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In the Chapters 2, 3 and 4, we examined behavioural and cognitive theories of learning. In

this chapter, we discuss another school of thought about learning called constructivism.

Constructivism has its roots in 18th

century philosophy. It provides an alternative view of

explaining how humans learn. As the name suggests, it focuses on learners constructing

knowledge based on their prior knowledge and experience. Reality is not in the object

observed or the events experienced but reality is constructed by person. .

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Define what is constructivism

Trace the proponents of constructivism

Discus the principles of learning derived from constructivism

Compare the constructivist and traditional classroom

5.1 WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?

Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of 18th

century philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that humans can only clearly

understand what they have constructed themselves. He commented that “one only

knows something if one can explain it”. Another philosopher Immanuel Kant further

elaborated on this idea by asserting that human beings are not passive recipients of

information. More recent advocates of constructivism include John Dewey, Jean

Piaget, Jerome Bruner, von Glaserfeld and Vygotsky.

Jerome Bruner (1960) He defines constructivism as a learning theory in

which learning is seen as an active process in which learners construct new

ideas of concepts based upon their current and past knowledge.

Dewey (1916): Education depends on action. Knowledge and ideas emerged

only from a situation in which learners had to draw them out of experiences

that had meaning and importance to them. These situations had to occur in a

social context, such as a classroom, where students joined in manipulating

materials and, thus, creating a community of learners who build their

knowledge together.

Piaget (1930): The growth of human thought occurs through the construction

of knowledge through assimilation and accommodation. Knowledge is not

something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is something that

they gain through their own active experiences, their own acting on the world

physically or mentally to make sense of it.

Von Glaserfeld (1984): He sees knowledge as being actively received

through the senses or by way of communication and actively constructed by

the subject. The subject interprets and constructs a reality based on his or her

experiences and interaction with his or her environment.

Vygotsky (1962): A person constructs knowledge through social interaction in

the context of a culture. Culture and social interaction teaches a person both

what to think and how to think.

Cunningham and Duffy (1996) stated that learning is an active process of

constructing rather than acquiring knowledge. Instruction should be directed

towards supporting that construction of knowledge rather than communicating

or transmitting knowledge.

The main principle of constructivism is that a person interprets events, objects

and perspectives from his or her experiences, mental structures and beliefs. People

construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing

things and reflecting on those experiences. For example, when we encounter

something new, we have to reconcile or settle it with our previous ideas and

experiences, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new

information as irrelevant [Refer to the concepts of assimilation and accommodation

proposed by Piaget which we discussed in Chapter 3]. Thus, based on this principle,

knowledge is constructed and not merely reproduced. The knowledge constructed is

personal and individualistic. In other words, we as human actively construct

knowledge and knowing is an adaptive process in which we make sense of the world

on the basis of our experiences, goals, curiosities and beliefs (Wilson and Cole, 1991).

We have constructed the concept of fear of snakes based on our prior

knowledge of snakes. This prior knowledge could have been built from what we saw

on TV, the movies or stories we have heard about snakes. The concept of fear is not in

the snake but created by us based on our belief that snakes are evil and cold-blooded

killers capable of dealing quick death in a single venomous strike.

When we encounter new information, we relate it to our previous ideas and

experiences. We are constantly doing something to the new information and what we

already know and in the process create of our own knowledge. To do this, we always

are asking questions, exploring and assessing what we know. According to the

constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot be imposed or transferred intact from

the mind of the knower to the mind of another (see Figure 5.2). If this be the case than

learning and teaching cannot be synonymous. Even if we teach very well, students

may not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge. By reflecting on our

experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us

generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our

Snake Encounter!!!

What is your initial reaction when you encounter a snake? For most people

the initial reaction is fear and to run away, even though they have not seen a snake

in real-life. For the slightly braver ones, they might come back with a stick or

changkul to kill the snake. Why do we fear snakes? Why do we have the urge to

kill the creature?

Poison!

Bites!

Kills!

experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models

to accommodate new experiences.

5.3 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a

classroom environment that emphasises collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students

must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks

effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and

so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a

socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they

5.1 ACTIVITY

“Even if we teach very well, students may not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge”

a) To what extent do you agree with the above statement?

b) Comment on the statement by Socrates in Figure 5.1.

Socrates said;

‘I only wish that wisdom were the kind of

thing one could share by sitting next to

someone – if it flowed, for instance, from

the one that was full to the one that was

empty, like the water in two cups finding

its level through a piece of worsted’

(Symposium, 175d).

Figure 5.1 The Greek philosopher

Socrates, talking with some of his

students in Athens

will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to

cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others.

The Russian scholar, Lev Vygotsky contributed

much towards our understanding of an important aspect

of constructivism. His career was cut short by his death

from tuberculosis in 1934 at the age of 38. His theory was

made famous when his books Thought and Language

(1962) and Mind in Society (1978) were translated into

English. His ideas formed the basis for social

constructivism which emphasised the importance of social

interaction and culture in the construction of knowledge

and learning. According to him knowledge and learning

are constructed through humans interacting with one

another. Knowledge is a human product that is socially

and culturally constructed (Gredler, 1997).

1 2

3

Why is

there a

rainbow

?

Because

it just

rained.

But I

only see a

rainbow

when it is

sunny.

You’re right

there must

be sun.

So we need

sun and rain

for a rainbow!

Figure 5.2 Social Construction of

Knowledge about ‘Rainbows’

[source: Beaumie Kim (2001). Social

constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed). Emerging

perspectives on learning, teaching and

technology.

http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/SocialConstructivi

sm.htm]

Lev Vygotsky

1896-1934

Learning is not simply the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge

but acquired by actual relationships between learners. Figure 5.2 shows a simple

example of how ‘knowledge about a rainbow’ is socially constructed from the

interaction between two children. The two children share their personal meaning of a

‘rainbow’ and through the process of negotiation shape their understanding of

rainbows. Vygotsky believed strongly that language and culture play an important

role in the intellectual development of humans. Language and culture are the

frameworks through which humans experience, communicate and understand

phenomena. For example, when you see the colours red, yellow or white in the

environment, you do not merely see colours but more importantly the meaning

associated with the colours. You may associate the colour ‘white’ with clean, pure,

reflects light and so forth which are determined by your culture.

5.4 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

Based on his believe that learning is a collaborative process and influenced by

culture, he distinguished two levels of development (see Figure 5.3). The level of

Actual Development is the level of development that the learner has already reached.

It is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The

level of Potential Development is the level of development that learners are not

capable of doing at the moment but have the potential to do so. In between the actual

and the potential level, Vygotsky proposed what is called the Zone of Proximal

Development (ZPD). "Proximal" simply means "next". The three stages may be

viewed as a check-list of

what learners can do alone (Actual)

what learners can do with help (ZPD)

what learners cannot yet do (Potential)

Figure 5.3 Zone of Proximal Development

POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT: Beyond the

reach of

learners

at the

moment present

moment

dProximall

ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT: The Learner’s

present abilities

Zone of

proximal

development

(ZPD)

Figure 5.4. Teacher

scaffolding students by

constantly challenging them

The ZPD is not a permanent state but is the ‘next’ step towards learners being

able to do something on their own. The key is to "stretch" learners to know their ZPD

so that teachers and other adults can lead them towards realising their potential. He

observed that when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well

as when they were working in collaboration with an adult. Hence, for him, the

development of language and articulation of ideas was central to learning and

development.

5.4 SCAFFOLDING INSTRUCTION

You would have observed that at any construction of a high rise building, a

series of structures called scaffolding are erected.

This is to which permit workers to carry out their

work in high places. When the building is complete,

the scaffolding is removed. Scaffolding instruction

originated from Vygotsky’s ideas on learning. The

term has become a useful metaphor to describe how

teachers help students in learning. Generally, teachers

would focus on the ZPD. Teaching or instruction that

falls outside the zone (above or below a student's

ZPD will not contribute to the intellectual

development of students. Why? It would be pointless

to focus on ‘what learners can do’ or ‘what learners

cannot yet do’. So, the most logical step would be for

the teacher to mediate between learner’s actual

development and potential development; i.e. the

ZPD.

The teacher should act as a scaffold,

providing the support necessary for learners to

proceed towards the next stage or level and

independently complete the task (see Figure 5.4). To effectively scaffold a student, a

teacher should stay one step ahead of the student, always challenging him or her to

reach beyond his or her current ability level. The challenge for the teacher, then, is to

find the optimal balance between supporting the student and pushing the student to act

independently. The role of the teacher is not teaching students how to perform a task,

but to refine their thinking through engagement and enhancing their performance. The

teacher continually adjusts the level and amount of help in response to the learner’s

level of performance. The purpose of scaffolding is to instil the skills necessary for

independent learning in the future. To effectively scaffold students within their ZPDs,

a teacher could also model the behaviours needed. For example;

SELF-CHECK

a) What is social constructivism?

b) Explain the zone of proximal development. How would you

apply it in teaching?

The teacher could model a particular skill that students are weak in

Students imitate the teacher’s behaviour in performing the skill

Students practice the skill until it is mastered by all in the classroom.

So, scaffolding instruction guides learners towards independent and self-

regulated competence of skills. Since the work that learners have to perform are more

structured and focused time on task is increased and efficiency in completing the task

is increased. Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time

searching and more time on learning and discovering, resulting in quicker learning

(McKenzie, 2000). Scaffolding instruction minimises the level of frustration among

learners, especially among academically weak learners who become frustrated very

easily, then shut down and refuse to participate in further learning.

5.5 CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING

Let us now examine how constructivism operates applies to teaching. As

mentioned earlier, constructivism argues that learners construct knowledge

individually and socially. Teaching in a non-constructivist setting, involves imparting

a body of knowledge that has been predetermined by the curriculum. As teachers, we

present this information to learners because we believe that is what they should

‘know’. We may engage them in activities and hands-on learning, with opportunities

to experiment and manipulate objects. But, our main purpose is still to ‘show’ learners

how the facts, concepts and principles of a body of knowledge are organised and

Scaffolding Activities

Motivating learners to be interested in the task

Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable

Keep students on task by focusing on the goals and the path to choose

Indicate the differences between the learner’s work and the desired standard

Reduce confusion, frustration and risk by providing clear instructions towards meeting expectations

Model the skills required

[source: adaptation of Bransford, J. Brown, A. & Cocking, R,. 2000; McKenzie, J. 2000]

SELF-CHECK

a) How do you scaffold instruction?

b) What are some benefits of scaffolding instruction?

c) Is scaffolding the same as giving tuition? Explain

applied. In short, we merely present content and at no point do we encourage them to

‘construct’ their own knowledge or understanding of the facts, concepts and principles

presented.

Figure 5.5 The Teacher presenting information and the learner

constructing his own conception of the information

In Figure 5.5, the teacher is talking about Francis Light and the opening of

Penang. The learner is constructing his own meaning or conception of the information

presented about ‘Penang’. Most probably, the teacher is not aware of the learner’s

own construction of meaning. If we accept the constructivist theory of learning,

teachers have to accept that there is no such thing as knowledge “out there” that is

independent of the learner, but only knowledge learners construct for themselves as

they learn. This may be very much different from what teachers usually do in the

classroom. The constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the

opportunity to interact with the information presented and allow them to construct

their own meaning or interpretation of the information. However, the teacher cannot

assume that all learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on

which to build new knowledge. In such situations, the teacher has to design

instruction in such a way as to make the missing connections for learners. In other

5.6 A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

Ernest (1999), Brooks and Brooks (1999) offer the following guiding

principles of constructivism. They argue that when applied to the classroom, the

concept of learning should be viewed differently (see Figure 5.6). Specifically,

Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive

information and constructs meaning out of the information received. The

learner needs to do something, because learning involves the learners

engaging with the world.

In 1786, Francis Light

opened Penang. The island

was chosen because of its

location and deep water

harbour.

Penang

has

beautiful

beaches

Learning is an active (mental or physical)

People learn to learn as they learn

Learning involves language

Learning is a social activity

Learning is contextual

Learning needs knowledge

Learning takes time

Figure 5.6 A Constructivist View of Learning

It should be understood that people learn to learn as they learn. In other

words, we learn by constructing meaning which in turn influences further

learning. For example, if we learn about climate of different countries, we are

simultaneously learning the meaning of climate. Each meaning we construct

makes us better able to give meaning to other information which can fit a

similar pattern.

Learning involves language. In other words, the language that we use

influences our learning. Language and learning are inextricably intertwined. It

is not surprising that many people talk to themselves as they learn.

Learning is a social activity. Our learning is closely related with our

connection with other human beings (our teachers, our peers, our family, etc).

Much of present education is directed towards isolating the learner from social

interaction. It is seen as a one-to-one relationship between the learner and the

material to be learned.

Learning is contextual. We do not learn facts and theories in isolation, but

rather we learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our

prejudices and our fears.

It should be understood that one needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible

to absorb new knowledge without having some structure developed from

previous knowledge to build on. Therefore, any effort to teach must be

connected to the state of the learner. The learner is brought to interact with the

information based on the learner’s previous knowledge.

Learning needs time. It takes time to learn because we need to revisit ideas,

ponder on them, try them out, play with them and use them. For example, an

insight into an idea comes about after long periods of thinking and

deliberating.

Some

principles of

learning

derived from

constructivism

Idea

Opinion

Question Comment

In short, learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with

the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning

requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the

context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not

isolated facts. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that

students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those

models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own

meaning, not just memorise the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's

meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to

measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it

provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

5.7 WHAT HAPPENS IN THE CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM?

A constructivist classroom is different from non-constructivist classroom.

Generally the teacher in the constructivist classroom guides learning, scaffolds

instruction, help learners in the zone of proximal development and develops the

metacognitive ability of learners [We will discuss metacognition in Chapter 6].

Jacqueline G. Brooks and Martin G. Brooks (1993) offer the following suggestions as

to how constructivism is to be applied in the classroom. According to them, in the

constructivist classroom:

The ideas and opinions of students are respected Students are encouraged to express their opinions, give ideas and comments

(see Figure 5.7). This encourages independent thinking among students who

take responsibility for their own thinking.

Figure 5.7 Ideas and Opinions of Students are Respected

Teacher asks questions.

The questions framed encourage students to reflect on their thoughts and attain

their own intellectual identity. Sufficient wait time is given for students’ to

respond to questions.

Students engage in dialogue with the teacher. o Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with you and one

another. Classrooms discourage dialogue and teachers often

monopolise the talking and teaching becomes a lecture.

o Draw students our especially those who are shy or inarticulate.

Students discuss in groups

Through group discussions, students change or reinforce their ideas. If they

have the chance to present what they think and hear others' ideas, students can

build a personal knowledge base that they understand. Only when they feel

comfortable enough to express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue

occur.

Prompt inquiry by engaging in tasks requiring higher-level thinking o The questions asked go beyond simple factual response.

o Students are encouraged to make connections, summarise information,

analyse, predict and defend their ideas.

o Students generate and test their hypotheses by manipulating raw data,

primary sources and physical materials. For example, community

resources provide opportunities for students to collect and classify

primary material.

o Students are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the

world.

Figure 5.8 The Benefits of Student Involvement in Learning

What are the benefits of constructivism? Advocates of constructivism argue that

when the opinions and ideas of students are accepted, they will become more

involved and interested in what is being studied (see Figure 5.8). When students

become involved and interested, they will take ownership in what is being studied

and enjoy their work and want to learn. Constructivist teaching fosters critical and

Students enjoy their

work and want to learn

Students take

ownership of what is

being studied

Opinions and ideas of

students are accepted

Students become

interested in what is being

studied

creates active and motivated learners (Zemelman, Daniels and Hyde, 1993).

Constructivist teaching creates learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers

who question, investigate and reason.

SELF-CHECK

A a) How is constructivist teaching different from traditional

teaching?

b) What problems do you foresee in applying constructivist

principles

in the classroom?

In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM:

Curriculum – Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised

curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior

knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

Instruction – Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making

connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors

tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to

analyse, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on open-

ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.

Assessment – Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized

testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students

play a larger role in judging their own progress.

ACTIVITY

Comment on the implication of constructivism on the

curriculum, instruction and assessment of your subject

area as stated above.

5.8 CASE STUDY: Teaching Science from a Constructivist

Perspective

Non-Constructivist Science Teaching

Teaching of science tends to resemble a

one-person show with a captive

audience. Lessons are usually driven by

‘teacher-talk’ and depend heavily

textbooks and notes for the structure of

the course.

There is the idea that there is a fixed

world of knowledge that the student

must know. Information is divided into

parts which are built into a whole

concept.

Teachers serve as pipeline and seek to transfer their thought and meanings to the

passive student. There is little room for student-initiated questions, independent

thought or interaction between students.

‘Cook book’ experiments are common where students follow closely the

instructions on what hypotheses to test and method of carrying out experiments.

The goal of the learner is to regurgitate the accepted explanation or methodology

presented by the teacher.

Constructivist Science Teaching:

The teacher organises information around problems, questions and issues in order

to engage the interest of students. eg. do a demonstration, show a short film,

present data.

Next, present some information or data that does not fit with their existing

understanding.

Students break up into small groups to formulate their own hypotheses and

experiments. They plan their own investigation and activities to resolve the

discrepancy between the new information presented and their previous learning

and understanding.

The role of the teacher is to move from group to group asking probing questions

that aid students in coming to an understanding of the concept or principle being

studies. The teacher is a resource and facilitator.

After sufficient time for experimentation, the small groups share their ideas and

conclusions with the rest of the class. The idea is to come to a consensus about

what they learned. Concepts and principles emerge from the discussions and they

suggest how the concepts and skills may be applied to new situations.

ACTIVITY

We have all been in a classroom where the teacher asks question and students’ hands fly up excitedly because they feel they know the answer. The teacher then looks around the room and chooses as student She answers, and the teacher says, “No”. The teacher then calls on another student who answers and the teacher says, “Close but not quite”. The teacher then proceeds to all on a third student who answers and then the teacher replies, “Yes, that is

the right answer!” The teacher has conveyed many messages by conducting the classroom in this manner. The student now knows that there is one answer to the teacher’s questions and that they have to find that one right answer. Another thing is that students now know that they put themselves at risk if they raise their hand, unless they are certain that they have the right answer.

a) Is this an example of a constructivist classroom?

b) If this was a constructivist classroom, how would it be different?

SUMMARY

Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of

18th century philosopher Giambattista Vico.

Knowledge is not something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is

something that they gain through their own active experiences.

Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a

classroom environment that emphasises collaboration and exchange of ideas.

Social constructivism: A person constructs knowledge through social

interaction in the context of a culture.

Learning is a search for meaning.

In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use

to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.

The constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the

opportunity to interact with the information presented and allow them to

construct their own meaning or interpretation of the information.

Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive

information and constructs meaning out of the information received.

Benefits of constructivism: When students become involved and interested,

they will take ownership in what is being studied and enjoy their work and

want to learn.

REFERNCES:

Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,

experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press

Brooks, J.G. and M.G. Brooks (1993) In Search Of Understanding: The Case

For Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development, 1993.

Ernest, P. (1991) Philosophy of Mathematics Education, London: Falmer.

Glasersfeld, E. von (1983) “Learning as a Constructive Activity”, in

Proceedings of PME-NA, Vol.1, 41-69.

Kearsley, G. (1994, 1999). Explorations in learning & instruction: The theory

into practice database. Washington, DC: George Washington University.

Retrieved May 1999, from http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/

McKenzie, W. (2000). Are you a techno-constructivist?. Retrieved April 21,

2008, from Education Word Website:

http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech005.shtml

Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press

Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian

Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

KEY TERMS

Constructivism Scaffolding instruction

Zone of proximal development Search for meaning

Constructivist principles of learning

Construction of knowledge

Social constructivism

Wilson, B. G., & Cole, P. (1991). A review of cognitive teaching models.

Educational Technology Reseach & Development, 39 (4), 47-63.

Winn, W. (1993). A constructivist critique of the assumptions of instructional

design. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing

environments for constructive learning (pp. 189-212). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

Zemelman, S., Daniels, H. and Hyde, A. (1993). Best Practice: New Standards

for Teaching and Learning in America's Schools. Portsmouth: Heinemann.