chapter 4 individual differences and diversity

Individual differences can foster creativity, enjoyment andsatisfaction at work but can also be the root of conflict andfrustration. Our unique bundle of different attributes andcharacteristics shapes our values and what we plan to give andwhat we expect to receive from working. People are nothomogeneous, and individual differences are the basis of diversity.Effective managers need to steer a course that matches theneeds and expectations of the individual with the requirements ofthe organisation.

Learning outcomes

After completing this chapter you should be able to:

focus on valuing individual differences and factors affecting behaviour andperformance;

apply key issues of personality studies to the work organisation;

explain the nature of ability and emotional intelligence;

detail the nature and significance of attitudes to the workplace;

assess the value of psychometric tests and assessments;

explore the nature and importance of diversity management;

identify dimensions of diversity and evaluate the business case fordiversity.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ANDDIVERSITY1

Critical reflection

4

Organisations can achieve nothing without the efforts of their individualmembers. Whatever the nature of an organisations products or services,relationships at work and interactions among its members are at leastequally important.

To what extent do you agree that success at managing individual differencesis the real key to organisational effectiveness?

CHAPTER 4 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND DIVERSITY

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THE RECOGNITION OF INDIVIDUALITY

As mentioned in Chapter 1, organisations are made up of their individual members. Theindividual is a central feature of organisational behaviour, whether acting in isolation or aspart of a group, in response to expectations of the organisation, or as a result of the influencesof the external environment. Where the needs of the individual and the demands of theorganisation are incompatible, this can result in frustration and conflict. It is the task of management to integrate the individual and the organisation and to provide a working environment that permits the satisfaction of individual needs as well as the attainment oforganisational goals.

Managing relationships at work has always been a key skill, but the speed at which organisations and the external environment are undergoing change places increasing pressure on individuals at work. The effective management of people requires not only an understanding of the individual employees but also recognition of the culture of theorganisation. What is expected and accepted in one organisation may not be the same inanother. For instance, creativity and individuality may be encouraged in one business butundermined by bureaucracy in another.

A discussion of individual behaviour in organisations is therefore riddled with complexityand contradictions. Managers are required to be competent at selecting the individuals whowill be valuable to the organisation. They need to be observant about the individuals whoare performing well and have the potential to develop within the organisation. They alsoneed to be able to value individual difference and be sensitive to contrasting needs. Finallymanagers need to know themselves and understand their uniqueness and the impact theirpersonality has on others.

Individual differences and change

Sensitivity to individual needs and differences, especially in terms of their resilience, becomesparticularly significant when organisations embark on change initiatives. Even when thechange appears to be relatively straightforward, the reality is likely to be messy and complex.When organisations are working through change and when change appears to be externallyimposed, the management of people takes on a different dimension in terms of the sensitivityrequired. In this situation there is an implicit requirement of changes in attitudes and beliefs.Such changes may lead to new mindsets, new attitudes and new perceptions that enable people to cope and adjust to the different world. At these times effective management is vital;managers will be expected to understand the strains that their employees feel during timesof change, but at the same time be able to deal with their own stress levels.

HOW DO INDIVIDUALS DIFFER?

Our sense of self is shaped by our inherited characteristics and by influences in our socialenvironment. The process of growing up such as the impact of our early family life and thecountry in which we live has a significant part to play in our identity. Most social scientistswould agree that both inherited and environmental factors are important in our development,and it is the way in which these factors interact which is the key to our adult personality.However, scientists differ with regard to the weight they place on these factors some believingthat our personality is heavily influenced by our inherited characteristics and will neverchange, others believing the reverse.

But first, what are the differences among individuals? These include:

ethnic origin physique gender

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early family experiences social and cultural factors national culture motivation attitudes personality traits and types intelligence and abilities perception.

Some of these characteristics are shared with others, for example individuals who are fromthe same ethnic group or who have the same ability levels or who share similar physicalattributes such as short-sightedness. But our uniqueness stems from the dynamic ways inwhich these inherited and environmental factors combine and interact. The ways in whichit is possible to differentiate between individuals include an understanding of personality,the heart of individual differences and the importance and functions of attitudes. This isexplored in this chapter. An understanding of the ways in which people learn is fundamentalto an appreciation of individual differences and is considered in Chapter 5. The process of perception and communications is examined in Chapter 6. All contribute to a greaterunderstanding of self and others.

PERSONALITY

Personality may be viewed as consisting of stable characteristics that explain why a personbehaves in a particular way. So, for instance, independence, conscientiousness, agreeablenessand self-control would be examples of these personality characteristics. However, it is onlywhen we see/hear/observe a person that we can gain an understanding of their personality.For example, a person who is independent may show that characteristic by displaying a strong sense of self-sufficiency. We would expect him or her to take the initiative and not todepend on other people. Furthermore, if the characteristic is stable we can rely on this beinga consistent part of the persons behaviour. We would be surprised if the person one daydemonstrated autonomy and initiative and the next withdrew and delayed any decisions.We anticipate that individuals are generally consistent in the way in which they respond to situations.

There are times when we might be surprised by somebodys behaviour and we may feelthey are acting out of character. Of course this would be known only if we had an under-standing of their typical behaviour in the first place. Individuals may exaggerate or suppresscertain personality traits, for example if they are under stress or influenced by drink/drugs. Itis self-evident that managers need to learn the art of reading peoples behaviour in order tomanage relationships effectively.

NOMOTHETIC AND IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACHES

Broadly speaking, personality studies can be divided into two main approaches, labelled asnomothetic and idiographic.

The nomothetic approach is a measurable and specific perspective that looks at theidentification of traits and personality as a collection of characteristics. These characteristics areones that can be described, identified and measured and therefore can be subjected to obser-vation and tests. This perspective is especially helpful for managers when they are involvedin the selection, training and development of individuals. Nomothetic approaches tend toview environmental and social influences as minimal and view personality as consistent,largely inherited and resistant to change. Although they would not diminish the difficulties thatmeasuring personality brings, nomothetic approaches would claim that it is possible to measureand predict the ways in which personality types would behave given certain circumstances.

Table 4.1 The role of early experiences what is its impact?

Environment is significant

Approach taken by idiographic approaches

The personalities of the two pharmacists described above are theculmination of experiences. Their personalities have been shaped bythe people around them from their very earliest years. Early family life the relationship between family members, the size of the family, the rewards and punishments exercised by parents would have had an influence on the type of person each is now. In other words,the environment and early learning experiences have significantlycontributed to their personality development.

Inherited characteristics are significant

Approach taken by nomothetic theorists

The pharmacists inherited a genetic make-upwhich would remain core and would beresistant to change. Early experiences, whilethey may shape the person to a certain extent,do not alter the inherited make-up. Intelligence,physical appearances, physiological reactionsare wired in from birth the core of the individual is a given.


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Nomothetic researchers closely align themselves to studies that are scientific in a positivisticsense. (The term positivism refers to the branch of science that is exclusively based on theobjective collection of observable data data that are beyond question.) Such an approachtransfers methods used in natural sciences to the social world. Some psychologists are interested in describing and measuring characteristics and comparing individuals scores.Does this person exhibit more or less than average of this particular trait? Being able to predictbehaviour is a major aim and outcome of this approach.

The idiographic approach is a holistic and dynamic perspective which insists that managers take into account a whole understanding of the individual at work. This may also require going beyond the study of pure psychology to an understanding of the societalcontext in which the person lives. These are called idiographic approaches and are particu-larly pertinent in understanding motivation, career development and team relationships.

Idiographic approaches are concerned with understanding the uniqueness of individualsand the development of the self-concept. They regard personality development as a processthat is open to change. They regard individuals as responding to the environment and people around them and see the dynamics of the interactions as playing a critical part inshaping personality. The measurement of traits is seen as largely inappropriate in that one persons responses may not be comparable to anothers. They suggest that personalityassessment is not a valid method of understanding the unique ways in which a personunderstands and responds to the world. The depth and richness of a persons personalitycannot be revealed in superficial paper-and-pencil questionnaires. Furthermore, the cat-egories defined by psychologists are too narrow in scope and depth.

Theory and the world of work

The application of theory to the world of work is not always easy and some find the processconfusing when theory does not match with their experiences. Psychological investigationsemphasise the complexity and variety of individual behaviour and insist that simple answersand explanations are generally inadequate. The study of personality provides an excellentexample of some of the complexities involved in applying psychological theory in practice.

Consider two individuals who share similar characteristics. They are both 24 years oldand have lived in the same area; both have a first-class honours degree in pharmacy and theyhave identical personality assessment profiles. However, we would still predict differenceswith regard to their attitude and performance in the workplace. In addition, differenceswould be predicted in the ways they interact with others. If one of the pharmacists was male and/or African, a further set of assumptions might be made. It is not only the featuresthemselves which identify individuals as being different, it is also their interaction whichleads to a unique pattern of behaviour. The complexities of the process pose a number ofquestions that interest psychologists and evoke different responses (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2).

Figure 4.1 identifies the links between the dynamics of personality and lifes experiences.

Figure 4.1 To what extent does our personality remain constant?

Table 4.2 Is it possible to measure an individuals personality?

No, personality is unique

Approach taken by idiographic approaches

Idiographic approaches do not believe it is possible to putpersonal characteristics to the test. Our very uniquenessmakes comparisons difficult, if not impossible. Is itappropriate to consider the strength of a trait? Ourpharmacists may not always reveal their true self attimes circumstances may force them to mask theirpreferred ways of behaving. Our pharmacists may notreliably report on their own behaviour or there may be a realdifference between what they say and what others see.Critics of questionnaires believe answering set questions is forcing responses to questions that may not be relevant.Instead it may be more appropriate to use open-endedtechniques. This ensures that individuals use their owndefinitions and allows for greater understanding about theirmotivations and causes of behaviour.

Yes, there are identifiable traits

Approach taken by nomothetic theorists

Identifying an individuals personality typically refers todistinguishing traits or types. Personality traits are usuallyidentified by what people do, the behaviour they exhibit,e.g. sociable. Psychologists have designed questionnaireswhich ask people to respond to a series of questions.They assert that asking a person to report on the waythey feel or behave is a legitimate way of assessingpersonality. These self-reporting questionnaires wouldthen be subject to quantitative methods. It is thereforepossible to quantify the strength of a persons trait and to enable comparisons to be made with others. Suchinformation then becomes a basis for prediction. Forexample, if a person has a high score on extraversion, it would be possible to predict the way in which theindividual might behave in a given situation.


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Uniqueness and similarities

Tables 4.1 and 4.2 focus on two major issues of prime importance in the study of personality.First, is personality a constant throughout our lifetime, which remains resistant to change andcircumstances? Second, to what extent can we measure and compare individuals on the basisof their personality? This second question assumes that it is possible to distinguish personalitycharacteristics in the first place. Trying to make sense of the nature of personality has resultedin a prolific number of theories, with some psychologists focusing solely on the unique make-up of individuals, others drawing comparisons between individuals or looking for broadsimilarities in aspirations and goals. Table 4.3 charts these differences as series of levels.

In a work context we tend to be more interested in understanding what an individualspersonality is rather than why it is as it is. Furthermore, it is important to understand howvarious personality characteristics relate to performance at work. The nomothetic approachexplores the what of personality and the idiographic approach enriches our understandingof why.

Table 4.3 Different levels of personality research

Level Psychologists research interests

LEVEL 3 Common human aspirationsUniversal human features

LEVEL 2 Identification, measurements, comparison (nomothetic)Some shared features gender; ability

LEVEL 1 Self unique interaction with the world (idiographic)Unique combination of features


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NOMOTHETIC PERSONALITY THEORIES

The big five

The identification of personality traits has been a dominant subject of research in the UK andthe USA. There is now a body of evidence which suggests that five dimensions capture distinctdifferences between people. These clusters of traits (not personality types) are known as theBig Five2 and sometimes expressed in the acronym OCEAN:

Openness/closed-mindedness Conscientiousness/heedlessness Extraversion/introversion Agreeableness/hostility Neuroticism/stability

The big five form the basis of standard personality questionnaires that determine positiveor negative scores for each dimension. Results from a wide number of studies have shown that these factors can be identified as being significant in measuring the variationbetween people.3 Of these, conscientiousness has the highest positive link with high levels of job knowledge and performance across a range of occupations.4 However, someresearchers are critical of the descriptors used.5 Bentall suggests they are tainted by the investigators values and continues: I suspect that most people will have a pretty clear ideaof where they would like to find themselves on the dimensions of neuroticism, extra-version, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness. He questions the ethical and politicalnature of the scales.6 The relationship between personality and work performance is alsoquestioned by Robertson who suggests that the only two of the five dimensions linked consistently with high levels of performance are conscientiousness and emotional stability.7

Despite these reservations, the strength and value of the Big Five model has been extolledin a review by Lord and Rust. They conclude that:

Indeed, the five factor model has become the linchpin that holds personality assessment together,at least within the work context. Without it, how would we generalize with confidence from thevalidity of one work-based instrument to that of another? Furthermore, the model links the study of assessment instruments within the HR field to research in personality and related areas carried out within clinical and mainstream psychology fields in which the Big Five have alsobecome dominant.8

Figure 4.2 Eysencks personality dimensions


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Eysenck

Hans Eysenck believed that personality was largely inherited and that we are born with differingphysiological tendencies. He identified two major individual differences see Figure 4.2.Eysencks approach was influenced by the positivistic tradition with his research findingsgrounded in robust research. His aim was to produce objective evidence of personality differences using large samples of the population.9 The two dimensions define four distinctpersonality types:

stable extraverts (sanguine) with traits such as being talkative, responsive, easygoing,lively, carefree;

unstable extraverts (choleric) with traits such as being impulsive, changeable, excitable,restless;

stable introverts (phlegmatic) with traits such as being calm, even-tempered, peaceful,thoughtful;

unstable introverts (melancholic) with traits such as being anxious, moody, reserved, pessimistic.

Individuals in Eysencks theory could, therefore, be one of four main personality types.The type would lead to a predisposition of traits that would, itself, lead to the likelihood ofcertain behaviours. For instance, a person typed as an extravert would predictably talk overthings with someone to help them think it through, while an introvert would prefer to mullit over before talking about the issue. Eysenck developed an instrument to measure person-ality type called EPQ (Eysencks Personality Questionnaire).

Supporting research evidence

Although Eysencks theory appears simplistic, it has an impressive amount of supportingresearch evidence. His approach has immediate appeal to managers in organisations who areconcerned with predicting the future behaviour of their employees, either for selection orpromotion. Given the evidence that personality is a useful predictor of behaviour, it is notsurprising that the use of psychometric tests has grown substantially over the past decadeand that the majority of large companies use occupational tests.10 (Further informationabout testing is given later in this chapter.)

Cattell

Cattells work resembles Eysencks in the methods used to study personality. He used quantitative, objective techniques in order to analyse his data and followed traditional scientific procedures in order to understand the basic dimensions of personality.11 Heidentified two main types of personality traits:

surface traits that seem to cluster together consistently and are observable in behavioursuch as assertiveness;

source traits such as self-discipline that can only be inferred and seem to underlie anddetermine the traits which are likely to surface into behaviour.

Unlike Eysenck, Cattell did not type individuals but used traits as his main personalitydescriptor. They also differed with regard to the determinants of personality: Eysenck viewed

Table 4.4 Eriksons eight stages of personality development

Stage 1 Trust v Mistrust 1st yearStage 2 Autonomy v Doubt 23 yearsStage 3 Initiative v Guilt 45 yearsStage 4 Industry v Inferiority 611 yearsStage 5 Identity v Role confusion 1218 yearsStage 6 Intimacy v Isolation Young adultStage 7 Generativity v Self-absorption Middle ageStage 8 Integrity v Despair Old age

Source: Adapted from Erikson, E. H. Identity and the Life Cycle, Norton (1980), worksheet table appendix. Copyright 1980 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Copyright 1959 by International Universities Press, Inc. Reproduced with permission from W. W. Norton &Company Inc.


135

the inherited physiological basis as the main determinant, whereas Cattell was more interestedin taking social factors into account when understanding an individuals personality. Boththeorists have contributed to a lively debate about personality structure and its measurementand in doing so have advanced the selection techniques available to managers.12

IDIOGRAPHIC THEORETICAL APPROACHES

Idiographic approaches emphasise the development of the individual and of individualsviews of themselves their self-concept. Supporters of idiographic approaches are critical ofthe nomothetic approach that attempts to categorise individuals on the basis of group data.They argue that the techniques used to collate the group data are questionable and the outcome inappropriate to an understanding of personality. For the idiographic researchers,personality is expressed through the experiences and development of the individual. It cannot be understood outside a social context and has to be studied in the light of indi-viduals own perceptions of their world.

Idiographic researchers would always take into account the social circumstances of theperson and in particular the relationships with others, family life and social conditions. Inearly childhood strong personal relationships and unconditional love are essential for laterfulfilment and psychological growth. Carl Rogers theory claims that personality is embeddedwithin personal relationships. The process of becoming an adult requires the ability to giveand receive unconditional regard the warmth and respect for the person, who they are,regardless of how they behave.13 The phrase the looking-glass self was first discussed byCooley by this he meant that we come to know ourselves through our relationship with others and their reactions to us.14

Gurus in idiographic approaches

Erikson

Erik Eriksons theory is a good example of the idiographic approach. He viewed personalitydevelopment as continuing throughout life. He was interested in the effect of experiences on the development of the self-concept and how different individuals resolved personal conflicts.15 He recognised the importance of early childhood in establishing certain basicconcepts of trust, autonomy and initiative, but also claimed that all stages of life produce different tensions and conflicts.

For Erikson, there are eight distinct stages of life, each of which produces different tensionsand conflicts that have to be resolved (see Table 4.4). Successful resolution of these conflictsproduces a healthy personality, whereas difficulties in earlier stages may produce problemslater on. Eriksons theory not only makes considerable sense in terms of face validity (i.e. the

Table 4.5 Leadership types and the MyersBriggs types

ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJSalt of the earth Behind-the-scenes leader Oracle for people Designer of the future

ISTP ISFP INFP INTPWalking encyclopedia Gentle spirit Values crusader Blueprinter of ideas

ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTPSelf-starter Everyones friend Spark of energy Classic entrepreneur

ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJTake-charge leader Servant leader Values spokesperson Grand scale organiser


136

it feels right factor), it also links with other research indicating that managers motivationsand goals change with age (see Hunt, who identified nine different career/life stages).16

COMPLEMENTARY APPROACHES

Some researchers do not fit easily into either of the two broad approaches of nomothetic oridiographic and have their own theories and models of personality development, for examplethe work of Carl Jung and the cognitive approach of George Kelly.

Jung

Carl Jungs theory is of particular significance in that it bridges the psychoanalytic approach(of writers such as Sigmund Freud) with modern approaches of personality test design. Histheory identifies life energy as concerned with hopes and goals of the future and not just ofthe past. Jung describes three levels of personality:

a conscious level (daily reality); an unconscious level (contains our unique complexes); a collective unconscious level (store of universal and evolutionary experiences).

Jung identified four universal aspects of everyones personality that he referred to asarchetypes; for example he claimed we all strive for self-actualisation; have a darker self; haveboth masculine and feminine qualities; and have a persona a role we can play.17

The MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Jung is probably best known for his constructs that form the foundation for the MBTI person-ality indicator. The MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment tool was designed byIsabel Briggs Myers and Katherine Briggs who applied the rigours of systematic testing to Jungspersonality functions and attitudes.18 Jung identified differences between individuals in termsof their libidinal energy that could flow outwards to the external world (extravert) or inwardsto their inner world (introvert). Personality differences would also be manifest through dif-fering cognitive functions of thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. The MyersBriggsassessment added a further dimension of style of living. The personality types are shown inFigure 4.3.

The MBTI tool has promoted considerable research interest, particularly with regard to thecorrelation between personality type, occupations and management style see Table 4.5. TheMyersBriggs assessment asserts that people tend to be attracted to and have the most satisfac-tion in work that allows them to express and use their psychological type preferences. Such amatch enables them to handle their tasks more effectively and generates more energy. Confid-ence is a likely outcome of this process. The MyersBriggs instrument is an affirmatory tooland knowledge gained through using the MBTI assessment can lead to recognition and respectfor differences between people and appreciation for the value such differences bring.19


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138

Kellys personal construct theory

Kellys theory of personal constructs does not just consider personality development; it considers the whole person in terms of their perceptions, attitudes and goals. For Kelly, personality is the individuals way of construing and experimenting with their world. Kellywas critical of separating the study of personality apart from the whole person:

The castrating effect of separating personality off as a mini-psychology in its own right is perhaps bestseen in the curiously named study of individual differences, which in fact turns out to be the study ofgroup sameness. As a result we have focused on the establishment of general dimensions, at some pointalong which all individuals can be placed, rather than on a study of the dimensions which each individual develops in order to organise his own world.20

For Kelly it was critical to take data from one individual person (idiography) and toemploy a technique that could cope with the qualitative nature of the data to be collected.He developed the Repertory Grid that was able to measure an individuals construct of theworld. Kelly was thus able to employ a clear and valid measure within an idiographicapproach. This was an important advance in idiographic techniques and the repertory technique has become increasingly important as a research tool. It enables the person to use their own constructions of the world but in such a way that they are comparable andmeasurable.

APPLICATIONS WITHIN THE WORK ORGANISATION

Recruitment and selection

It would be rare for organisations not to take the personality of a candidate into consider-ation at a selection interview. For some organisations, personality is a major criterion forselection or rejection. The hospitality industry, for example, is replete with research studiesdemonstrating the potency of personality.21 So, how do organisations assess a candidatespersonality?

The interview remains the most usual method of selection, but there is an increasing useof objective psychometric measures. Such growth in psychometric testing is significant anda number of studies have demonstrated its growing popularity.22 Concern has beenexpressed about the use and misuse of psychological instruments and there is a continuingdebate within psychological circles with regard to the validity of these measures23 that is,do they actually measure what they claim to measure? Testing is discussed in detail later inthis chapter. There are controversies and sensitivities surrounding the use of any psycholog-ical test, but tests of typical performance are especially problematic in certain circumstances.As Anastasi has stated:

The construction and use of personality inventories are beset with special difficulties over andabove common problems encountered in all psychological testing. The question of faking andmalingering is far more acute in personality measurement than in aptitude testing.24

Critical reflection

The MBTI assessment tool has been in and out of fashion over the years and there isconstant debate about its continuing relevance and usefulness.

What value do you believe the MBTI assessment has as a tool for measuring peoplespersonality type? Can you give a specific example of where it might be used withadvantage?


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Critics have accused consultants and practitioners of inappropriate use of personalityassessments and claim low validity between non-work-related personality assessments andwork performance.25 Goss suggests that the use of personality assessments not only is an infringement of the individuals privacy but also leads to unfortunate organisational con-sequences, with cloning as an outcome. Such techniques can be perceived as a form of socialengineering and an insidious form of organisational control.26 Aware of these problems, the British Psychological Society has produced guidelines and codes of practice for users ofpsychometric tests. Furthermore, evidence is emerging to show that where personality questionnaires have been specifically designed and related to work characteristics, predictionand validity scores are much higher.27

Personal development and teamworking

Personality questionnaires can be particularly valuable if individuals complete them for theirpersonal development or if they are used within team-building and development pro-grammes. Here, they can initiate discussion about individual differences, the importance of diversity in teamworking and the strengths that each personality type can bring to theworking situation. The notion of judgement is therefore out of the equation. Personalityquestionnaires can thus be a valuable diagnostic tool at the start of a coaching session or asa preliminary to a team-building process an audit of strengths and weaknesses. At thesetimes a discussion can be held to look at a balanced team with complementary person-alities, skills and abilities. This could be followed by group training exercises designed todevelop strengths and balance the weaknesses of the team. An effective team at work shouldbe aware of the division of their strengths and weaknesses.

None of us is perfect; but a group of people, whose strengths and talents complement eachother, can be.28

Personality and social expectations

Although personality may be a powerful determinant of a managers effectiveness, accountmust also be taken of the social rules and expectations within the workplace. People learnthe behaviour that is expected of them and may mask their true preferences. For instance, an introverted academic lecturer may prefer to be reflective and have time to think but willbe required to perform in front of 200 undergraduate students and be expected to respondimmediately to questions. We can respond in ways that are not true to type and we may berequired to take on roles at work that may run counter to our preferences. We have to learncoping strategies and adaptive skills, but for some people stress may result. Furthermore, dif-ferent temperaments may be rewarded at different times depending on whether they aregoing through a period of growth or retrenchment. Whereas a manager may be recognisedfor exciting promotional activity and product development in one situation, other personal-ity characteristics may be needed if there is a period of slow-down and attention to detailand costs. Gray contends that researchers will never to able to solve and develop accurate,valid and reliable performance measures. Many jobs or critical aspects of them, cannot bequantified. Performance measures are often justifiably subjective, vague and contradictory.29

EMOTIONS AT WORK

Until recently workplaces were seen as rational, logical places where emotions were excludedor seen in a negative light. Hochschilds30 research describes the way in which some jobsrequire a display of certain emotions, especially those in the service industries, where cus-tomer care is inextricably linked with making people feel good. Such work has been labelled


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as emotional labour and distinguishes between surface acting displaying emotion withoutexperiencing it and deep acting involving thinking, visualising to induce the emotion in the situation. Briner challenges psychologists to broaden research to throw light on thecomplexities of emotions in the workplace. He notes that organisations specify the emotionsthey would like their employees to feel in the mission statements and in more subtle waysin terms of the rewards and career enhancements people receive when they display appro-priate emotions. However, he suggests that little is known about the incidence of emotionat work and the part it plays in work behaviours. The illustration shown in Table 4.6,although simplistic, plots a possible sequence of events and the power of rewards (or not)and psychological well-being (or not).

Stress at work

The significance of stress at work has been discussed in Chapter 3. Personality is a con-tributing factor in the understanding of stress. Stress is a complex topic. It is individuallydefined and is intrinsically tied into an individuals perceptual system. Everyone has a rangeof comfort within which they can feel steady and safe. Stress occurs when the individual feelsthat they are working outside of that comfort zone. Individuals will differ when they feel discomfort. The effects of stress will differ too; for some, the incidence of stress may energiseand activate but for others it may immobilise.

The costs of stress at individual, organisational and national levels are well known. Cooperhas indicated the high incidence of stress throughout organisations, irrespective of seniority.He suggests that every job has its own stress fingerprint.31 Stress is a term that is commonlyused and misused; some individuals may say that they are stressed out at the slightestamount of pressure and tension. It also contains a perverse sense of status; for instance, a librarian complained bitterly that her role was regarded as having low stress, implying thatjobs given a high stress position also ranked high in prestige.

TYPE A AND TYPE B PERSONALITIES

Two polar sets of behaviour that link with personality and health have been identified bymedical students Friedman and Rosenman, who identified recurring patterns of personality inpatients suffering from premature heart disease.32 Individuals with a Type A personality areexcessively competitive and thrive on hard work and long hours. They work under moderateto high levels of stress and exhibit characteristics such as:

Table 4.6 A sequence of work emotions, thought and behaviour

Jane is asked to carry out a difficult project, usually given only to more experienced colleagues.She feels valued, flattered and trusted also a little worried.

While working hard on the project her emotions range from excitement and elation to fear andfrustration.

She completes the task well and feels proud and relieved. Jane tells her boss and shows her completed work. Boss gives no thanks or praise and picks out a trivial error. Jane then feels resentful and angry and thinks that she will never again put herself out for her

boss. Also feels exploited. Thinks about looking for another job. Doesnt volunteer to do additional tasks any more. Starts to feel sad and disappointed. Updates her CV and regularly starts looking at job advertisements.

Source: Briner, R. Feeling and Smiling, The Psychologist, vol. 12, no. 1, January 1999, pp. 1619. Reproduced with permission from the British Psychological Society.


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a high need for achievement; extreme competitiveness; impatience with obstacles to the completion of tasks; aggressiveness; a tendency to move and speak rapidly; an aversion to idleness; restlessness and urgency about time.

Individuals with a Type B personality are considered to exhibit the opposite characteris-tics from Type A. They may still have high levels of drive and ambition but are more relaxed,work at a steady pace and do not exhibit a sense of time urgency.

According to Friedman and Rosenman, Type A personalities are far more vulnerable toheart attacks than Type B personalities. Individuals who have a personality classified as Type Aare more likely to suffer from heart disease under severe stress than individuals with a Type Bpersonality.33 Research also supports the link between stress and Type A personality.34

Type A people and team performance

Gratton reports on what happens when Type A people, for whom time urgency is crucial, getto work together with less time-urgent people. Type A people are likely to pay a great deal ofattention to the passage of time, constantly check the time remaining and see time as theirenemy. Typically they will be very efficient in their use of time, and will use deadlines to prioritise tasks and increase their work pace. Type A people have the potential to keep thingsmoving and active but can have a detrimental impact.35 A study by Waller et al.36 found thatwhere teams were responsible for completing creative tasks, Type A time-urgent peopletended to impose strict, linear schedules on members and this reduced the innovative performance of the team.

Critical reflection

Whatever the skills, experience or qualifications of an individual, personality is arguablythe most important criterion at selection interview and in their subsequent relationshipswith other people at work.

What do you think? How large a part does personality play in influencing a personsaptitude for a job?

ABILITY

Individuals vary with regard to their mental abilities and the extent to which they apply themat work, and different occupations require different skills, competencies and abilities. Thehappy scenario is one where a match occurs between the individuals abilities and theiroccupation, but reality suggests that this is not always the case. The extremes includeemployees bored rigid with a simple task who become careless and make a succession ofmistakes, and the employees who have been promoted beyond their capability. The resultcould be stress either for the individuals unable to cope or for their colleagues who are pick-ing up the debris left behind.

In a similar vein to the studies of personality, different schools of thought have emergedwith regard to the study of abilities. Similar debates to the ones that surround the study ofpersonality have also swirled around the research on intelligence.

Is intelligence inherited? Is it constant throughout life? Is it dependent upon our lifesexperiences, our culture, our education, etc.?

What is the nature of intelligence? Can it be measured and how?

Figure 4.4 A hierarchy of abilities

Source: Adapted from Vernon, P. E. The Structure of Human Abilities, Methuen and Co. (1950). Reproduced with permission from Taylorand Francis.


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Is intelligence inherited?

The nativists believe that intelligence is mostly inherited (nature), while the empiricistsbelieve that our environment shapes our behaviour and mental abilities (nurture). Howe37

summarises recent convincing evidence to lend support to the empiricists. He cites evidencefrom early intervention programmes such as Head Start initiatives to show that interven-tion can have an impact on IQ. He concludes: The empirical findings provide no supportfor the pessimistic conclusion that low intelligence and the problems associated with it areinevitable and unalterable.

The political implications of research into the nature of intelligence are striking. Some ofthe earliest theories influenced the educational philosophy of England and Wales, includinghow children were selected for different types of secondary education and the kind of helpthat should be given to children with special needs.

The nature of intelligence

Arguments have raged within psychologists circles as to the nature of intelligence. Is itdependent on a general overall factor that will have an overarching effect on specific activi-ties? Or are specific activities independent of each other? In other words, if a child shows ahigh level of ability at mathematics, is this dependent on an overall high general ability?General ability can be seen as a kind of powerhouse that releases some of its energy into the childs ability at mathematics. (For other children it may act as a limiting factor.)Spearman38 proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence and suggested that every intellectualtask involves a level of mental agility a general factor (g) plus specific abilities (s). Thisidea, developed by Vernon,39 resulted in a model that placed abilities in a hierarchy (seeFigure 4.4). Abilities at the lower end of the hierarchy are more likely to correlate, hence if achild has a good vocabulary, they are more likely to have abilities in reading and compre-hension too.

Thurstone40 claimed seven primary mental abilities that can be separately measured resulting in a profile of scores:

spatial ability perceptual speed

Figure 4.5 Guilfords structure of the intellect model

Source: From Guilford, J. P. Three Faces of Intellect, American Psychologist, vol. 14, pp. 46979. Reproduced with permission from APA.


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numerical reasoning verbal reasoning memory verbal fluency inductive reasoning.

Intelligence one or many?

Guilford41 criticised theories that aimed to simplify intelligence into a small number of factors. He devised a model that identified 120 different abilities (see Figure 4.5) and sug-gested that intellectual ability requires individuals to think in one of three dimensions:

Content. What must the individual think about (for example, meaning of words or numbers)?

Operation. What kind of thinking is the individual required to do (for example, recog-nising items, solving a problem, evaluating an outcome)?

Product. What kind of outcome or answer is required (for example, classifying or reorder-ing items)?

Guilford also expressed concern about the convergent nature of tests that required a single solution or answer. He suggested that tests should also be looking at an individualsability to produce divergent answers.

Multiple intelligences

Gardner42 felt that intelligent behaviour that could be observed in everyday life was excludedfrom these earlier studies. He believed that the simplification of intelligence in terms of an

Figure 4.6 Emotional Intelligence Competence Model

Source: Hay Group. Copyright 1999 Hay Group Limited. All rights reserved. Reproduced with permission.


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IQ measure was unrealistic and failed to take into account the full range of intelligent activ-ity. He suggested there was a multiple of intelligences and categorised them into six varieties(all of which could be further divided):

Verbal 9Akin to the factors described in earlier theories

Mathematical 8Spatial capacity Ability shown by artists and architectsKinaesthetic Abilities of a physical natureMusical Abilities of musicianship

Personal intelligences9 Interpersonal skills with other people8 Intrapersonal knowing oneself

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE (EI)

A development of some of Gardners ideas was made by Goleman who in 1955 published hisground-breaking work on EI (or EQ, for Emotional Quotient). Goleman agreed that the clas-sical view of intelligence was too narrow. He felt that the emotional qualities of individualsshould be considered. These, he felt, played a vital role in the application of intelligence ineveryday life. He identified the key characteristics as:

abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulseand delay gratification; to regulate ones moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think;to empathise and to hope.43

Emotional intelligence is the sum of a range of interpersonal skills that form the publicpersona. EI has received considerable attention over the last few years as the concept hasbeen identified as a key aspect of managing people effectively. Goleman argues for a moreempathetic style of management and suggests that EI predicts top performance and accountsfor more than 85 per cent of outstanding performance in top leaders.44 The Hay Group,working with Goleman, have identified 18 specific competencies that make up the four com-ponents of emotional intelligence and have produced an inventory designed to measureemotional competence (see Figure 4.6). The Emotional Competence Inventory defines EI asThe capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselvesand for managing emotions within ourselves and with others.45


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Significance of emotional intelligence

Recognising and understanding the implications of emotions and being able accurately toself-assess ones inner resources, abilities and limits are key to becoming an emotionallyintelligent leader. Being able to read emotional currents is an important skill for managersto develop and employ. It requires them to know and understand the individuals withintheir teams and the way in which the individuals relate and interact.

Recent research from the Chartered Management Institute identifies EI as one of the keyskills managers and leaders will need in the coming decade.46 According to Landale it shouldreally be no surprise to find EQ so much in demand.

After all, we work in structures which are much flatter than ever. We have to be much faster on ourfeet with both colleagues and clients and, whatever the team structure, there is increasing proximity forus to build the relationships we need fast. In this context EQ is the glue that holds people and teamstogether.47

Developing EI

Landale refers to the importance of empathy in EI which both involves how a person self-manages and addresses how to engage with the emotions of others, and suggests a six-stepprocess for developing EI.

Know what you feel. Know why you feel it. Acknowledge the emotion and know how to manage it. Know how to motivate yourself and make yourself feel better. Recognise the emotions of other people and develop empathy. Express your feelings appropriately and manage relationships.

There seems little doubt that managers and leaders who have trained up in EQ have far more initi-ative in dealing with organizational life than those who dont. Stress will always exist at work, but EQgives people the tools and ways of thinking to manage it to their advantage.48

A number of steps in raising emotional intelligence are also suggested by Garrett, includ-ing ensuring staff are managing their interpersonal relationships before a problem arises,focusing first on leaders and creating an EQ culture for the organisation about itself and thecompanies it deals with.49 According to Dann, becoming highly self-aware allows an indi-vidual to recognise inner and outer conflict and develop more proactive self-management.Developing greater social awareness allows the fostering of productive relations and a greaterdegree of engagement between employees and management. A manager with a high EQbenefits both the organisation and the individual.50

ATTITUDES

There are no limits to the attitudes people hold. Attitudes are learned throughout life and areembodied within our socialisation process. Some attitudes (such as religious beliefs) may becentral to us a core construct and may be highly resistant to any change, whereas other,more peripheral attitudes may change with new information or personal experiences.Specific events, particularly traumatic ones such as redundancy, may have a dramatic effecton our attitudes.

So what are attitudes and how can they be distinguished from beliefs and values?Attitudes can be defined as providing a state of readiness or tendency to respond in a particular way.51 Beliefs are concerned with what is known about the world; they centre onwhat is, on reality as it is understood. Values are concerned with what should be and whatis desirable.


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Gross suggests that to convert a belief into an attitude, a value ingredient is neededwhich, by definition, is to do with an individuals sense of what is desirable, good, valuable,worthwhile and so on. Gross has suggested that whereas adults may have thousands ofbeliefs, they may have only hundreds of attitudes and a few dozen values.52 Hofstede definesvalues as a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others.53

The functions of attitudes

Katz has suggested that attitudes and motives are interlinked and, depending on an individ-uals motives, attitudes can serve four main functions:

Knowledge. One of the major functions is to provide a basis for the interpretation andclassification of new information. Attitudes provide a knowledge base and a frameworkwithin which new information can be placed.

Expressive. Attitudes become a means of expression. They enable individuals to indicateto others the values that they hold and thus to express their self-concept and adopt orinternalise the values of a group.

Instrumental. Held attitudes maximise rewards and minimise sanctions. Hence, attitudestowards other people (or objects) might be held because of past positive (or negative)experiences. Behaviour or knowledge that has resulted in the satisfaction of needs is thusmore likely to result in a favourable attitude.

Ego-defensive. Attitudes may be held in order to protect the ego from an undesirabletruth or reality.54

Prediction of behaviour

Is it possible to predict behaviour if we know an individuals attitude? Research suggests theanswer is no what we say and what we do may be very different. Such evidence indicatesthat attitudes can be revealed not only in behaviour but also by the individuals thoughts(although these may not be revealed in public) and by feelings, the strength of whichdemonstrates the extent to which the attitude is a core or peripheral construct.

A classic study by La Piere illustrates this point. Visiting American hotels and restaurantswith a Chinese couple, La Piere found no sign of prejudiced attitudes in the face-to-face situation, but there were marked racist attitudes in the follow-up attitude survey. He foundcomplete contradictions between public and private attitudes.55

These findings have important implications for the study of attitudes and reveal twoimportant issues for the psychologist and manager.

1 Attitudes cannot be seen; they can only be inferred.Given that the attitudes employees hold are important for morale and the effectiveness oforganisations, it is important that there is confidence in the measurement techniques usedto assess the strength of attitudes. As attitudes are inferred, heavy reliance is placed thereforeon the accuracy of assessment. Although there are a number of techniques that could be used to measure attitudes, the two most common are direct observation and self-reportingtechniques.

All of us observe others and assess attitudes on the basis of communication style (bothverbal and non-verbal) and behaviour. This is an example of an informal approach un-systematic, spontaneous and based on our understanding of social cues. We may be wrongin our judgement. Students who turn up late for classes, slouch on their seat and do not askquestions may still hold very positive attitudes towards the subject. Managers may also beerroneous in their assumptions and beliefs about their colleagues (both subordinates andsuperiors). Their beliefs may never have been tested out merely assumed to be correct.

Serious mistakes can be made when dealing with people across different cultures. Forinstance, eye contact in Western countries is normally associated with confidence, politeness


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and attentiveness, but in some African countries it may be seen as rude and disrespectful.Bulgarians nod when they mean no and shake their heads when they mean yes, while theGreeks nod upwards or raise their eyebrows for no and shake the head side to side or tilt itto say yes. A lack of cultural literacy can lead to incorrect assumptions, poor relationshipsand a failure to make useful business connections.56

Organisations that assess their employees attitudes by using attitude questionnaires (self-reporting techniques) are attempting systematically to gauge and measure these assump-tions. Attitude questionnaires are time-consuming to design and administer. The questionsasked, their relevance, style and length are all important variables in the validity of the ques-tionnaire. So, too, is the honest completion of questionnaires. Making public peoples private attitudes may also have its dangers as expectations of change may be envisaged. If thesedo not occur, disappointment and low morale may be the result.57 (See also the discussionon the Johari window in Chapter 9.)

2 Attitudes are often shared within organisations and as such are embodied in the culture of organisations.

Classic research has shown the influence of the wider community in the formation of ori-entations towards work. Differences in class/orientation may elicit a range of loyalties andpossibly produce opposing perceptions of commitment, loyalty and co-operation. Attitudesare not just individually formed but arise out of interaction with others. They are oftenlocked-in, often regarded as obvious, mere common sense, and are so much taken forgranted that they may be overlooked. Sharing the belief system of others also has affectiveoutcomes. If people feel that they belong and are included, it enables them to feel goodabout working in an organisation. If, however, people do not feel part of the organisation if they feel that they do not share the dominant attitudes and beliefs negative emotionalconsequences are likely to result.

Researchers of organisational culture suggest that it is the shared perceptions of daily prac-tices that are at the core of organisational cultures.58 The reality of everyday life is taken forgranted as reality.59 (Organisational culture is explored in more detail in Chapter 19.)Implications of the unquestioning nature of the reality of what can or cannot be done canlead to individuals becoming culturally blinkered. Insitutionalised attitudes result. Majorproblems arise when these attitudes are formed on the basis of stereotypes and prejudice, aswas evidenced in the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry into the murder of a black teenager stabbedto death in London in April 1993:

Unwitting racism can arise because of lack of understanding, ignorance or mistaken beliefs. It can arisefrom well intentioned but patronising words or actions. It can arise from unfamiliarity with thebehaviour or cultural traditions of people or families from minority ethnic communities. It can arisefrom racist stereotyping of black people as potential criminals or troublemakers. Often this arises out ofuncritical self-understanding born out of an inflexible police ethos of the traditional way of doingthings. Furthermore such attitudes can thrive in a tightly knit community, so that there can be a collective failure to detect and to outlaw this breed of racism. The police canteen can too easily be itsbreeding ground.60

Attitudes are not just created within organisations. Attitudes inherent within wider soci-ety are reinforced or reshaped by the organisation.

Employee attitude surveys

Attitude surveys or questionnaires are used by many organisations as a way of attempting togauge the attitudinal climate of the organisation and monitor the views of members of staff.The Chartered Management Institute defines an employee attitude survey as:

A planned procedure which enables an organisation to obtain the opinions of its employees on a par-ticular issue or on the organisation itself, so as to take account of them in the planning process or makechanges beneficial to the organisation and individuals alike.

Table 4.7 An example of an attitude questionnaire

Please tick one box that most closely represents how you feel Strongly disagree Strongly agreeabout each statement 1 2 3 4 5

I believe in what OrgCo is trying to achieve

I enjoy discussing OrgCo with people who do not work here

I know how my job contributes to OrgCos aims and objectives

Good and bad news about what is happening at OrgCo is communicated regularly

My values and those of the organisation are very similar

Right now, staying with OrgCo is a matter of necessity as much as desire

I am constantly interrupted in my work

I enjoy my job

I am encouraged to seek out new training opportunities

My manager discusses with me ways in which I can improve mywork performance

OrgCo is serious about removing barriers to ensure equality of opportunity

Staff at OrgCo regularly help and support each other at work

I lack direction from my manager

When things do not go well in our team/department we learn from the experience

Communication within my team is positive and effective

Taking everything into account I have a high level of job satisfaction with my team


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Surveys can encourage employee involvement, allow management to be more aware ofemployees opinions, and provide effective communications or a sounding board. However,surveys require significant time and costs to administer and evaluate, and may generate sus-picion from staff about hidden agendas of the survey. The frequency should be no morethan every 18 months and it is important to report results of the survey and plans of actionto all employees.61

The usual method of measurement is by adopting a five-point Likert scale (as in theexample shown in Table 4.7) that reflects the comparative strength of the attitude.62

ATTITUDE CHANGE

The permanency of attitudes clearly has implications for attitudinal change. At the beginningof the previous section it was pointed out that whereas peripheral attitudes may easilychange with new information or experiences, central attitudes tied into other cognitive sys-tems may be much more difficult to shift.

Theories on attitude change stress the importance of balance and consistency in our psyche. Heider, for example, suggests that not only would we find it uncomfortable to holdtwo conflicting attitudes, but to do so would motivate us to change one of the attitudes inorder to reach a balanced state.63

Cognitive dissonance is the term given to the discomfort felt when we act in a way thatis inconsistent with our true beliefs. It suggests that we are motivated to reduce its impact.64

The process of attitude change is dependent on a number of key factors, the most import-ant being:


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why an attitude is held in the first place; why it should change; what the benefits are and to whom; what the outcomes are if it does not change.

Considerable research has demonstrated the importance of the following variables in aprogramme of attitude change:

the persuaders characteristics; presentation of issues; audience characteristics; group influences; outcome of attitude change (reward or punishment).

The last decade has produced tumultuous change for employees and their managers. Itwould be rare indeed to find an organisation that has not experienced some degree of changein structure, product, processes, philosophy, culture or ownership. The way in which thesechanges are implemented can have a dramatic impact on the attitudes of staff.

Critical reflection

Changing peoples behaviour is comparatively easy but changes to personality orattitudes are far more difficult. And a change in behaviour does not necessarily mean a change in personality or attitudes.

So should we simply concentrate on how to change behaviour and ignore the study ofpersonality and attitudes?

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT

Much has been written about the value of selection tests and questionnaires and they aresubject to a number of criticisms. It should be noted that the word test is often taken to referto measures of intelligence, achievement and developed abilities, and aptitude for particulartasks. Measures of interests, social attitudes, emotional stability or traits of personality areusually referred to as questionnaires or profiles, or similar. Answers are regarded as commonor uncommon, typical or untypical, rather than right or wrong, good or bad. The word testis therefore usually avoided in such measures, as in, for example, the Cattell 16PFQuestionnaire.

The early tests of intelligence have evolved into a large psychological business. Most people will have taken a psychometric test of one kind or another by the time they are an adultin employment. Tests may be administered at school or college, or as part of the selectionassessment process at work. The use of tests is widespread and growing. They are perceivedto be useful as an objective discriminating tool, but they are not without controversies andsensitivities.

Tests are divided broadly by the British Psychological Society into the following:

1 Tests of typical performance. These assess an individuals typical responses to given situations. Answers are not right or wrong but identify choices, preferences and strengthof feelings. Personality assessments and interest inventories are examples of such tests.

2 Tests of maximum performance. These assess an individuals ability to perform effec-tively under standard conditions. Performance on these tests, which include ability andaptitude tests, can be judged as right or wrong. Ability tests come in many different formsand may test a general intellectual functioning or a specific ability (such as verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, etc.).


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Alice Heim (cited in Anastasia) developed a series of general ability tests AH series which is widely used to assess general ability. These test three key areas: verbal, numericaland diagrammatical reasoning. For example, an individual would be asked questions similar to the following:

Which one of the five words on the right bears a similar relation to each of the two words onthe left?

A B C D Esensible noise sound judgement tone silly sensitive

Modern Occupational Skills Tests are an example of specific ability tests and measure a range of clerical and administrative skills: verbal checking, technical checking, numericalestimation, etc. They claim to be an aid in the selection of administrative staff. Their tests areshort and can be used singly or together as a battery of tests. The individual would be askedquestions similar to the following:

The two figures on the left have a feature in common. One, and one only, of the figures on theright lacks this feature. Which is it?

A B C D E

Some tests are designed to be given individually whereas others are suitable for adminis-tering within a group situation. However, there are certain minimum features and standardsof conditions that distinguish psychological tests from other forms of informal assessments;tests are essentially an objective and standardised measure of a sample of behaviour.65

Features of psychometric tests

Psychometric tests have certain standard features:

1 Tests will comprise a standard task or a set of questions with a standard means of obtain-ing the score.

2 A technical manual will explain what the test is measuring, how it was constructed, andthe procedures for administering, scoring and interpreting the test.

3 Details of the tests validity (whether the test measures what it claims to measure) and reliability (the tests ability to measure consistently) will also be shown in the manualalong with the inferences that can be drawn from the data.

For a test to be considered as a psychological instrument it must be objective, standard-ised, reliable, valid and discriminating (but not discriminatory). The selection and choice ofthe test should be based on a number of other key features such as its acceptability, prac-ticality, time, costs and perceived and actual added value.

Personality questionnaires

The practical value of personality tests has long been subject to much debate. According, forexample, to Barrett:


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A dismal history has been recorded by personality tests. There have been a few scattered successes withsome modern techniques, but on the whole the typical personality questionnaire, test, or inventory hasnot proved to be useful. In many of them, the right answers (which exist despite the naive disclaimerthat there are no right answers) are so obvious that everyone comes out a model of healthy adjustment.But even if all applicants were to answer each question with complete candor, the value of their answersfor predicting success would still be in doubt because the complexities of human personality are as yetpoorly understood.66

The use and limitations of tests

All tests have limitations. Tests can sample behaviour only at one particular moment in time.The information they provide is dependent upon good testing practice and will only add evidence to the decision-making process. Tests will not provide the answer. Some individualsare very nervous and may not perform at their best and indeed some may feel indignant thatthey are obliged to take a test at all.

Great skill is required, therefore, in the administering of tests or questionnaires and in theinterpretation of results. This would probably entail the services of a consultant psychologist,trained to the British Psychological Society (BPS) standard. A suitable physical environmentis also important. The possible reaction of candidates must be considered. Some might findany form of test something of an ordeal or regard it as an unpleasantness. A major concernwith the majority of tests is the doubts about validity and lack of statistically proven reliability.

Despite the continuing debate about their value, it does appear that an increasing numberof organisations are using psychometric measures (to measure characteristics such as personality and ability) as part of their recruitment and selection procedures. However, a majorconsideration in the controversy about the use of psychometric tests is how to avoid any cultural bias. There are still widespread doubts and criticisms about the use and value of personality tests, and continuing debate about their value in predicting performance at work.67

Even when psychometric tests are used, they should not be used in isolation but aspart of a comprehensive selection process and applied in appropriate circumstances tosupplement the interview, never as a substitute for it. It is also important to ensure ade-quate feedback to candidates in the process.

The reasons for using psychological tests may be summarised as follows:

1 They make decisions about people more systematic more precise.

2 They predict future performance and reduce uncertainty.3 They provide more accurate descriptions of people and their behaviour. Precise defini-

tions and measured variables lead to further studies and improve understanding of therelationship between tests and performance. But: tests should be seen as an additional source of information only; tests may be expensive and time-consuming; without proper professional practice, they can be misused and results abused; they may be seen as an intrusion; they may be regarded as inappropriate; practice may have an effect on test results.

DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

The concept of diversity

An integral and essential feature of individual differences is the concept of diversity. We haveseen from the discussion above that people are not homogeneous. Diversity focuses on themultiplicity of differences among people on the variety of people as heterogeneous group-ings. Individual differences are the basis of diversity.


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