted here in a heroic pose.How do you think Roman sculpture differed from the Greekmodels on which it was based?

HistoryVisualizing

divided his military provinces from Roman Italy.According to legend, Caesar had seen a vision thatencouraged him to cross, and exclaimed to histroops, “Let us accept this as a sign from the gods,and follow where they beckon, in vengeance on ourdouble-dealing enemies. The die is cast.” By defy-ing the Senate’s order, Caesar realized there was noturning back; and a civil war was unavoidable.Ever since, “crossing the Rubicon” has meant mak-ing a decision that cannot be undone.

Caesar’s army swiftly captured all of Italy anddrove Pompey and his allies out. The fighting even-tually spread east, with Caesar’s troops defeatingPompey’s at Pharsalus, Greece, in 48 B.C.

Caesar in PowerIn 45 B.C. Caesar took over the government as

dictator for life, to rule very much like a monarch.As absolute ruler, Caesar granted Roman citizen-ship to many people in the provinces outside ofItaly. He added to the Senate representatives fromthe provinces who were loyal to him. In makingthese reforms, Caesar not only made the centralgovernment more responsive to Rome’s newly con-quered territories, he also strengthened his ownpower at the expense of the old patricians.

Caesar also carried out social reforms aimed tobenefit the poor. To provide jobs, he set up publicworks programs and ordered slave-owning land-owners to hire more free laborers. Colonies werefounded throughout Rome’s territories to provideland for the city’s landless poor. Under Caesar, thegovernment also continued its long-standing prac-tice of distributing free grain but reduced the num-ber of people eligible for it.

Caesar’s most lasting reform was a new calen-dar based on the work of scholars in Alexandria.Replacing the old Roman lunar calendar, this newsolar calendar counted 365 days in a year and 1extra day every fourth year. Caesar’s calendar, later

named Julian in honor of him, was used in westernEurope until early modern times.

Caesar’s DeathMany Romans believed that Caesar was a wise

ruler who had brought order and peace to Rome.Others, however, considered him to be a tyrant whomeant to make himself a king. According to ancientRoman law, anyone who plotted to become kingcould be killed without trial. Acting on this law, agroup of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius,stabbed Caesar to death on March 15, 44 B.C.

End of the RepublicAfter the death of Julius Caesar, his 18-year-old

grandnephew Octavian joined forces with MarcAntony and Marcus Lepidus, two of Caesar’s topgovernment officers. Together this second triumvi-rate defeated Caesar’s assassins in 42 B.C. Then,while keeping up the appearance of republicangovernment, these three generals divided theRoman world among themselves. Octavian ruled inItaly and the west, Antony in Greece and the east,and Lepidus in North Africa.

The second triumvirate did not last long, how-ever. Octavian forced Lepidus to retire from politi-cal life. When Antony married Cleopatra, the queenof Egypt, Octavian persuaded the Romans thatAntony intended to rule them with his foreignqueen by his side, and so Octavian declared war onAntony in Rome’s name. In 31 B.C. Octavian scat-tered the forces of his enemies in a critical navalbattle at Actium in Greece. A year later, to evadecapture by Octavian, Antony and Cleopatra com-mitted suicide in Egypt. With Antony dead,Octavian became the undisputed ruler of Rome.Octavian’s period of rule would mark the begin-ning of the Roman Empire.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to show which economicand social problems broughtthe Roman Republic to an end.

Recall2. Define indemnity, triumvirate.3. Identify Hannibal, Scipio,

Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Marius, Sulla, JuliusCaesar, Octavian, Marc Antony.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How did Julius Caesar’s cross-

ing of the Rubicon help destroythe Roman Republic and create a dictatorship?

Understanding Themes5. Conflict Explain how Roman

military conquests overseasaffected Rome’s political, economic, and social development.

EconomicProblems

SocialProblems

End of Republic


Under the Roman Republic, laws hadproven too weak to control socialchanges, while generals had taken

power away from elected officials. Thus, Octavianbelieved that Rome needed one strong leader. TheSenate agreed and appointed Octavian consul, tri-bune, and commander in chief for life in 27 B.C.Octavian gave himself the title Augustus, or“Majestic One.”

The First EmperorsAugustus claimed to support the republic, but

he actually laid the foundation for a new statecalled the Roman Empire. In practice, he becameRome’s first emperor, or absolute ruler.

Augustus CaesarIn the 40 years of his reign—from 27 B.C. to A.D.

14—Augustus rebuilt the city of Rome and becamea great patron of the arts. He also introduced manyreforms to the empire. Proconsuls could no longerexploit the provinces. Publican tax collectors werereplaced with permanent government employees.Grain was imported from North Africa so that all inRome would be fed. New roads were built and oldones repaired. Magnificent public buildings wereconstructed throughout the empire. Augustusboasted that he had “found Rome a city of brickand left it a city of marble.”

In 31 B.C. there began the Pax Romana, orRoman Peace, which lasted about 200 years. Theonly major disturbances during those yearsoccurred when new emperors came to power. For,although Augustus chose his own successor care-fully, he failed to devise any law for the selection oflater emperors.

The Julio-Claudian EmperorsHistorians call the four emperors who ruled

from A.D. 14 to A.D. 68 the Julio-Claudians because

> Terms to Defineaqueduct

> People to MeetAugustus, Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Mar-cus Aurelius, Galen, Ptolemy, Virgil, Livy

> Places to LocateAppian Way

The visitor, Aelius Aristides, an educated andwell-travelled man, had never seen anything torival Rome. And it was not just the city—it waseverything that Rome represented: military might,sensible government, and an elegant lifestyle.Who could help but admire an empire that com-manded vast territories and diverse peoples, a mil-itary that conquered both armed forces and selfishambition, a government where officials ruled notthrough arbitrary power but by law. Romans“measured out the world, bridged rivers, cutroads through mountains, filled the wastes withposting stations, introduced orderly and refined

modes of life.” Theywere, he declared,natural rulers.

—adapted fromOration on the PaxRomana, AeliusAristides, reprintedin Sources of theWestern Tradition,Marvin Perry, 1991

S e c t i o n 3

The Roman Empire

SThetoryteller

Augustus Caesar

Read to Find Out Main Idea The Pax Romana broughtorder and peace to the Roman Empire.

each was a member of Augustus’s family, known asthe Julio-Claudians. Each showed promise when hebecame emperor, but later revealed great faults.

Augustus’s adopted son Tiberius, who suc-ceeded Augustus Caesar as emperor, spoiled hisable leadership by accusing many innocent peopleof treason against him. Caligula, Tiberius’s grand-nephew and successor in A.D. 37, became mentallydisturbed and was killed by a palace guard in A.D.41. Caligula’s uncle, Claudius, was a renownedscholar, but as he grew older he had difficultyfocusing on affairs of state.

Nero, Claudius’s stepson, who became emper-or in A.D. 54, was cruel and probably insane. Nerowas willing to bankrupt Rome to pay for his twinpleasures—horse racing and music. Suspectingothers of plotting against him, he killed his wifeand his mother and executed many senators. InA.D. 68 the Senate sentenced Nero to death for trea-son. Before he committed suicide, reportedly hecried, ”What a loss I shall be to the arts!”

The Good EmperorsFor 28 years following Nero’s death, Rome was

governed by a number of emperors who werebacked by the army. Then, in A.D. 96 the Senatechose its own candidate for emperor: Nerva.Historians consider Nerva the first of the so-calledGood Emperors; the others were Trajan, Hadrian,Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius (aw•REE•lee•uhs). The Good Emperors were known fortheir skills as effective administrators and theirsupport of large building projects.

The Emperor Trajan increased the empire to itsgreatest size. Hadrian then strengthened Rome’sfrontiers, building Hadrian’s Wall in Britain andother defense positions. Antoninus Pius succeededhim, maintaining the empire’s prosperity. Thephilosopher-ruler Marcus Aurelius brought theempire to the height of its economic prosperity. All ofthese Good Emperors lived by the principle of Stoicphilosophy best expressed by Marcus Aurelius inMeditations: “Every moment think steadily as a


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Roman Expansion

Most of the Roman Empire bordered the Mediterranean Sea, allowing Rome to have a stronghold on the Mediterranean region. Region Why would control of the Mediterranean region be an advantage for Rome’s economy?

MapMapStudyStudy

Roman and a human being how to do what youhave in hand with perfect and simple dignity.”

Roman RuleBy the time Augustus had come to power in

27 B.C., between 70 and 100 million people were liv-ing in the Roman Empire. To rule so many peopleeffectively, Augustus had to make many changes ingovernment.

Imperial GovernmentAugustus improved the working of the empire

by carefully choosing professional governors ratherthan letting the Senate appoint inexperienced pro-consuls every year. In some provinces, such asJudea, he left local kings in charge under his com-mand. Augustus ordered new roads built so that hecould keep in touch with all parts of the empire, andhe personally inspected the provinces frequently.

Augustus also dignified his own position by

serving as pontifex maximus, or chief priest of Rome.Thus he and each later emperor became the head ofa national, unifying religion.

The LawAs the Romans won more provinces, they

found that they needed a new kind of law thatwould apply to noncitizens. They therefore createdthe jus gentium, or law that dealt with noncitizens,as opposed to the jus civile, or citizen law. By theearly A.D. 200s, however, emperors had granted cit-izenship to the peoples of so many nearbyprovinces that all free males in the empire had beenmade full citizens of Rome, and the two lawsbecame one.

In their laws Romans generally stressed theauthority of the state over the individual. They alsoaccorded people definite legal rights, one of whichwas that an accused person should be consideredinnocent until proven guilty. The Roman system oflaw has formed the basis for the legal systems ofmany Western nations and of the Christian Church.

of theof the

Pompeii, A.D. 79On August 23-25, A.D. 79, the volcano Vesuvius

erupted in southern Italy. The city of Pompeii was buried ina single day.

A detail from the Villa of theMysteries shows that life formany in Pompeii offered manycomforts and pleasures.

166

An Imperial ArmyAugustus and later emperors maintained the

professional army. As conditions became morepeaceful, however, Augustus reduced the numberof legions and supplemented this fighting forcewith troops recruited from the provincial peoples.Even with forces combined, the emperor couldcount on having only about 300,000 troops, whichwas not enough to defend a border with a length ofabout 4,000 miles (6,440 km). Therefore, by A.D. 160,invasions by peoples outside the empire hadbecome a continuing problem.

Roman CivilizationFrom about 31 B.C. to A.D. 180, the Roman

world enjoyed a period of prosperity known as the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. The stability of the Pax Romana boosted trade, raised standards of liv-ing, and generated many achievements in the arts.The Latin author Tertullian described this time:

Everywhere roads are built, every districtis known, every country is open to com-merce … the [fields] are planted; themarshes drained. There are now as manycities as there were once solitary cot-tages.… Wherever there is a trace of life,there are houses and human habitations,well-ordered governments, and civilizedlife.

—Tertullian, Concerning the Soul, c. A.D. 180

The Empire’s EconomyTertullian’s description of economic growth

under the empire was not exaggerated. In the firstcentury A.D., artisans in Italy made pottery, wovencloth, blown glass, and jewelry for sale throughoutthe empire. The provinces in turn sent to Italy lux-ury items, such as silk cloth and spices, gathered intrade with China, India, and Southeast Asian coun-tries. Dockworkers at Rome’s harbor, Ostia,unloaded raw materials such as tin from Britain,

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

1. Why were so many artifacts from Pompeii sowell preserved?

2. What do Roman wall paintings in Pompeii revealabout the lifestyles of upper-class Romans?

167

Citizens of Pompeii were almost instantlyoverwhelmed by volcanic ash and fire. A plastercast of victims serves as a stern reminder ofVesuvius’s power.

iron from Gaul, and lead from Spain. Soon skillfulGreek traders within the empire were doing busi-ness in distant areas, such as eastern Africa,Southeast Asia, and China.

Life During the Pax RomanaThese economic changes brought changes in

lifestyles. The family gradually became less signifi-cant than it had been during the republic. Romanshad fewer children and were likely to divorce andremarry several times. Fathers lost some of theabsolute power they had during the republic, andwives gained some legal rights. Society became lessstable. Patricians might go bankrupt, wealthy mili-tary officers might sit in the Senate, and a poor manmight even make a fortune in manufacturing.

Within each class, a consistent pattern of lifeformed. The wealthy often held public office,owned large farms outside the cities, ran factories,or directed trading firms. They lived comfortably inluxurious homes with marble walls, mosaic floors,running water, and baths.

The prosperity of the Pax Romana sometimesreached people of average means—shopkeepersand artisans. Although fewer people became veryrich, more became moderately well off. The majori-ty in Rome, however, were still poor. There were noprivate baths for them; instead they bathed atcrowded public areas built under Augustus andlater emperors. Most Romans lived in flimsy wood-en apartment buildings of six or seven stories thatreadily collapsed or caught fire.

Public AmusementsDespite these trying conditions, the poor did

not rebel against the government, because it offeredthem both free bread and free entertainment. ByA.D. 160, Romans were celebrating 130 holidays ayear. On some days, teams of charioteers competedin races in the Circus Maximus, an arena seatingmore than 150,000. On other holidays, crowdscould watch gladiators fight each other to the deathor battle wild animals in stadiums like theColosseum.

Architecture, Engineering, and ScienceThe Romans erected many impressive build-

ings during the Pax Romana besides the CircusMaximus and the Colosseum. Between A.D. 118 andA.D. 128, Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon, a temple forall the deities, with a soaring dome and a huge sky-light. To build the Pantheon, the Romans mixedconcrete—a new building material—with variouskinds of stone.

The Romans also excelled in road building. Thefirst major Roman road was the Appian Way.Constructed in the 300s B.C., it connected Rome andsoutheastern Italy. During the Pax Romana, a net-work of roads was built to link Rome with theprovinces. Reaching a total length of 50,000 miles(80,000 km), the road network contributed to theempire’s unity.

As they constructed public buildings and a vast network of roads, the Romans engineeredaqueducts, or artificial channels for carrying water.


Entertainment at the giant arena Circus Maximus, depicted inthis bas-relief, was free to Roman citizens. What new building

material did the Romans use to construct the Pantheon?

HistoryVisualizing


The ruins of the Roman Forum are a majortourist attraction of modern Rome. In ancienttimes, the Forum was the center of both pol-itics and commerce. The Forum contained a

number of separate buildings: In the foreground theTemple of Castor and Pollux, built in the 400s B.C.,honored Roman gods. Behind is the Arch of Titus, theruler whose military victory is enshrined in the archbuilt about A.D 80. Beyond the Arch stand the walls ofthe Colosseum. The largest amphitheater built in

ancient Rome, the Colosseum took a decade to con-struct and could seat 50,000. Here the Romanswatched gladiators battle lions and later vanquishChristians.

The rise of the Roman state began with the city ofRome itself hundreds of years before the birth ofChrist. Slowly the Romans consolidated control overItaly and built a great army. By 200 B.C. Rome hadbecome a vast empire. Power brought wealth and greatmonuments such as these in the Forum. �

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These lofty arches built out of stone enabled water toflow into Rome from as far away as 57 miles (about92 km). One Roman-built aqueduct in Segovia,Spain, was so well constructed that it is still usedtoday—nearly 1,900 years after it was completed.

The Romans excelled at adapting the discover-ies of others and using them in new and more prac-tical ways. They made use of the Etruscan arch anddome to build aqueducts and the Pantheon, andborrowed the Greek design for columns to supportporches built around city squares.

Roman scientists also relied upon informationlearned from other cultures. The ancient medicalideas compiled by the Greek physician Galenformed the basis of Roman medical science. Theobservations of the Egyptian astronomer Ptolemyformed the foundation of Roman astronomy.Galen’s works influenced medical science for cen-turies, and Ptolemy’s work allowed later astronomersto accurately predict the planets’ motion.

Roman EducationThe Romans studied their borrowed knowledge

avidly. Wealthy boys and girls received privatelessons at home. Young men from wealthy familieswent on to academies—where former Greek slavesoften taught—to learn geometry, astronomy, philos-ophy, and oratory. The daughters of the wealthy didnot attend academies. Many upper-class womencontinued to study at home, however, and oftenbecame as well educated as Roman men. People inthe lower classes usually had at least a basic knowl-edge of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Language and LiteratureLatin, Rome’s official language, had a vocabu-

lary far smaller than that of Greek or modernEnglish; thus, many words expressed several meanings. Nevertheless, Latin remained the lingua

franca, or common language, of Europe as late asthe A.D. 1500s. Latin also forms the basis of the so-called Romance languages, such as Italian, French,Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian, and suppliesthe roots for more than half of English words.

Although Romans learned from Greek litera-ture, during the reign of Augustus Latin literatureachieved an elegance and power of its own. Cicero,a Roman senator, published beautifully writtenspeeches. Ovid wrote the Metamorphoses, versesbased on Greek mythology. Horace, a poet, wroteabout the shortness of life and the rewards of com-panionship in his Odes. Horace’s friend Virgilwrote the Aeneid, an epic poem comparable to thoseof Homer. In one passage of this poem, Virgilexpresses both the humility and pride of Romans:

Others, no doubt, will better mould thebronze

To the semblance of soft breathing, draw,from marble,

The living countenance; and others pleadWith greater eloquence, or learn to measure,Better than we, the pathways of the heaven,The risings of the stars: remember, Roman,To rule the people under law, to establishThe way of peace, to battle down the

haughty,To spare the meek. Our fine arts, these,

forever.

—Virgil, the Aeneid, c. 20 B.C.

Livy, a later writer, wrote a monumental histo-ry of Rome that glorified the early Romans. The his-torian Tacitus, in contrast, condemned the tyrannyof the Julio-Claudian emperors with subtle butscathing irony. In Germania, Tacitus contrasted therobust life of the Germans with what he felt was theweak and pleasure-loving life of the Romans.



below to describe whatlifestyles were like during thePax Romana.

Recall2. Define aqueduct.3. Identify Augustus, Pax Romana,

Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, MarcusAurelius, Galen, Ptolemy, Virgil,Livy.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

The expression “bread and circuses” has been used todescribe measures taken by a

government to prevent discon-tent among the poor. Do youthink this expression applies tothe modern United States?Why or why not?

Understanding Themes5. Change What major new

examples of architecture, engi-neering, and science appearedduring the period of the PaxRomana?

Lifestyles During the Pax Romana



The early Romans worshiped naturespirits. Under Etruscan influence theycame to think of these spirits as deities.

Later, the Romans adopted much of Greek religion,identifying Greek deities with their own. Beginningwith Augustus, the government also expected peo-ple to honor the emperor as Rome’s chief priest.Nevertheless, the empire’s people were stillallowed to worship freely, and a variety of religionsflourished.

Meanwhile, a new monotheistic religion calledChristianity began to be practiced by some of theJews in the eastern Mediterranean. At first, both theRomans and the earliest Christians thought of thenew religion as a sect, or group, within Judaism. AsChristians won over non-Jewish followers, howev-er, the faith diverged from its Jewish roots andbecame a separate religion.

Judaism and the EmpireIn A.D. 6 the Emperor Augustus turned the

kingdom of Judah into the Roman province ofJudea. The Romans in Judea still allowed the Jewsto practice their religion, but they treated them cru-elly. Many Jews therefore strengthened their hopethat a messiah, or a deliverer chosen by God, wouldhelp them regain their freedom. The coming of a mes-siah had long been foretold by Jewish prophets.

Believing that God would intervene on theirbehalf, some Jews took matters into their ownhands. In A.D. 66 they rebelled against the Romansand overpowered the small Roman army inJerusalem. But only four years later, in A.D. 70, theRomans retook Jerusalem, destroying the Templeand killing thousands of Jews.

Then, after another unsuccessful rebellion inA.D. 132, the Romans banned the Jews from living

> Terms to Definesect, messiah, disciple, martyr, bishop, patriarch, pope

> People to MeetJesus, Paul, Peter, Constantine, Theodosius,Augustine

How could Justin, a man well versed in philos-ophy and intellectual pursuits, explain to theemperor why he had embraced Christianity? Hehad opened a school to teach others about this reli-gion, although most educated people dismissed it asa dangerous superstition. He had to convince theemperor that, just as the ancient philosophers hadsought truth, Christians sought it too. Since bothscholars and Christians shared this quest, followingChristian teachings could only help in the searchfor understanding. He set his pen to paper andbegan to write a defense of the Christian faith.

—from Apology, Justin, reprinted inReadings in Ancient History from Gilgameshto Diocletian, Nels M. Bailkey, 1969

S e c t i o n 4

The Rise of Christianity

SThetoryteller

Mosaic of Jesusas shepherd

Read to Find Out Main Idea Jesus of Nazareth’s teachingsand early Christianity influenced the laterRoman Empire.

in Jerusalem. The Jews were forced to live in otherparts of the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Intheir scattered communities, the Jews continued tostudy the Torah, the entire body of Jewish religiouslaw and learning. They set up special academiescalled yeshivas to promote its study. Furthermore,between A.D. 200 and A.D. 500, rabbis—scholarstrained in the yeshivas—assembled their variousinterpretations of the Torah into a book known asthe Talmud. To this day the Talmud remains animportant book of Jewish law.

Jesus of NazarethA few decades before the Jewish revolts, a Jew

named Jesus grew up in the town of Nazareth.With deep spiritual fervor, Jesus traveled throughGalilee and Judea from about A.D. 30 to A.D. 33,preaching a new message to his fellow Jews andwinning disciples, or followers.

Proclaiming that God’s rule was close at hand,Jesus urged people to turn away from their sins andpractice deeds of kindness. He said that God wasloving and forgiving toward all who repented, nomatter what evil they had done or how lowly theywere. In his teaching, Jesus often used parables, orsymbolic stories. With the parable below, Jesusurged his followers to give up everything so thatthey would be ready for God’s coming:

The kingdom of heaven is like treasurelying buried in a field. The man whofound it, buried it again; and for sheerjoy went and sold everything he had, andbought that field.

—Matthew 13:44–46

Jesus’ disciples believed that he was the messi-ah; other Jews, believing that the messiah had yet to

come, disputed this claim. The growing controver-sy over Jesus troubled Roman officials in Palestine.They believed that anyone who aroused suchstrong public feelings could endanger Roman rulein the region. In about A.D. 33, the Roman governorPontius Pilate arrested Jesus as a political rebel andordered that he be crucified—hung from a crossuntil dead. This was a typical Roman way of pun-ishing criminals.

The Spread of ChristianityAfter Jesus’ death, his disciples proclaimed that

he had risen from the dead and had appeared tothem. They pointed to this as evidence that Jesuswas the messiah. His followers began preachingthat Jesus was the Son of God and the way of sal-vation. Small groups in the Hellenistic cities of theeastern Mediterranean world accepted this mes-sage. Jews and non-Jews who accepted Jesus andhis teachings became known as Christians—Christos was Greek for “messiah.” They formedchurches—communities for worship, fellowship,and instruction.

A convert named Paul aided Christianity’sspread, especially among non-Jews. He traveledwidely and wrote on behalf of the new religion.Paul’s letters to various churches were later com-bined with the Gospels, or stories about Jesus, andthe writings of other early Christian leaders.Together, these works form the New Testament ofthe Bible.

Meanwhile, other apostles, or Christian mis-sionaries, spread Christianity throughout theRoman world. It is believed that Peter, the leader ofthe group, came to Rome and helped found achurch in that city. Other churches were set up inGreece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and later in Gaul andSpain.


An engravingof the apos-

tles Peter and Paul decoratesthe sepulchre of the childAsellus. Why did the apostlesform churches?

HistoryVisualizing

Persecution and CompetitionChristians taught that their religion was the

only true faith. They refused to honor the emperoras a god and rejected military service. As a result,many Romans accused them of treason.

The Romans feared that Christian rejection oftheir deities would bring divine punishment.Therefore, although they did not hunt out theChristians, if local officials thought Christians werecausing trouble, they might have the Christianskilled. The Romans frequently threw theseChristian martyrs—people who chose to die ratherthan give up their beliefs—into the stadiums to bekilled by wild beasts in front of cheering crowds.

Such persecution, which lasted until the earlyA.D. 300s, kept many people from becomingChristians. To win converts, Christians had to over-come this obstacle. Christianity also had to competefor followers with polytheistic religions and mys-tery religions—so named for their mythical heroesand secret rituals—and with Judaism.

During the A.D. 200s and 300s, Christianityflourished in the Mediterranean world along withthese other religions. Like Judaism, Christianity wasmainly a religion of the cities, while traditionalRoman religions retained their hold in the country-side. Even though the number of Christians was rel-atively small during this period, their strength in thecities of the Roman Empire gave Christianity aninfluence that was far beyond its size.

Romans Adopt ChristianityAccording to legend, in A.D. 312, as the Roman

general Constantine led his army into battle, aflaming cross appeared in the sky and beneath it infiery letters appeared the Latin words In hoc signovinces: “With this as your standard you will havevictory.” Apparently because of this vision,Constantine ordered his soldiers to paint theChristian symbol of the cross on their shields.When his army won the battle, Constantine credit-ed the victory to the Christian God.

Named emperor of Rome in A.D. 312,Constantine thus became a protector ofChristianity. A year later, he issued the Edict ofMilan, which decreed that all religious groups inthe empire, including Christians, were free to wor-ship as they pleased. Constantine attended meet-ings of Christian leaders and ordered churches tobe built in Rome and Jerusalem.

Because of effective missionary work andgrowing government support, Christianity furtherincreased in size and influence throughout theentire Roman world. It became as important in thewestern part of the empire as it was in the easternpart. In A.D. 392 the Emperor Theodosius (THEE•uh•DOH•shuhs) made Christianity the official religionof the Roman Empire. At the same time, he bannedthe old Hellenistic and Roman religions.

The Early ChurchFrom early times Christians recognized that

their organization, the Church, would prosper onlyif it was united. They also felt that Christian teach-ings had to be stated clearly to avoid differences ofopinion that might divide the Church. Consequently,Christians turned to important religious thinkerswho attempted to explain many Christian beliefs.Between A.D. 100 and A.D. 500, various scholarsknown as Church Fathers wrote books explainingChristian teachings. They greatly influenced laterChristian thinkers.

Teachings of AugustineChristians in the western part of the empire espe-

cially valued the work of Augustine, a scholar bornin North Africa in A.D. 354. Augustine is consideredto have written one of the world’s first great autobi-ographies. In this work called Confessions, Augustinedescribes how he was converted to Christianity:

I heard from a neighboring house a voice,as of a boy or girl, I know not,chanting, and oft repeating,’Take up and read; Take upand read.’… So … Iarose, interpreting it to be no other than acommand from God,to open the book [theBible], and read thefirst chapter I shouldfind.

—Augustine, Confessions, c. A.D. 398

Constantine became a defender of

Christianity. How did the status ofChristians living in the Roman Empirechange under the rule of Constantine?

HistoryVisualizing



below to identify the mainpoints of Jesus’ teachings.

Recall2. Define sect, messiah, disciple,

martyr, bishop, patriarch, pope.3. Identify the Talmud, Jesus,

Paul, Peter, Constantine, Theodosius, Augustine.

Critical Thinking4. Evaluating Information

Why might the Romans in

Judea especially have respond-ed harshly toward anyonearousing strong feelings amongthe Jewish people?

Understanding Themes5. Innovation List some of the

ways in which Christianitydiverged from Judaism tobecome a distinct religion.

• Christianity has had a majorimpact on the West, especiallyin the arts, philosophy, politics,and society.

• Today, Christianity, with morethan 1.5 billion followers, is theworld's largest religion. It is themajor faith in Europe, theAmericas, and Australia.

Roman mural of Christian disciples • Most Christians today belongto one of three major groups—Roman Catholic, Protestant,or Eastern Orthodox.

• Most Christians believe that inone God are three Persons—theFather, the Son, and the HolySpirit (the Trinity).

• Christianity affirms that Jesus isGod the Son who became ahuman being, died, and rosefrom death to save humanityfrom sin. According to Christian

belief, people receive eternal life

by believing in Jesus and following his teachings.

• Christians acknowledge theGod of the Jews as their God.The Christian Bible includesboth the Jewish Scriptures(the Old Testament) and theNew Testament.

Characteristics of Christianity

So powerful was Augustine’s influence that hebecame a leading church official in North Africa. Inthis post he wrote books, letters, and sermons thatshaped Christian thought. For instance, he wroteCity of God—the first history of humanity from theChristian viewpoint.

Church StructureBy Augustine’s time, Christian leaders had

organized the Church as a hierarchy—into levels ofauthority, each level more powerful than the levelbelow it. Local gatherings of Christians, calledparishes, were led by priests. Priests conductedworship services and supervised parish activities.Several parishes together formed a diocese, eachoverseen by a bishop. Bishops interpreted Christianbeliefs and administered regional church affairs.The most powerful bishops governed Christians inthe empire’s larger cities. The bishops of the fiveleading cities—Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria,Antioch, and Jerusalem—were called patriarchs.

The bishops of the Christian Church met incouncils to discuss questions and disputes aboutChristian beliefs. The decisions they reached atthese councils, such as that at Nicaea in A.D. 325,came to be accepted as doctrine, or official teach-ings. The points of view the council did not acceptwere considered heresy, or false doctrine.

During the A.D. 400s, the bishop of Rome beganto claim authority over the other patriarchs.Addressed by the Greek or Latin word papa, hisname today is rendered pope in English. Latin-speak-ing Christians in the West regarded the pope as headof all of the churches. Greek-speaking Christians inthe East, however, would not accept the authority ofthe pope. The bishops of Alexandria and Antiochclaimed to exercise a paternal rule equal to that of thepope. Eventually these churches and those of theLatin West separated. In time, the Latin churches asa group became known as the Roman CatholicChurch and the Greek churches as the EasternOrthodox Church.

Teachings of Jesus



During the A.D. 200s, while Christianitywas spreading through the RomanEmpire, Germanic tribes began to over-

run the western half of the empire. Many inhabi-tants in this area reported widespread devastationand chaos. The Germanic tribes had always been athreat to the empire. Why were they so much moresuccessful now than they were during the times ofMarcus Aurelius?

The Empire’s ProblemsThe Romans had a brief rest from political vio-

lence during the reign of the five Good Emperors.When Marcus Aurelius died in A.D. 180, however, anew period of violence and corruption brought thePax Romana to an end.

Political InstabilityThe time of confusion began with the installa-

tion of Emperor Commodus, Marcus Aurelius’sson. Like Nero, he spent so much state money onhis own pleasures that he bankrupted the treasury.In A.D. 192 Commodus’s own troops plotted to killhim.

From A.D. 192 to A.D. 284, army legions installed28 emperors, only to kill most of them off in rapidsuccession. During this time of political disorder,Rome’s armies were busier fighting each other thanthey were defending the empire’s borders. Germanictribes such as the Goths, the Alemanni, the Franks,and the Saxons repeatedly and successfully attackedthe empire.

Economic DeclinePolitical instability led to economic decline.

Warfare disrupted production and trade. For arti-sans and merchants, profits declined sharply, forc-ing many out of business. Warfare also destroyedfarmland, causing food shortages that sent foodprices soaring.

Main Idea Political and economic causes ledto the decline of the western Roman Empire.> Terms to Define

inflation

> People to MeetDiocletian, Constantine, Theodosius I, Alaric, Attila, Odoacer

> Places to LocateConstantinople

The old world had ended. There was no longerany doubt of that. Gregory, whose family had forcountless generations served Rome as Senatorsand consuls, looked out the window at the citywhich had once ruled the world. Now it was in thehands of warlike tribes who had no appreciationfor Roman virtue, achievements, or culture.

“Cities are destroyed,” he mused,“fortifications razed, fields devas-tated. Some men are led away cap-tive, others are mutilated, othersslain before our eyes.” The pride of

Rome was reduced to memo-ries of a vanished glory.

—from Homiliarum inEzechielem, PopeGregory I, reprinted inSources of the WesternTradition, Marvin Perry,

Joseph Peden,and TheodoreVon Laue, 1991

S e c t i o n 5

Roman Decline

SThetoryteller

Marcus Aurelius

Read to Find Out

To cope with falling incomes and rising prices,the government minted more coins. It hoped theincrease would make it easier to pay its soldiers.However, because the government had alreadydrained its stores of gold and silver, the new coinscontained less of the precious metals—cutting theirvalue. To continue getting the same return for theirgoods, merchants raised prices. Thus, the govern-ment’s policy sparked severe inflation—a rise inprices corresponding to a decrease in the value ofmoney.

The spiraling decline in wealth affected almostall parts of the empire. To sustain a fighting force,the Roman government had to continually raisesoldiers’ wages. Taxing landowners heavily seemedthe only way to meet this expense, but as increasedtaxes made farming less profitable, more and morefarmers abandoned their lands. As a result, the out-put of crops shrank even more, worsening the foodshortage.

Unsuccessful ReformsDuring the late A.D. 200s and early A.D. 300s,

two emperors—Diocletian (DY•uh•KLEE•shuhn)and later, Constantine—struggled to halt the

empire’s decline. Their reforms preserved the gov-ernment in the eastern part of the empire for morethan 1,000 years. In the west, they succeeded onlyin briefly delaying the Germanic tribes’ invasion ofRome.

DiocletianGeneral Diocletian came to power in A.D. 284

by slaying the murderer of the preceding emperor.To hold back invasions, he raised the number oflegions in the army and spent his time travelingthroughout the empire to oversee defenses.Recognizing, however, that the empire was toolarge for one person to govern, Diocletian dividedthe empire into two administrative units.Diocletian set himself up as coemperor of the east-ern provinces and set up General Maximian ascoemperor of the western provinces.

Diocletian also tried to stop the empire’s economic decline. To slow inflation, he issued anorder called the Edict of Prices. In this edict, Diocletian froze wages and set maximumprices for goods. Yet, even though the penalty forbreaking the law was death, his effort failed com-pletely. Citizens merely sold their goods throughillegal trade. To stop farmers from leaving theirlands and heavily taxed people from changing their


As this relief sculpture shows, tax collectors in Roman times were very visible. Why did the Roman government have to

increase taxes?

HistoryVisualizing

professions to avoid taxa-tion, Diocletian requiredfarmers who rented landnever to leave their prop-erty and all workers toremain at the same jobthroughout their lives.

ConstantineWhen Diocletian re-

tired in A.D. 305, civil warsbroke out again. They con-tinued until Constantinecame to power in A.D. 312.

Constantine workedto stabilize the empireonce more by reinforcingDiocletian’s reforms. Hemade it legal for landown-ers to chain their workersto keep them on the farm.He declared most jobshereditary; sons had to fol-low their fathers’ occupa-tions. In A.D. 330 hemoved the capital of theeastern empire to theGreek town of Byzantium—an ideal site for tradeand well protected by nat-ural barriers—and re–named it Constantinople.

TheodosiusAfter Constantine’s

death in A.D. 337, civil warflared anew until Theodosius I succeededConstantine. During Theodosius’s rule, the empirestill suffered internal problems, and again the west-ern half suffered more. To lessen the problems,Theodosius willed upon his death that the easternand western parts should be separate empires. InA.D. 395 this division came to pass. To distinguishthe two, historians refer to the eastern empire as theByzantine Empire—after Byzantium, the town thatbecame the capital—and the western empire as theRoman Empire.

Barbarian InvasionsGermanic tribes entered the Roman Empire for

many reasons. Beginning in the late A.D. 300s, largenumbers of Germanic peoples migrated into theempire because they sought a warmer climate and

better grazing land. Others crossed the empire’sborders wanting a share of Rome’s wealth. Most,however, came because they were fleeing the Huns,fierce nomadic invaders from central Asia.

Warrior GroupsGermanic warriors lived mostly by raising cat-

tle and farming small plots. Despite their interest inthe empire’s goods, they themselves had little sur-plus to trade and were poor compared to theRomans. Each warrior group consisted of warriors,their families, and a chief. This chief governed thegroup and also led the warriors into battle. As thebands of warriors were numerous, so too were thechiefs. Often the only unifying factor among theseGermanic groups was their language, which to theRomans sounded like unintelligible babbling. TheRomans labeled the Germanic peoples barbarians, areference to the sounds they made.


Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 200

200

400 mi.

0 400 km

N

E

S

W

Britain

Gaul

Spain

Greece

Egypt

Italy

Rome

Constantinople

Alexandria

Adrianople

ASIA MINOR

Battle siteEmpire of the WestEmpire of the East

FranksOstrogothsVandals

Angles/SaxonsVisigothsHuns

NorthSea

ATLANTICOCEAN

15°W 0° 15°E 30°E

30°N

25°N

35°N

40°N

45°N

50°N

55°N

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

MapMapStudyStudy

Germanic Invasions A.D. 200–500

Between A.D. 410 and A.D. 476 Visigoths, Huns, and Vandalsinvaded Italy.Movement What was the area of origin and the destination of the Angles and Saxons during this period?

The VisigothsDuring the late A.D. 300s and A.D. 400s, a vari-

ety of Germanic groups extended their hold overmuch Roman territory. They were the Ostrogoths,Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, Angles, and Saxons.The Visigoths, at first, were the most important ofthese groups. In A.D. 378 they rebelled againstRoman rule and defeated a large Roman army atAdrianople in the Balkan Peninsula, killing theeastern Roman emperor. To buy peace, his succes-sor gave the Visigoths land in the Balkans. In A.D.410 the Visigothic chief, Alaric, led his people intoItaly, capturing and sacking Rome. After Alaric’sdeath the Visigoths retreated into Gaul.

The HunsThe next threat to the empire was invasion by

the Huns. This nomadic group streamed westwardfrom the grasslands of central Asia. Led by theirchief, Attila, the Huns raided the eastern empire;

then they moved north into Gaul. In A.D. 451 theRomans and the Visigoths combined to fight andstop the Huns in central Gaul. Foiled in theprovinces, Attila turned upon Italy. There his hordeplundered the larger cities. Eventually plague andfamine took their toll on the Huns. After Attila diedin A.D. 453, they retreated to eastern Europe.

The end of the Huns’ empire brought theRomans new troubles. Wandering Germans, Slavs,Avars, and Persians battered continually at theRoman Empire’s eastern frontier. Diplomacy, bribery,and warfare kept them at bay for only a short time.

End of the Western EmpireWith the Huns gone and Italy devastated, noth-

ing remained to prevent Germanic tribes from tak-ing over. The Vandals raided and thoroughlysacked Rome in A.D. 455. Franks and Goths dividedGaul among themselves. Finally, in A.D. 476, aGerman soldier named Odoacer (OH•duh•WAY•suhr) seized control of Rome and overthrew theyoung emperor, Romulus Augustulus. Odoacerthen named himself king of Italy.

Because Odoacer called himself king and nevernamed a substitute emperor, people today refer toA.D. 476 as the year in which the Roman Empire“fell.” However, this event no more signifies thecollapse of the empire than any other event. Its endwas caused by a complex interaction of eventsbetween A.D. 200 and A.D. 500.

More accurately, the western Roman Empireended in the late A.D. 400s. Yet it did not mean theend of Roman culture, for the new Germanic rulersaccepted the Latin language, Roman laws, and theChristian Church. In the Byzantine Empire, howev-er, aspects of Roman culture were gradually sup-planted by Hellenistic culture. By the A.D. 700s,Greek had even replaced Latin as the language ofthe Byzantine Empire.



below to identify the politicaland economic causes of thedecline of the Roman Empire.

Recall2. Define inflation.3. Identify Diocletian,

Constantine, Theodosius I, Alaric, Attila, Odoacer.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

Do you think that internal difficulties or outside invaders

had greater impact on thedecline and fall of the westernRoman Empire? Why? Give reasons from the text for yourchoice.

Understanding Themes5. Change How did warfare

create the Roman Empire andlater destroy its western half?

Political

Decline ofRoman Empire

Economic

Causes Effect

➝

➝



Suppose you have been given the choice oftaking an art class or a music class duringyour free period at school. How will you

decide which class to take?

Learning the SkillWhen you make a decision, you are making

a choice between alternatives. There are five keysteps you should follow that will help you in thedecision-making process.1. Identify the problem. What are you being

asked to choose between?2. Identify and consider various alternatives

that are possible.3. Determine the consequences for each alterna-

tive. Identify both the positive and the nega-tive consequences.

4. Evaluate the consequences. Consider boththe positive and negative consequences foreach alternative.

5. Ask yourself: Which alternative seems tohave more positive consequences? Whichseems to have more negative consequences?Then make your decision.

Practicing the SkillDecisions throughout history have affected

the outcome of events, and defined history.Identify the alternatives and describe their con-sequences for each of the following events thatoccurred during the time of ancient Rome. Eachof these events took place as a result of a deci-sion made by a person or a group of people.1. The Twelve Tables became the basis for all

future Roman law in 451 B.C.2. During the Third Punic War, in 146 B.C., the

Romans burned Carthage.3. In 27 B.C., Augustus Caesar became Rome’s

first emperor.4. The Emperor Theodosius made Christianity

the official religion of the Roman Empire inA.D. 392.

5. Beginning in the late A.D. 300s, large num-bers of Germanic peoples migrated into theRoman Empire.

Applying the SkillUse a newspaper or magazine to find a cur-

rent issue that directly affects your life. Identifythe issue, and then review the facts. Identify various alternatives, and then determine thepositive and negative consequences for eachalternative. Make a sound decision about whichalternative would be best for you.

For More PracticeTurn to the Skill Practice in the Chapter

Assessment on page 181 for more practice indecision making.

Decision Making

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practice in key social studies skills.

Reviewing Facts1. History Use a time line like the one below to

identify key events in the barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire.

2. Science Identify Roman achievements in scienceand engineering, and discuss their impact.

3. Government Describe how Rome’s political system changed under Augustus Caesar.

4. Citizenship Trace the development of Romanlaw and its influence on Western civilization.

5. Government Discuss how Roman governorsmade provincial cities more like Rome.

6. Geography Explain the geographic factors thathelped Rome to dominate the Mediterranean.

Critical Thinking1. Apply In what ways did the Roman Republic,

in its structure and growth, affect later govern-ments in western Europe and America?

2. Analyze What evidence suggests that Romansociety was more stable during the republicthan during the time of the empire?

3. Evaluate In what ways did the Romans’ treat-ment of the peoples they conquered differ fromthe ways in which other victors usually treatedthe peoples they conquered? How might Romanattitudes have strengthened the empire?

Using Key TermsWrite the key term that completes each sentence. Thenwrite a sentence for each term not chosen.

a. indemnity h. patriciansb. bishop i. triumvirate c. plebeians j. messiahd. sect k. popee. inflation l. consulf. aqueducts m. dictator g. republic

1. After years of rule by kings, the Romansdeclared their city-state a _____, a form of gov-ernment in which people elect their leaders.

2. In 60 B.C. Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesarformed a _________, a group of three personswith equal power, to control the government.

3. After their defeat, the people of Carthageagreed to pay the Romans a huge _______, orpayment for damages.

4. Early Christianity was thought of as a _______,or group, within Judaism.

5. The majority of people in the Roman Republicwere ______ —nonaristocratic landowners, mer-chants, shopkeepers, small farmers, and laborers.


CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT

Imagine that you are either a youngRoman legionary stationed in a remoteoutpost of the empire in A.D. 130 or youare a friend of the legionary, awaitinghis return to Rome. Write a letterdescribing what you have been doing inthe past week.

Using Your History Journal

A.D. 500A.D. 300

Self-Check Quiz

Visit the World History: The Human ExperienceWeb site at worldhistory.ea.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 6—Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.

Creating a MultimediaPresentation Search acomputerized card catalog orthe Internet for information about the earlyEtruscans. Using multimedia tools, create a short presentation about the Etruscan culture.Incorporate images from the Internet. Before youbegin, plan the type of presentation you want todevelop and the steps you will take to make thepresentation successful. Indicate tools you willneed and cite all electronic resources.

Technology Activity

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe47.php?&st=596&pt=3&bk=18

4. Analyze The vaseshown here incorpo-rates the Etruscanalphabet. Why havescholars been unableto tell the full storyof Etruscan history?


CHAPTER 6 ASSESSMENT

The Spread of Christianity

Mediterranean Sea

Black Sea

RedSea

Rome

Alexandria

Constantinople

Jerusalem

Antioch

Christian area, A.D. 200

Expansion of Christianity, A.D. 200–400

Geography in History1. Location Refer to the map below. Which area

(east or west) was more heavily influenced byChristianity by A.D. 200?

2. Movement What major body of water didmany early missionaries cross in their efforts tospread Christianity?

3. Place According to the map below, which cityin western Europe had the largest concentrationof Christians by A.D. 200?

The United States government operateson the system of checks and balances, inwhich each branch of government limits thepower of the other branches. Did this systemoperate in the Roman Republic? Why orwhy not? Use examples from Roman historyto support your answer.

Understanding Themes1. Change How did the Roman government

change from the time of the Etruscans toAugustus Caesar?

2. Conflict Evaluate a conflict between nationsthat has occurred in the recent past, and analyzethe ways in which it is similar to conflictsbetween the Romans and other peoples of theMediterranean region.

3. Cultural Diffusion How might Roman roadshave helped to foster cultural diffusion?

4. Innovation In what way did Constantine’s vic-tory in battle in A.D. 312 change the religiouslife of the Roman Empire? How did his reli-gious policies later shape the future course ofreligion in Western civilization?

5. Change How did Roman architecture reflect thepolitical and social changes that transformedRome from a republic into an empire?

Skill PracticeReread page 160 about the Punic Wars. For

each of the three wars, identify the decision thataffected the outcome of each. Explain the conse-quences of each decision, and how they affected theoutcome. Examining the decisions and final out-comes of each war will help you see alternatives thatmight have been available to the decision makers atthe time. Discuss some of the alternatives and theirconsequences for each war. How would historyhave changed if different decisions had been made?

chapter 6: ancient rome and early christianity -...

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