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CHAPTER 3

IMPORTANCE OF BACKWATER RESOURCES AND THE STRUCTURE OF BACKWATER SECTOR

3.1 Preview

Biodiversity of Kuttanad is of paramount interest to a researcher. It is

found that the development potential of agro based resources has to be

incorporated with the daily routines of life. Both economic and ecological

factors are responsible in reshaping the systemic wholeness of Kuttanad

region. There has been a continuous deterioration in almost all walks of life as

a result of greedy interests, special motives, specific pressure groupings,

lobbying, and unnecessary political trauma. Backwaters and its resources

have been continuously degrading with regard to non-availability of fish,

water borne diseases, salinity of water, absence of safe drinking water,

reduction in the fertility of soil, enhancing amounts of pesticide sediments etc.

Lately, backwaters have come to prominence. Environment which was

relegated in the priority list has now been seriously considered. Retaining and

regaining the backwater sector in all counts is the need of the hour, since

backwaters are a very scarce resource and the ecological functions of

backwaters are invaluable. An economy can remain vibrant if and only if it is

able to maintain a healthy environment.

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Backwaters of Kerala come under the lowland region. The low lands or

the coastal areas are mostly alluvial plains made up of river deltas, backwaters

and the shores of the Arabian Sea. Backwaters fall under the category of

wetlands. Wetlands are mostly water-logged, being criss-crossed with rivers,

channels, lands and waterways.

According to geologists, Kuttanad was once an extensive bay of

Arabian Sea into which are discharged the waters of many rivers. The silt

carried by the rivers are deposited at their mouths gradually gave rise to the

present sea coast, converting the shallow bay into an extensive backwater

tract. The lagoons and the lakes gradually silted up and gave rise to

sedimentary formations which were eventually converted into rice fields and

garden lands by gradual process of reclamation.

Kuttanad has vast resources of river systems, lake, reservoirs,

estuaries, lagoons and backwaters. Vembanad Lake is one of Asia’s largest

lakes. It is a major ecological resource with dense vegetation on the banks.

The Vembanad wetland system covers an area of over 1512 sq.km bordered

by Alappuzha, Kottayam and Ernakulam districts. It lies at the sea level, and

is separated from the Arabian Sea by a narrow barrier island. A unique

characteristic of the lake is the location of the Thaneermukkom salt water

barrier that was constructed as a part of the Kuttanad Development Scheme to

prevent tidal action and intrusion of salt water into the Kuttanad lowlands.

This barrier essentially divides the lake into two parts, one half with fresh

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water fed by the rivers draining into the lake and the other half with brackish

water. This barrier has helped the farmers in Kuttanad, where farming is done

below the sea level.

Although words such as bog, marsh and swamp have been in use for

centuries, the collective term ‘ wetland ’ came into use during the late 1960’s

and early 1970’s. The term ‘wetlands’ is used to denote areas ‘sufficiently

saturated by water that only specially adapted plants can grow there.

Saturation with water prevents oxygen from working its way into the soil and

therefore creates conditions of no oxygen. Only ‘hydrophytes’, vegetation that

has adapted to such anaerobic conditions, can survive in wetlands.

Furthermore, because the soil in such areas is periodically or permanently

saturated with water, it has higher than average moisture content and is

classified as ‘hydric soil’. The degree or type of water saturation of an area is

known as its ‘hydrology’. These three factors: hydrology, hydric soil and

hydrophytes – are the traditional defining characteristics of wetlands.

3.2. Classification of Wetlands

Wetlands are of the following types, viz.,

� Salt water (Marine, Estuarine, Lagoonal, Salt Lake).

� Fresh water (Riverine, Lacustrine, Palustrine).

� Artificial wetlands (Aquaculture, Agriculture).

� Water storage structures.

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Wetlands are ‘open systems’. i.e., wetlands interact with other

ecological systems such as ground water tables and rivers, in a way that

enhances the overall environment and, in particular, water quality. When

water flows in and out the wetland area, sediments and other pollutants tend

to remain, and the nutrients are converted into plants. Wetlands produce

vegetation that photosynthesise at much higher rates than non-wetlands,

which creates material vital to the aquatic food chain. A wide variety of plant

and animal life flourish in wetlands.

3.2.1 Definitions

3.2.1.1 Wetlands are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor

determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal

community living in the soil and on its surface. The single feature that most

wetlands share is soil or substrate that is at least periodically saturated with or

covered by water. The water creates severe physiological problems for all

plants and animals except those that are adapted for life in water or in

saturated soil. (L. M. Cowardin, V.Carter, F. C. Golet & E. T. LaRoe:

‘Classification of wetlands and deep water habitats of the United States’

Washington, D. C. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1979, pp 3). Because the

amount of water necessary to produce wetlands is highly variable and difficult

to measure, most efforts to define ‘wetlands’ throughout 1980s focused on

hydric soil and hydrophytes.

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3.2.1.2 Wetlands are complex ecosystems with unique characteristics. The

wetland soils are three times more productive than average terrestrial systems

and the production of emergent vegetation is more than the rain forests and

considered as a processing factory of nature.

3.2.1.3 Backwaters can be called a ‘common –pool resource’ or a ‘common

property resource’. Common –pool resource refers to a natural or man-made

resource system that is sufficiently large as to make it costly (but not

impossible) to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its

use (Elinor Ostrom).

3.3 Ecological Significance of Wetlands

The wetlands are among the most important ecosystems of the earth.

They are useful as sources, sinks and transformers of a multitude of chemical,

biological and genetic materials. They cleanse polluted waters, prevent floods,

protect shorelines and recharge ground water aquifers.

Wetlands provide unique habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna.

They are called the “nature’s kidney” because of the natural functions they

perform. Wetlands are an indispensable portion of an ecosystem. Wetlands

are shields against the various problems we face today like water scarcity,

floods, climate change etc.

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3.4 Structure of Backwater Sector

Backwaters come under coastal wetland eco system. Wetlands are an

important ecosystem essential for the existence of life on earth. But we treat

these wetlands with diffidence. Wetlands are areas where water stands

naturally from 2.5 cm to around 300 cm for part of the year (at least).

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where

the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by

shallow water.

3.5 Basic Features

Wetlands must have one or more of the 3 attributes:

• At least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes.

• The substrata is predominantly undrained hydric soil

• The substrata is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by

shallow water at some time during the growing seasons of each year.

Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems,

where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by

shallow water. Water bodies on the land and up to six meter depth of the sea

can be considered as wetlands. Wetlands include ponds, tanks, lakes,

mangroves, swamps, estuaries and coral reefs.

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The Ramsar Bureau has identified three types of wetlands viz.,

1. Inland 2. Marine – coastal 3. Man made

The Ramsar Convention’s (1971) vowed objective of conserving the

fragile ecosystems for the posterity brought about the follow up action of

identifying and classifying wetlands across the world.

3.5.1 Ramsar Sites of Kerala

Kerala has three Ramsar sites, viz., the Vembanad – Kole wetland,

Ashtamudi wetland and the Sasthankotta wetland. While the first two come

under coastal type, the third come under the inland type wetland. Kerala has

the largest proportion of land area under wetlands among all the states of

India. Compared to other states of the country, wetlands in Kerala are under

severe anthropogenic threats primarily because of high population density and

the peculiar distribution of human habitation in the State. The growth of real

estate business has brought about consequent destruction of the wetland

ecosystems in the state.

Backwaters come under wetlands. Wetlands are important Eco tones

(ecosystems, biotype) which are transitional between open waters and land

endowed with definite structural and functional attributes and performing

specific ecological roles. They are water saturated and submerged areas which

include both natural and manmade, permanent or temporary, fresh water or

marine habitats.

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3.5.2 Hazards on Habitats

The most extensive wetland in Kerala is the shallow reaches of

Vembanad and the adjacent Kuttanad belt. Kuttanad exemplifies the typical

disastrous consequence of human interferences with the complex ecology of a

coastal wetland with very simplistic notions of the dynamics of the system

and over simplified management objectives. Uncultivated paddy fields

functioning as eutrophicated water bodies, effluents from crepe rubber mills,

open defacation, Thanneermukkam Barrage remaining closed late into

summer and water weed proliferation are the major reasons for water

pollution.

3.6 Backwaters: The Unique Water Storage System

The Kerala backwaters are a chain of brackish lagoons and lakes lying

parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (known as the Malabar Coast) of Kerala state

in southern India. The network includes five large lakes linked by canals, both

fed by 38 rivers, and extending virtually half the length of Kerala state. The

backwaters were formed by the action of waves and shore currents creating

low barrier islands across the mouths of the many rivers flowing down from

the Western Ghats range.

The Kerala Backwaters are a network of interconnected canals, rivers,

lakes and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of

waterways. In the midst of this landscape there are a number of towns and

cities, which serve as the starting and end points of backwater cruises.

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National Waterway No. 3 from Kollam to Kottapuram, covers a distance of

205 km and runs almost parallel to the coast line of southern Kerala

facilitating both cargo movement and backwater tourism.

The most potential area in the Kerala backwaters is the Kuttanad

region, which is also known as the rice bowl of Kerala. Kuttanad is probably

the only place in the continent where farming is done below sea level, using a

system of dykes and bunds and it known as ‘Murickan’s Bund Farming’. The

Vembanad Lake covers an area of over 1512 km² and bordered by Alappuzha,

Kottayam, and Ernakulam districts is the largest lake in Kerala. The

Ashtamudi Lake has eight 'arms' covering a major portion of Kollam district

in the south, and is the second largest lake in the state.

3.7 Backwater Resources of Kerala

Kasargod in north Kerala is a backwater destination, known for rice

cultivation, coir processing and lovely landscape; it has the sea to the west

and the Western Ghats to the north and east. Kasargode district have 2

backwaters named Karingote estuary and Nileswar backwater.

There are five backwater systems in Kannur districts. They are Kava

backwater, Dharmapatanam backwater, Mannayed estuary, Mahe estuary and

Kattampally backwaters.

Kozhikode (also known as Calicut) has backwaters which are largely

“unexplored” by tourist hordes. Elathur, the Canoly Canal and the Kallayi

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River are favourite haunts for boating and cruising. Korapuzha, the venue of

the Korapuzha Jalotsavam is fast becoming a popular water sport destination

in Kozhikode. Other backwaters in Kozhikode are Payyoli backwater,

Beypore estuary and Kadalundi estuary.

Malappuram district have two backwater systems named Puraparamba

backwater and Purathur/Ponnani estuary.There are four backwaters in Thrissur

district. They are Chettuva backwater, Azheekode.

Vembanad Lake is the largest lake in Kerala and it covers an area of

over 1512 km². It is bordered by Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam

district. Cochin Estuary is another backwater in Cochin.

Kollam (earlier known as Quilon) was one of the leading trade centres

of the ancient world, eulogised by travellers such as Ibn Battuta and Marco

Polo. It is also the starting point of the backwater waterways. Ashtamudi lake,

the second largest lake in Kerala and Paravoor backwaters are the backwaters

of Kollam district.

There are five backwaters in Thiruvananthapuram named Edava

Nadayara backwater, Anchuthengu backwater, Kadinamkulam backwater,

Veli Lake, Poonthura backwater and Poovar backwater.

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Table 3.1: Backwaters/ Estuaries of Kerala

No. Name District

1 Karingote estuary Kasaragode

2 Nileswar backwater Kasaragode

3 Kava backwater Kannur

4 Dharmapatanam backwater Kannur

5 Mannayed estuary Kannur

6 Mahe estuary Kannur

7 Kattampally Kannur

8 Kotta backwater Kozhikode

9 Korapuzha estuary Kozhikode

10 Payyoli backwater Kozhikode

11 Elathur backwater Kozhikode

12 Kallayi backwater Kozhikode

13 Beypore estuary Kozhikode

14 Kadalundi estuary Kozhikode/Malappuram

15 Canoly Canal Kozhikode

16 Puraparamba backwater Malappuram

17 Purathur / Ponnani estuary Malappuram

18 Chettuva backwater Thrissur

19 Azheekode estuary Thrissur

20 Kodungalloor backwater Thrissur

21 Akathumuri lake Thrissur

22 Cochin estuary Ernakulam

23 Vembanad backwater Kottayam, Alappuzha.

24 Kayamkulam backwater Alappuzha

25 Ashtamudi estuary Kollam

26 Paravoor backwater Kollam

27 Edava Nadayara backwater Thiruvananthapuram

28 Anchuthengu backwater Thiruvananthapuram

29 Kadinamkulam backwater Thiruvananthapuram

30 Veli lake Thiruvananthapuram

31 Poonthura backwater Thiruvananthapuram

32 Poovar backwater Thiruvananthapuram

Source: Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment

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3.8 Nature of Backwater Resources of Kerala

3.8.1 Ecosystem

The backwaters have a unique ecosystem - freshwater from the rivers

meets the seawater from the Arabian Sea.

In certain areas, such as the Vembanad Kayal, where a barrage has

been built near Kumarakom, salt water from the sea is prevented from

entering the deep inside, keeping the fresh water intact. Such fresh water is

extensively used for irrigation purposes.

Many unique species of aquatic life including crabs, frogs and

mudskippers, water birds such as terns, kingfishers, darters and cormorants,

and animals such as otters and turtles live in and alongside the backwaters.

Palm trees, pandanus shrubs, various leafy plants and bushes grow alongside

the backwaters, providing a green hue to the surrounding landscape.

3.8.2 Life and Culture in Backwater Sector

The people who live along the backwaters in Kerala have a unique

relationship with the backwaters. It is the source of the local people's

livelihood. The fish caught from its waters, the paddy, coconut and other

crops harvested along its banks, the boats they build and use to transport them

across the labyrinthine backwaters, are all an integral part of their traditional

way of backwater village life.

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3.8.3 Economic Significance

Connected by artificial canals, the backwaters form an economical

means of transport, and a large local trade is carried on by inland navigation.

Fishing, along with fish curing is an important industry. These particular

processed product made is marketed in different places.

Kerala backwaters have been used for centuries by the local people for

transportation, fishing and agriculture. It has supported the efforts of the local

people to earn a livelihood. In more recent times, agricultural efforts have

been strengthened with reclamation of some backwater lands for rice

growing, particularly in the Kuttanad area. Boat making has been a traditional

craft, so has been the coir industry.

Kuttanad is crisscrossed with waterways that run alongside extensive

paddy fields, as well as fields of cassava, banana and yam. A unique feature

of Kuttanad is that many of these fields are below sea level and are

surrounded by earthen embankments. The crops are grown on the low-lying

ground and irrigated with fresh water from canal and waterways connected to

Vembanad lake. The area is similar to the dykes of the Netherlands where

land has been reclaimed from the sea and crops are grown.

3.8.4 Ecological Significance

Vembanad Kole wetland and Ashtamudi wetland were included in the list

of wetlands of international importance, as defined by the Ramsar Convention

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for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands. Wetlands are

significant with growing interest in them for the productive and retentive uses to

which they could be best utilised. Such requirements include supplementary

human dietary requirements ecological significance in terms of flood control,

water purification, aquatic productivity and microclimatic regulation and as

habitats of fish birds and wildlife. A wide variety of wetlands like marshes,

swamps, bogs, peat lands, open water bodies, mangroves, tidal marshes, etc.,

exist which can be used for meeting some of the requirements and for

environmental amelioration.

3.8.5 Some Estimates

Wetlands are the areas on the landscape where land and water meet.

Wetlands include a wide variety of marshes, swamps and bogs that occur

throughout the world. Wetlands usually lie in depressions or along

rivers,lakes and coastal waters where they are subject to periodic flooding.

Some of them ever occur on slopes where they are associated with ground

water seeps. Conceptually, wetlands lie between well drained upland and

permanently flooded deep water of lakes, rivers and coastal embankments.

Total wetland area in the world is 858.8 million hectare (MHa). Total

wetland area in India - from the cold and arid zone of Ladakh through the wet

Imphal and the warm arid zone of Rajasthan and Gujarat to the tropical

monsoonic central India. According to an estimate by Ministry of

Environment and Forests (1992) wetlands occupy about 4.7 MHa of the

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country. Out of this 1.5 MHa are natural and 2.6 MHa are manmade.

Mangrove vegetation along the coastal region of the country occupies

0.6 MHa. According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989), the wetland

types are as follows: 1) Area under paddy cultivation ( 40.9 MHa), 2 ) Area

suitable for fish culture ( 3.6 MHa ), 3) Area under captive fishes (2.9MHa),

4) Mangroves(0.4 MHa), 5) Estuaries ( 3.9 MHa), 6) Backwaters (3.5MHa),

7) Manmade impoundment (3.0 MHa) 8) Rivers including main tributaries

(28000kms), 9) Canals and irrigation channels (113000kms). The total area of

wetlands excluding river is 58.2 MHa.

Wetlands are historically defined by scientists. As per the US Fish and

Wildlife Service's Official Classification System, wetlands are lands

transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where water table is

usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water level.

For the purpose of this classification wetlands must have one or more of the

following attributes namely, at least periodically the land supports

predominantly undrained hydric soils, the substrate is non-soil and is situated

with water covered by shallow water level at some time during the growing

season of each year. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources (IUCN) define Wetlands as those submerged or water

saturated lands both natural and manmade, permanent or temporary with

water that is static, flowing, fresh, brackish or saltish, including areas or

marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters.

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International Biosphere Programme defines wetlands as part of the

surrounding ecological structure and several stages in the succession from

open water to dry land or vice-versa occurring at sites situated as a rule

between the highest and lowest water levels as long as the flooding or

waterlogging of the soil is of substantial ecological significance.

3.9 Wetland Classification System by MoEF (March 1992):

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has

classified wetlands as given below:

3.9 .1 Inland wetlands

Natural: lakes /ponds, oxbow lake /cut off meanders, waterlogged

(seasonal) places, swamps/marsh

Manmade: reservoirs, tanks, waterlogged, abandoned quarries, ash pond/

cooling pond.

3.9.2 Coastal wetlands

Natural: estuary, lagoon, backwater, bay, tidal flat /mudflat, and/beach/

spit/bar.

3.9.3 Manmade: salt pens, aquaculture ponds.

Backwater/Estuarine system of Kerala consists of coastal brackish or

mixo haline wetlands which include lakes, lagoons, river mouths, mudflats,

tidal marshes and mangrove swamps.

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Backwaters lie parallel to the coast in an interconnected chain from

south to north. They are:

Kadinamkulam, Paravoor, Ashtamudi, Kayamkulam, Vembanad,

Kodugalloor, Valiangadi, Korapuzha, Valiyapattanam and Kavaai. Vembanad

lake is the biggest brackish water body on the west coast of India. The

backwater system is primarily a marine environment bounded by an alluvial

bar, which is interrupted by river mouths or Arabian Sea at intervals

Today the region called by the name Kuttanad was once one of the two

rice bowls of Kerala, the other being Palakkad. The region is also called by

the sobriquet Holland of Kerala. It is so called for the reason that like

Holland, Kuttanad too is a region which is saucer shaped lying below sea

level. The region is formed out of 64 panchayats falling in Alappuzha,

Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts. It is an ecologically fragile region. The

livelihood of the majority of population in this region is related to paddy

cultivation. The paddy cultivation here, since 19th century, has been on lands

reclaimed from shallow areas of Vembanad Kayal. But in 1930s the State

assistance in reclamation led to reclamation from the Kayal areas which were

deeper and that too for large areas extending to hundreds of hectares. The risk

involved in paddy cultivation in these deeper Kayal areas were of two types

namely, flooding and salinity. The former is due to the river system in the

region and the Kayal during monsoons and; the latter is due to the inflow of

saline water during summer. The State intervened in the form of construction

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of Thottapally Spillway (flood regulator) and Thanneermukkam Bund (salt

water barrier) to mitigate these two problems. This intervention created the

opportunity and benefit of a second cropping in these lands reclaimed from

deeper Kayal areas. But the remedy being worse than the disease has

converted an ecologically fragile area into a manmade disaster. Based on the

relevant literature, an attempt is made here to look into the various aspects of

the region and; to tell the ever interesting story of Kuttanad.

3.10 Location of Kuttanad

Unfortunately, the land area which is intended by the name Kuttanad is

differently demarcated in various studies.

3.10.1 Taluk based Study

Thomas C (1972) defined it as the area with 631.6 sq.miles (1635.6 sq

kms). It included Shertallai, Ambalapuzha, Kuttanad, Karthikapally,

Mavelikkara, Chengannur and Thiruvalla taluks of the then Alleppey district

(54 revenue villages) and Changanassery, Kottayam and Vaikom taluks of the

then Kottayam district (25 revenue villages) totalling 79 revenue villages.

Kuttanad Development Project (1974) too followed this definition, though

with a few changes. But unlike the 1635 sq.km area as defined by Thomas

(1972), both KDP (1972) and KSSP (1978) defined the total area as 870 sq.

km or just above it.

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3.10.2 District based Study

Tharamangalam (1981) defined this region with 76 revenue villages of

which 52 falls in Alleppey district and the remaining 24 falling in Kottayam

district. The total area of Kuttanad is 164.2 sq. km. The location of Kuttanad

as defined by Thomas C (1972) is based on the jurisdiction of the then Punja

Special Officer. And all the studies which followed it too followed more or

less a similar definition of the location of Kuttanad.

3.10.3 Village based Study

The villages included in Kuttanad as per Thomas C (1972) are: Aroor,

Panavally, Thaikkattusseri, Thuravur Vadakku, Thuravur Thekku, Vayalar

Kizhakku, Vayalar Mekku, Aryad South, Alleppey, Punnapra, Ambalapuzha,

Prakkad, Kainakary, Pulinkunnu, Chennamkary, Neelamperoor, Velinad,

Ramankary, Champakulam, Nedumudy, Thakazhy, Kozhimukku,Thalavady,

Muttar, Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, Pallipad, Haripad, Karuvatta, Kumarapuram,

Cheppad, Pathiyoor, Thiruvalla, Kavumbhagom, Peringara, Nedumpuram,

Kadapra, Kizhakkumbhagom, Venmony, Puliyoor, Kurattisseri, Mannar,

Cherianad, Thazhakara, Thamarakulam, Chunakara, Noornad, Palamel,

Thonnallur, Pandalam South, Triperumthura, Chennithala, Kannamangalam

and Mavelikkara in Alleppey district.

Kaduthuruthy, Manjoor, Vadayar, Naduvilla, Vetchoor, Thalayazham,

Kallara, Onamthuruthu, Vijayapuram, Perumpaikad, Panachikad, Puthuppally,

Kaipuzha, Aimanam, Kumarakam, Thiruvarppu, Kottayam, Nattakam,

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Vakathanam, Madappally, Vazhappally East, Thrikkodithanam, Vazhappally

West, Kurichy and Changanacherry in Kottayam district.

3.10.4 MSSRF Study

M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF-2007) defined

Kuttanad Wetland System (KWS) as the area comprising 32 Panchayats of

Alappuzha district, 27 Panchayats of Kottayam district and; 5 Panchayats of

Pathanamthitta district. Thus the Kuttanad area includes the area of 64

panchyats spread in three districts. The villages under this classification are

roughly similar to that of Thomas C (1972).

Kuttanad is best divided into three hydrologic units, viz., Lower

Kuttanad, Upper Kuttanad and North Kuttanad. The water level in Vembanad

Lake is one of the most important controlling factors for these three

hydrological units. This water level is in turn determined by the tides and

river flow. The Lower Kuttanad and the Upper Kuttanad region is governed

by the flow of Pamba, Achenkovil, and Manimala rivers. North Kuttanad

region is governed by the flow of Meenachil River.

3.11 The Geography and Resources

Thomas C (1972) recorded an in depth information of the geography of

the Kuttanad region. He highlighted topography, climate, classification of soil

type, river systems and Vembanad Kayal.

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3.11.1 Topography

With regard to topography, Thomas C (1972) framed Kuttanad as

essentially a long land area that lies between latitude 9o 8’ and 9o 2’ and

longitudes 76o 19’ and 76 o 44’. He identified that the average level of the dry

lands where the population of Kuttanad inhabited as 3.28ft above mean sea level

(MSL). The lowest inhabited portion has 1.75 ft. above MSL and the highest

portion 8 ft. above MSL. A very highly humid uniform climate prevails

throughout the Kuttanad area. The temperature ranges from 21.11o C to 32.22o C.

3.11.2 Climate

The region is endowed with high rainfall like other parts of the state. A

prolonged rainy period from the month of May to November and a lean period

from December to April. However, the rate of variation over the months is not

equal and the average annual rainfall is about 292 cm of which 241 cm or 83

percent occur during the monsoon months. The driest months of the year are

January and February, being followed by summer approximating to tropical

severity during the months of March, April and May. June to August (south-

west monsoon) and October-November (north-east monsoon) are rainy seasons.

Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) spelt out the seasonal distribution

unlike others as follows:

Pre-monsoon - March, April and May.

South West monsoon - June, July, August and September.

North east monsoon - October and November

Dry period - December, January and February

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Nearly 60 to 70 percent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west

monsoon resulting in floods in Kuttanad and the low lands are submerged

every year for a few days or weeks during this season. The north-east monsoon

also causes floods though on a lesser scale. The flood discharges during the

monsoon keep the surface water in Kuttanad sweet in spite of its direct

connection to the lake and the sea. When the flow of the rivers dwindles from

about the month of December, saline water from the sea pervades the entire

area due to tidal action and density currents. The salinity in the northern parts

of Kuttanad goes beyond the limits of tolerance for rice cultivation from

January onwards and it spreads rapidly to the Southern parts. The surface

water remains saline till the first floods of the succeeding south-west monsoon

occur in June.

3.11.3 Soil

On the classification of soil type both Thomas C (1972) and

Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) defined the soil characteristics in

Kuttanad as a mixture of sand and clay in varying proportions. In some parts of

the region, the presence of decayed organic matter including decayed parts of

logs of wood has been observed. In most of the areas, the soil is highly acidic

and contains toxic salts. This toxicity adversely affects plant life through

capillary action when the fields are dry or when the water outside the fields

rises high.

170

3.11.3.1 Wetland Stratification

The entire wet land area of Kuttanad can be classified under three broad

categories viz. (i) Kayal lands, (ii) Karappadoms and (iii) Kari lands.

Thomas C (1972) says that this classification is also pertinent in the

context of the type of soil available in these three different regions.

3.11.3.2 Meaning

Kayal lands are those areas which were previously deep kayal areas, but

now reclaimed out of Vembanad kayal beds for paddy cultivation. It presently

covers an approximate area of about 20,000 acres comprised in the revenue

villages of Chennankary, Kainakary and Pulinkunnoo of Kuttanad taluk, and

Thiruvarpu and Kumarakom of Kottayam taluk. These paddy fields are situated 5’

to 7’ below mean sea level. The soils here are more seriously affected by salinity

than the other soil types. Once crop failure were very common in these lands.

The Karappadom lands are generally situated along the water-ways and

rivers and are spread over an area of 168000 acres. About a third of the

Karappadoms were double cropped fields and lie in the interior of villages on

the eastern and southern periphery of Kuttanad. The fields lying along the

waterways are periodically replenished by the deposit of slit carried by the

rivers in flood.

The Kari lands, extend to an area of 12,000 acres are situated in the

Ambalapuzha, Shertala and Vaikom taluks. The name kari is derived from the

171

intense black colour of the soil. Most of these lands at or below sea level and

the water table is 3’ or 4’ below the surface of the soil, the water itself being

saline. The soil is peaty and marshy in nature and is over-grown with wild

weeds and grass.

The paddy lands of Kuttanad are divided into blocks called

`Padasekharoms’. A Padasekharom is a contiguous area bound by canals,

rivers and other partitions, its size ranging from 2 acres to 2,366 acres.

Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) treated the central region of

Kuttanad as a deltaic region. The apex of this delta is Pandanad, which is the

confluence of Manimala and the Pamba rivers. The entire landmass of this

central region is not a product of deltaic activity alone. Normal coastal

deposits in the ancient back swamps created by the recession of the seas are

also evident. A large area, originally below sea level, has also been subjected

to reclamation. Hence the deltaic region is characterised by both naturally

developed landscape and man-made or modified landscape. Interestingly, the

manmade landscape or modified landscape mostly lies 0.6 to 2.1 metre below

MSL. The deltaic region can tentatively be divided into two parts, namely,

upper delta or upper Kuttanad, developed mainly by natural processes and

lower delta or lower Kuttanad originally developed by natural processes but

modified by gross human interference. A tentative line joining Kidangara,

Edathua, Veeyapuram and Karuvatta demarcates the upper and lower delta.

172

However, the landscape features of upper and lower delta do not vary

considerably except for some fluvial features.

3.12 The River System

Both Thomas C (1972) and Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985)

presented a detailed illustration of the river systems in Kuttanad. Kuttanad

basin, fed by four tidal rivers, namely, the Pamba, the Manimala and the

Achankovil in the south and the Meenachil in the north, control the fluvial

regime of the region. The entry points of the rivers into Kuttanad are

Erapuzha for the Pamba river, Thondara for the Manimala, Pandalam for the

Achankoil river and Neelimangalom and Nagampadom for the Meenachil

river. After entering into the basin, the Meenachil river spreads into a number

of water courses and discharges into the Vembanad kayal very near the

Thanneermukkam Barriers. The total length of the main water course is 82.4

kms. Rivers Manimala and Pamba combine together and they confluence with

the Achenkovil river at Veeyapuram. They are inter-connected by an intricate

network of channels soon after their entry into the basin so that they could not

be separately identified. The total length of the river and water courses is 240

km. in the Pamba basin. These join the Vembanad kayal. Except the Pamba

river, the three other rivers usually become dry during one to two months in

the year. These four rivers after flowing through a network of channels and

canals join the Vembanad kayal, draining an area of nearly 5000 sq.km. in the

upper hilly regions.

173

3.13 The Vembanad Lake

The area of the Vembanad lake is about 80 sq. Kms. It extends from

Allappuzha in the south to the Cochin harbour where it is open to Arabian

Sea. Water in the lake is saline except during the monsoon season, when the

flood waters keep the surface water sweet. The waters of the Vembanad lake

(the kayal) are a combination of the salt water of the Arabian sea which enters

through the Cochin harbour entrance channel (Cochin cut) and the fresh

waters of the river Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba, Achenkovil, Periyar and

Muvattupuzha and the several small streams that drain into the kayal. The

salinity of the water resulting from this salt water-fresh water combination is

extremely variable during different seasons of the year, and depends upon the

amount of fresh water discharged by the streams. The more saline waters are

found near the Cochin Harbour and the fresh waters are at points far inland,

remote from the Cochin cut while in between are found gradations from salt

to fresh water. When the streams are in flood, the lake and the inland channels

are filled with fresh water. However, Thomas. C (1972) also recorded that

there had been some days every year when fresh water is found far down near

the mouth of the Cochin cut. When the flow of the streams dwindle during the

dry seasons from about the month of December, the water in the lake and in

the inland channels as far as a radius of 50 miles (129 sq Kms) from the

Cochin cut generally becomes saline and remain so until the first floods of the

succeeding south west monsoon.

174

Table 3.2: REGION: UPPER KUTTANAD

Ownership of the House

% Type of House %

Source of Energy for Lighting

% Fuel used for

Cooking %

Own 84.29

Pacca 16.95 Electricity 94.07 Fire wood 59.24

Kutcha 25.42 Solar 0 Kerosene 1.27

Hut 57.63 Kerosene 5.93 Cooking gas 39.49

Rented 10




Joint family

5.71

Pacca 25 Electricity 75 Fire wood 62.5

Kutcha 25 Solar 0 Kerosene 12.5

Hut 50 Kerosene 25 Cooking gas 25

Source: Survey

The table 3.2 shows matrix of ownership of house, type of house,

source of energy for lighting and fuel used for cooking. Most of the

households own their house the type of house is not pacca and many

households rely on firewood as the source of fuel for cooking.

Fig. 3.1: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in Upper Kuttanad

Own well

Neighbour well

Public well

KWA connection

Public Tap

Public pond

River

175

The pie diagram shows 25.71 per cent of households of Upper

Kuttanad relied on their own well as the source of water, 17.4 per cent relied

on river, 14.29 per cent relied on Kerala Water Authority connection and

11.43 per cent relied on public tap.

Table 3.3: REGION: LOWER KUTTANAD


% Type of House %

Source of Energy for Lighting

% Fuel used

for Cooking %

Own 85.71

Pacca 19.17 Electricity 95 Fire wood 58.95

Kutcha 30 Solar 0.83 Kerosene 1.5


Rented 10




Joint family 4.29

Pacca 33.34 Electricity 66.67 Fire wood 40

Kutcha 33.33 Solar 0 Kerosene 10

Hut 33.33 Kerosene 33.33 Cooking gas 50

Source: survey





The pie diagram shows 25.72 per cent of households of Lower


on river, 11.43 per cent relied on Kerala Water Authority connection and

11.43 per cent relied on public tap.

176

Fig. 3.2: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in Lower

Kuttanad

Table 3.4: REGION: NORTH KUTTANAD


% Type of House

% Source of

Energy for Lighting

% Fuel used for Cooking

%

Own 70.83


Kutcha 30.59 Solar 1.18 Kerosene 1.59


Rented 21.67




Joint family

7.5



Hut 44.45 Kerosene 22.22 Cooking gas 33.33 Source: survey





Own well

Neighbour well

Public well

KWA connection

Public Tap

Public pond

River

177

Fig. 3.3: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in North Kuttanad

The pie diagram shows 26.66 per cent of households of North


on Kerala Water Authority connection and 13.34 per cent relied on public tap.

3.14 The Economic Activities of the Kuttanad Region

The economic activities in the Kuttanad region can be studied from

their income, source of income, monthly expenditure, asset holdings and from

the behaviour of the economic practices in the Kuttanad region.

3.14.1. Annual Household Income

Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether

there is any significant difference between the annual household income of

the people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.

Own well

Neighbour well

Public well

KWA connection

Public Tap

Public pond

River

178

Table 3.5: Annual Household Income

Region 0≤x<25000 (`)(`)(`)(`)

25000≤x<50000 (`)(`)(`)(`)

x≥50000 (`)(`)(`)(`)

Total

Upper Kuttanad 80 40 20 140

Lower Kuttanad 76 48 16 140

North Kuttanad 56 40 24 120

Total 212 128 60 400

Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of household income in rupees.

The test statistic, �� = 5.45283

Degrees of freedom = 4

P-value = 0.24390

Since the P-value is large, the annual household income of the people

and the region classifications are independent. So 53 % of the people in the

Kuttanad region have annual household income in between 0 and 25,000,

32 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have annual household income in

between 25,000 & 50,000 and the remaining 15 % have annual household

income more than 50,000.

3.14.2. Source of Income


there is any significant difference between the various source of income of the

people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.

179

Table 3.6: Source of Income

Agriculture Fishing Business Employed Others Total

Upper Kuttanad 48 32 28 24 8 140

Lower Kuttanad 48 32 28 24 8 140

North Kuttanad 32 36 28 16 8 120

Total 128 100 84 64 24 400

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.802245

Since the P-value is large, the various sources of income of the people

and the region classifications are independent. The source of income from

agriculture is 32 %, the source of income from fishing is 25 %, the source of

income from business is 21 %, the source of income from employment is

16 % and the income from other sources is 6 % in the Kuttanad region.

3.14.3. Monthly Expenditure Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether

there is any significant difference between the monthly expenditure of the


Table 3.7: Monthly Expenditure

Region 0≤x<2000

(`)(`)(`)(`) 2000≤x<4000

(`)(`)(`)(`) 4000≤x≤6000

(`)(`)(`)(`) Above 6000

(`)(`)(`)(`) Total

Upper Kuttanad 12 32 72 24 140

Lower Kuttanad 32 12 72 24 140

North Kuttanad 12 32 48 28 120

Total 56 76 192 76 400

Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes the monthly expenditure in rupees.



P-value = 0.0000617645

180

Since the P-value is small, the monthly expenditure of the people

depends upon the regions. In the upper Kuttanad region, 8.58 % of the people

have monthly expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 22.86 % of the people have

monthly expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the people have

monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of

the people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.

In the lower Kuttanad region, 22.86 % of the people have monthly

expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 8.58 % of the people have monthly


expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of the

people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.

In the north Kuttanad region, 10 % of the people have monthly


expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 40 % of the people have monthly

expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 23.33 % of the

people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.

3.14.4. Mode of Savings


there is any significant difference between the mode of savings of the people

in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.

181

Table 3.8: Mode of Savings

Region B

anks

Co-

oper

ativ

es

Pos

t offi

ces

SH

G’s

Chi

tty

Priv

ate

finan

cial

in

stitu

tions

Mon

ey le

nder

s

Rel

ativ

es

Frie

nds

Ow

n P

F a

ccou

nt

Insu

ranc

e

Oth

ers

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad

60 72 20 43 41 19 8 1 0 1 52 0 317

Lower Kuttanad

30 43 17 35 38 17 7 0 1 1 29 0 218

North Kuttanad

20 52 10 24 28 14 5 0 1 1 48 1 204

Total 110 167 47 102 107 50 20 1 2 3 129 1 739

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.224764

Since the P-value is large, the different types of modes of savings of

the people and the region classifications namely, the Upper Kuttanad, Lower

Kuttanad and North Kuttanad region are independent.

14.89 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in the

Banks, 22.6 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in the

Co-operatives, 6.36 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings

in the Post offices, 13.8 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their

savings in the S H G’s, 14.48 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have

their savings in the Chitty, 6.77 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have

their savings in the Private financial institutions,2.71% of the people in the

182

Kuttanad region have their savings in the Money lenders, 0.13 % of the

people in the Kuttanad region have their savings among their own relatives,

0.27 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings among their

own friends, 0.41 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in

their own P F account, 17.45 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have

their savings in the insurance companies and the remaining 0.13 % of the

people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in other financial institutions.

3.14.5. Amount of Liabilities


there is any significant difference between the amount of liabilities of the


Table 3.9: Amount of Liability

Region 0≤x<5000

(`)(`)(`)(`) 5000≤x<10000

(`)(`)(`)(`) x≥10000 (`)(`)(`)(`)

Total




Total 184 91 58 333 Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of liabilities in rupees. The test statistic, ��= 8.641414


P-value = 0.070715

Since the P-value is large, the amount of liabilities of the people and

the region classifications are independent. 55.25 % of the people in the

183

Kuttanad region have liabilities in between 0 & 5000, 27.33 % of the people

in the Kuttanad region have liabilities in between 5000 & 10,000 and 17.42 %

of the people in the Kuttanad region have liabilities more than 10,000.

3.14.6. Purposes of Loans


there is any significant difference between the various purposes of loans of

the people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.

Table 3.10: Purposes of Loans

Region

Con

stru

ctio

n

Agr

icul

ture

Bus

ines

s

Edu

catio

n

Mar

riage

Pur

chas

e of

la

nd/p

rope

rty

Med

ical

ex

pens

es

Oth

ers

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad 9 42 9 15 10 5 14 8 112

Lower Kuttanad 8 43 8 16 11 5 16 7 114

North Kuttanad 9 41 8 14 10 7 14 4 107

Total 26 126 25 45 31 17 44 19 333 Source: Survey

The test statistic, ��= 2.217682


P-value = 0.999844

Since the P-value is large, the various purposes of loans of the people

and the region classifications are independent. 7.81 % of the people in the

Kuttanad region have taken loans for construction purposes, 37.84 % of the

people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for agriculture purposes, 7.51

% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for business

184

activities, 13.51 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for

education purposes, 9.31 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken

loans for marriage purposes, 5.11 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have

taken loans for Purchase of land or property, 13.21 % of the people in the

Kuttanad region have taken loans for medical expenses, 5.7 % of the people

in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for other purposes.

3.14.7. Sources of Loans


there is any significant difference between the various sources of loans of the


Table 3.11: Sources of Loans

Region

Ban

ks

Co-

oper

ativ

es

Pos

t offi

ces

SH

G’s

Chi

tty

Priv

ate

finan

cial

in

stitu

tions

Mon

ey le

nder

s

Rel

ativ

es

Frie

nds

Ow

n P

F a

ccou

nt

Insu

ranc

e

Oth

ers

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad

30 58 3 51 12 5 36 1 0 2 1 1 200

Lower Kuttanad

18 52 4 48 8 4 46 1 0 2 2 1 186

North Kuttanad 14 51 4 42 8 2 39 1 1 3 1 0 166

Total 62 161 11 141 28 11 121 3 1 7 4 2 552

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.943198

185

Since the P-value is large, the various sources of loans of the people

and the region classifications are independent. 11.23 % of the people in the

Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Banks, 29.17 % of the people in

the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Co-operatives, 1.99 % of the

people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Post offices, 25.55 %

of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the S H G’s, 5.07

% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Chitty, 1.99

% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Private

financial institutions, 21.92 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken

loans from the Money lenders, 0.54 % of the people in the Kuttanad region

have taken loans from their own relatives, 0.18 % of the people in the

Kuttanad region have taken loans from their own friends, 1.27 % of the

people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from their own P F account,

0.73 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the

insurance companies and the remaining 0.36 % of the people in the Kuttanad

region have taken loans from other financial institutions.

3.14.8. Asset Holding

It is pointed out that there exists significant difference between the

amount of asset holdings of the people in the Upper Kuttanad, Lower

Kuttanad and North Kuttanad region.

186

Table 3.12: Asset Holding

Region 0≤x≤25,000

(`)(`)(`)(`) 25,000≤x≤50,000

(`)(`)(`)(`) x≥50,000

(`)(`)(`)(`) Total




Total 94 178 128 400 Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of assets in rupees.



P-value = 0.000345

Since the P-value is small, the asset holdings of the people depends

upon the three regions. In the upper Kuttanad region, 8.58 % of the people

have their monthly expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 22.86 % of the people

have their monthly expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the

people have their monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the

remaining 17.14 % of the people have their monthly expenditure above 6000.

In the lower Kuttanad region, 22.86 % of the people have their monthly

expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 8.58 % of the people have their monthly

expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the people have their

monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of

the people have their monthly expenditure above 6000. In the north Kuttanad

region, 10 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 0 &

2000, 26.67 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 2000

& 4000, 40 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 4000

187

& 6000, and the remaining 23.33 % of the people have their monthly

expenditure above 6000.

3.15 The Environmental Challenges on the Kuttanad Region due to

Economic Activities

The environmental challenges on the Kuttanad region due to the

economic activities like Agricultural practices, Inland fishing practices,

Industrial activities, Travel and Tourism and Construction activities can be

studied from the major environmental issues like Shrinkage of backwaters,

Increasing salinity,Contamination of water resources, Decreasing availability

of drinking water,Increase in pests, Aggressive growth of water

weeds,Reduction in fish population and variety,Improper discharge of waste,

Increasing incidence of diseases.

3.15.1. Agricultural Practices


there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in

the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.

188

Table 3.13: Environmental Challenges on the Kuttanad Region due to Economic Activities

Region

Shr

inka

ge o

f ba

ckw

ater

s

Incr

ease

in

flood

Incr

easi

ng

salin

ity

Con

tam

inat

ion

of w

ater

re

sour

ces

Dec

reas

ing

avai

labi

lity

of

drin

king

wat

er

Incr

ease

in

pest

s

Agg

ress

ive

grow

th o

f w

ater

wee

ds

Red

uctio

n in

fis

h po

pula

tion

and

varie

ty

Impr

oper

di

scha

rge

of

was

te

Incr

easi

ng

inci

denc

e of

di

seas

es

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad 5 7 1 5 3 9 8 7 7 8 60

Lower Kuttanad 4 8 8 7 2 8 9 8 7 8 69

North Kuttanad 6 5 7 6 2 9 9 9 7 7 67

Total 15 20 16 18 7 26 26 24 21 23 196

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.98932

18

8

189

Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues

is similar in all the three regions. 7.65 % of the Kuttanad region has shrinkage

of backwaters due to the effect of agricultural practices, 10.2 % of the

Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of agricultural

practices, 8.16 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the

effect of agricultural practices, 9.18 % has the contamination of water

resources due to the effect of agricultural practices, 3.57 % has decrease the

availability of drinking water due to the effect of agricultural practices,

13.27 % has the increase in pests due to the effect of agricultural practices,

13.27 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due

to the effect of agricultural practices, 12.25 % has the reduction in fish

population and variety due to the effect of agricultural practices, 10.72 % has

the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of agricultural practices and

the remaining 11.73 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due to the

effect of agricultural practices.

Due to the agricultural practices the major environmental issue in the

Kuttanad region is increase in pests and aggressive growth of water weeds.

The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are

reduction in fish population and variety, increasing incidence of diseases,

improper discharge of waste, increase in flood, contamination of water

resources, increasing salinity, shrinkage of backwaters, decreasing availability

of drinking water.

3.15.2. Inland Fishing Practices




190

Table 3.14: Inland Fishing Practices

Reg

ion

Shr

inka

ge o

f ba

ckw

ater

s

Incr

ease

in fl

ood

Incr

easi

ng

salin

ity

Con

tam

inat

ion

of

wat

er r

esou

rces

Dec

reas

ing

avai

labi

lity

of

drin

king

wat

er

Incr

ease

in p

ests

Agg

ress

ive

grow

th o

f wat

er

wee

ds

Red

uctio

n in

fish

po

pula

tion

and

varie

ty

Impr

oper

di

scha

rge

of

was

te

Incr

easi

ng

inci

denc

e of

di

seas

es

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad

5 3 2 7 3 3 9 8 7 3 50

Lower Kuttanad

6 2 3 6 3 3 8 9 7 3 50

North Kuttanad

6 5 8 7 3 3 8 8 7 3 58

Total 17 10 13 20 9 9 25 25 21 9 158

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.997733

19

0

191


is similar in all the three regions. 10.76 % of the Kuttanad region has

shrinkage of backwaters due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 6.33 %

of the Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of inland

fishing practices, 8.22 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity

due to the effect of inland fishing practices,12.66 % has the contamination of

water resources due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 5.7 % has

decreasing availability of drinking water due to the effect of inland fishing

practices, 5.7 % has the increase in pests due to the effect of inland fishing

practices, 15.82 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad

region due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 15.82 % has the reduction

in fish population and variety due to the effect of inland fishing practices,

13.29 % has the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of inland

fishing practices and the remaining 5.7 % has the increasing incidence of

diseases due to the effect of inland fishing practices.

Due to the inland fishing practices the major environmental issue in the

Kuttanad region is reduction in fish population and variety and the

aggressive growth of water weeds.


improper discharge of waste, contamination of water resources, shrinkage of

backwaters, increasing salinity, increase in flood, decreasing availability of

drinking water, increase in pests and the increasing incidence of diseases.

3.15.3. Industrial Activities




192

Table 3.15: Industrial Activities

Region

Shr

inka

ge o

f ba

ckw

ater

s

Incr

ease

in fl

ood

Incr

easi

ng s

alin

ity

Con

tam

inat

ion

of

wat

er r

esou

rces

Dec

reas

ing

avai

labi

lity

of

drin

king

wat

er

Incr

ease

in p

ests

Agg

ress

ive

grow

th o

f w

ater

wee

ds

Red

uctio

n in

fish

po

pula

tion

and

varie

ty

Impr

oper

dis

char

ge

of w

aste

Incr

easi

ng in

cide

nce

of d

isea

ses

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 18

Lower Kuttanad 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 16

North Kuttanad 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 2 18

Total 3 3 3 4 7 6 9 3 8 6 52

Source: Survey



P-value = 1

19

2

193



of backwaters due to the effect of industrial practices,5.77 % of the Kuttanad

region has the increase in flood due to the effect of industrial practices, 5.77

% of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the effect of

industrial practices, 7.69 % has the contamination of water resources due to

the effect of industrial practices, 13.46 % has decrease the availability of

drinking water due to the effect of industrial practices, 11.54 % has the

increase in pests due to the effect of industrial practices, 17.31 % has the

aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due to the effect of

industrial practices, 5.77 % has the reduction in fish population and variety

due to the effect of industrial practices, 15.38 % has the improper discharge of

waste due to the effect of industrial practices and the remaining 11.54 % has

the increasing incidence of diseases due to the effect of industrial practices.

Due to the industrial practices the major environmental issue in the

Kuttanad region is the aggressive growth of water weeds and the

improper discharge of waste.


decreasing availability of drinking water, increase in pests, increasing

incidence of diseases, contamination of water resources, reduction in fish

population and variety, increasing salinity, increase in flood and the shrinkage

of backwaters.

3.15.4. Travel and Tourism




194

Table 3.16: Travel and Tourism

Region

Shr

inka

ge o

f ba

ckw

ater

s

Incr

ease

in fl

ood

Incr

easi

ng

salin

ity

Con

tam

inat

ion

of

wat

er r

esou

rces

Dec

reas

ing

avai

labi

lity

of

drin

king

wat

er

Incr

ease

in p

ests

Agg

ress

ive

grow

th o

f wat

er

wee

ds

Red

uctio

n in

fish

po

pula

tion

and

varie

ty

Impr

oper

di

scha

rge

of

was

te

Incr

easi

ng

inci

denc

e of

di

seas

es

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad 4 7 8 8 8 7 9 6 4 4 65

Lower Kuttanad 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 6 3 4 52

North Kuttanad 5 5 5 9 8 7 8 7 5 5 64

Total 12 16 18 23 22 21 25 19 12 13 181

Source: Survey



P-value = 0.999995

19

4

195



of backwaters due to the effect of travel and tourism, 8.84 % of the Kuttanad

region has the increase in flood due to the effect of travel and tourism, 9.95 %

of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the effect of travel and

tourism, 12.71 % has the contamination of water resources due to the effect of

travel and tourism, 12.16 % has decrease the availability of drinking water due

to the effect of travel and tourism, 11.6 % has the increase in pests due to the

effect of travel and tourism, 13.81 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds

in the Kuttanad region due to the effect of travel and tourism, 10.5 % has the

reduction in fish population and variety due to the effect of travel and tourism,

6.63 % has the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of travel and

tourism and the remaining 7.18 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due

to the effect of travel and tourism.

Due to travel and tourism the major environmental issue in the Kuttanad

region is the aggressive growth of water weeds and the contamination of

water resources.


decreasing availability of drinking water, increase in pests, reduction in fish

population and variety, increasing salinity, increase in flood, increasing

incidence of diseases, shrinkage of backwaters and the improper discharge of

waste.

3.15.5. Construction Activities




196

Table 3.17: Construction Activities

S

hrin

kage

of

back

wat

ers

Incr

ease

in fl

ood

Incr

easi

ng s

alin

ity

Con

tam

inat

ion

of

wat

er r

esou

rces

Dec

reas

ing

avai

labi

lity

of

drin

king

wat

er

Incr

ease

in p

ests

Agg

ress

ive

grow

th

of w

ater

wee

ds

Red

uctio

n in

fish

po

pula

tion

and

varie

ty

Impr

oper

di

scha

rge

of w

aste

Incr

easi

ng

inci

denc

e of

di

seas

es

Tot

al

Upper Kuttanad

1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 16

Lower Kuttanad

1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 16

North Kuttanad

1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 15

Total 3 3 3 15 3 3 3 3 5 6 47

Source: Survey



P-value = 1

19

6

197



of backwaters due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 % of the

Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of construction

activities, 6.38 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the

effect of construction activities, 31.92 % has the contamination of water

resources due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 % has decrease the

availability of drinking water due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38

% has the increase in pests due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 %

has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due to the

effect of construction activities, 6.39 % has the reduction in fish population

and variety due to the effect of construction activities, 10.64 % has the

improper discharge of waste due to the effect of construction activities and the

remaining 12.77 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due to the effect

of construction activities.

Due to construction activities the major environmental issue in the

Kuttanad region is the contamination of water resources and increasing

incidence of diseases.


improper discharge of waste, decreasing availability of drinking water,

increase in pests, reduction in fish population and variety, increasing salinity,

198

increase in flood, shrinkage of backwaters and the aggressive growth of water

weeds.

Backwaters have immense potential to generate higher income and

sustenance to the inhabitants of the Kuttanad region. Backwaters are scarce

and therefore have high value. The economic activities in the backwater

region bring about many environmental challenges, which in turn affect the

livelihood of the inhabitants. Backwaters are tagged a great global value for

the carbon sequestration potential and the innate biodiversity potential.

chapter 3 importance of backwater ...shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/19587/11/11...148...

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